T1666 The Awakening of Faith

Chapter II: The Correction of Evil Attachments

Part Three

Chapter II

The Correction of Evil Attachments

Translator's Note: In this chapter, an attempt is made to refute false doctrines so that the assertion made in the preceding chapter may prove to be correct. The content of this chapter is not suggested in the Outline, but to refute irrelevant views is an indispensable step.

All evil attachments originate from biased views; if a person is free from bias, he will be free from evil attachments. There are two kinds of biased view: one is the biased view held by those who are not free from the belief in atman(i.e., ordinary people); the other is the biased view held by those who believe that the components of the world are real (i.e., the Hinayanists). Translator's Note: "Biased views" is not a literal translation; the original reads wojian,usually understood as indicating a wrong speculative theory which holds that atmanis real. From the following context, however, it is obvious that wojianis not used in this ordinary sense but denotes

"biased or subjective or irrelevant

views.

"

I. The Biased Views Held by

Ordinary People

There are five kinds of biased views held by ordinary people which may be discussed.

Hearing that it is explained in the sutra that the dharmakåya of the Tathågata is, in the final analysis, quiescent, like empty space, ordinary people think that the nature of the Tathågata is, indeed, the same as empty space, for they do not know [that the purpose of the sutra is] to uproot their adherence. 580a

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Translator's Note: "Quiescent" is literally "tranquil and desolate

(jimo),

" which suggests a state of complete absence of being. The purpose of stating that the dharmakåyais "

quiescent, like empty

space,

" is to negate the adherence to the notion that the dharma kåyais a being, a kind of anthropomorphic being among beings in the universe. On the other hand, to believe that the dharma kåyais literally nonbeing is a wrong view. This error leads to an adherence to the notion of nonbeing as a form of being. 76

Question:How is this to be corrected? Answer:[The way to correct this error is] to understand clearly that "empty space" is a delusive concept, the substance of which is nonexistent and unreal. It is merely predicated in relation to [its correlative] corporeal objects. If it is taken as a being [termed nonbeing, a negative being, then it should be discarded, because] it causes the mind to remain in samsara. In fact there are no external corporeal objects, because all objects are originally of the mind. And as long as there are no corporeal objects at all, "empty space"

cannot be maintained. All objects are of the mind alone; but when illusions arise, [objects that are regarded as real] appear. When the mind is free from its deluded activities, then all objects [imagined as real] vanish of themselves. [What is real,] the one and true Mind, pervades everywhere. This is the final meaning of the Tathågata's great and comprehensive wisdom. [The dharmakåyais, indeed,] unlike "empty space.

"

Translator's Note: "Nonbeing" is inconceivable when there is no "being.

" In other words,

"

non-A" cannot be talked about when there is no

"A"; death is meaningless in the absence of life, or vice versa. Seen from the point of view of the absolute order—though this view is in practice possible only for the Enlightened Ones— the phenomenal order simply does not exist. The absolute order is unlike

"

empty space,

" which needs a correlative for its existence. Because of its transcendental nature and, at the same time, because of its immanent nature of suchness, it is symbolically said that "the one true Mind pervades everywhere. "

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Hearing that it is explained in the sutra that all things in the world, in the final analysis, are empty in their substance, and that nirvana or the principle of suchness is also absolutely empty from the beginning and devoid of any characteristics, they, not knowing [that the purpose of the sutra is] to uproot their adherence, think that the essential nature of suchness or nirvana is simply empty. Question:How is this to be corrected?

Answer: [The way to correct this error is] to make clear that suchness or the dharmakåyais not empty but is endowed with numberless excellent qualities.

Translator's Note: This is a refutation of nihilism. Concerning this biased view, Fazang says,

"It is an erroneous adherence to

the notion that the essence of suchness (dharma)is absolute nothingness (kongwu). "77Since the essence of suchness cannot be predicated, it is called Ω¥nya(empty); but if a person takes it as literally true, he takes a position in nihilism, another extreme and false view. Though suchness defies predication, it can be suggested symbolically by such terms as compassion, light, life, etc. Hearing that it is explained in the sutra that there is no increase or decrease in the tathågatagarbhaand that it is provided in its essence with all excellent qualities, they, not being able to understand this, think that in the tathågatagarbhathere is plurality of mind and matter. Question:How is this to be corrected?

Answer:[They should be instructed that the statement in the sutra that "there is no increase or decrease in thetathatågarbha"] is made only in accordance with the [absolute] aspect of suchness, and [the statement that "it is provided with all excellent qualities"] is made in accordance with [the pluralistic outlook held by the defiled minds in] samsara.

Translator's Note: Fazang says:

"In accordance with the

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[absolute] aspect of suchness" stands for

"the nonduality of the

dual (the nonduality of absolute and phenomena), " and "in accordance with the pluralistic outlook held by the defiled minds in samsara" stands for

"the duality of the nondual (phenomena on

the ground of the absolute).

"78

Hearing that it is explained in the sutra that all defiled states of samsara in the world exist on the ground of the tathågatagarbha and that they are therefore not independent of suchness, they, not understanding this, think that the tathågatagarbhaliterally contains in itself all the defiled states of samsara in the world. Question:How is this to be corrected?

[Answer: In order to correct this error it should be understood that] the tathågatagarbha,from the beginning, contains only pure excellent qualities which, outnumbering the sands of the Ganges [River], are not independent of, severed from, or di›erent from suchness; that the soiled states of defilement which, outnumbering the sands of the Ganges [River], merely exist in illusion; are, from the beginning, nonexistent; and from the beginningless beginning have never been united with the tathågatagarbha.It has never happened that the tathågatagarbhacontained deluded states in its essence and that it induced itself to realize [suchness] in order to extinguish forever its deluded states.

Translator's Note: This is an argument as to whether suchness contains in itself evils or whether evils are a part of suchness. To this the answer is given: evils are not a part of suchness, for they are not "

own-beings"; their appearance is due not to suchness but to a deluded mind on the part of a human being. If evils were a part of suchness, how could suchness help to extinguish evils? Hearing that it is explained in the sutra that on the ground of the tathågatagarbhathere is samsara as well as the attainment of nirvana, they, without understanding this, think that there is a beginning for sentient beings. Since they suppose a beginning, 56

Part Three

they suppose also that the nirvana attained by the Tathågata has an end and that he will in turn become a sentient being. Question:How is this to be corrected?

Answer:[The way to correct this error is to explain that] the tathågatagarbhahas no beginning, and that therefore ignorance has no beginning. If anyone asserts that sentient beings came into existence outside this triple world, he holds the view given in the scriptures of the heretics. Again, the tathågatagarbhadoes not have an end; and the nirvana attained by the Buddhas, being one with it, likewise has no end.

Translator's Note: The misunderstanding lies in mistaking logical conditioning for a time order as to which comes first and which comes later. When any two terms—for example, ignorance and enlightenment, samsara and nirvana, good and evil—are incorrectly thought to be absolutely exclusive polarities, one may fall into the error of supposing that they alternate in time. The assumption in the text is that on the logical ground of the original enlightenment, ignorance appears; on the ground of nirvana, samsara exists. Fazang says of this:

"Hearing that an illusion is dependent

on what is true, they think that what is true exists first and then illusion comes later. Thus they have come to entertain a wrong view that there is a beginning. [Or in reverse order,] like a certain heretic who claims that from the original darkness emerges enlightenment, they think that there is a beginning to being a sentient being (i.e., an original fall into the order of samsara) and then [an escape from there) depending on what is true.

"79

580b

II. The Biased Views Held

by the Hinayanists

Because of their inferior capacity, the Tathågata preached to the Hinayanists only the doctrine of the nonexistence of atmanand did not preach his doctrines in their entirety; as a result the 57 57 57

The Awakening of Faith

Hinayanists have come to believe that the five components, the constituents of samsaric existence, are real; being terrified at the thought of being subject to birth and death, they erroneously attach themselves to nirvana.

Question:How is this to be corrected? Answer:[The way to correct this error is to make clear that] the five components are unborn in their essential nature and, therefore, are imperishable—that [what is made of the five components] is, from the beginning, in nirvana. Translator's Note: Nirvana is conceived by the Hinayanists as a state of perfect annihilation; i.e., as nonbeing, in contrast to being, which undergoes constant transformation. "Unborn (anutpanna; Ch.,busheng)" is a paradoxical expression suggesting the transcendence of both being and nonbeing, one of the most fundamental ideas of Mahayana Buddhism. Busheng, when used as an adjective, denotes "

unborn,

" "

uncreated,

" "

unproduced,

" etc., and as a noun (anutpåda oranutpatti)" no-birth,

"

"

no-creation,

" "

no-production,

" etc. The popularity of the expression undoubtedly owes much to the opening stanza of Någårjuna's Mådhyamaka-kårikås,declaring the eightfold negation, which begins: "Imperishable, unborn (anutpåda).... " "Unborn" or

"

uncreated"

is not a concept diametrically opposed to its counterpart "born" "

or

created" but belongs to a higher order transcending the dichotomy of both being and nonbeing, birth and death, eternalism and nihilism, etc. Thus it is used almost interchangeably with Ω¥nyatå, advaya(nondual), ni˙-svabhåva(no self-substance), etc. Finally, in order to be completely free from erroneous attachments, one should know that both the defiled and the pure states are relative and have no particular marks of their own-being that can be discussed. Thus, all things from the beginning are neither matter nor mind, neither wisdom nor consciousness, neither being nor nonbeing; they are ultimately inexplicable. And yet they are still spoken of. It should be understood that the Tathågatas, apply-58

Chapter III: Analysis of the Types of Aspiration for Enlightenment, or the Meanings of Yana

Part Three

ing their expedient means, make use of conventional speech in a provisional manner in order to guide people, so that they can be free from their deluded thoughts and can return to suchness; for if anyone thinks of anything [as real and absolute in its own right], he causes his mind to be [trapped] in samsara and consequently he cannot enter [the state filled with] true insight (i.e., enlightenment). Translator's Note: The iconoclastic nature of Mahayana Buddhism with regard to the ultimate validity of language is clearly in evidence here, where the dangers involved in the absolutization of the relative are cautioned against. The term "defiled

state" here refers to the concepts of samsara, evil, ignorance, being, nonbeing, etc.; while

"

pure state" refers to the absolute, good,

enlightenment, nirvana, etc.

It may appear strange to negate even wisdom, the acquirement of which is thought to be the only means by which one can destroy ignorance. But wisdom, when solidified as a certain view, turns into a type of knowledge, a product of the analytical mind which only functions dualistically in terms of subject-and-object relationships. In this sense, wisdom should also be transcended, just as Ω¥nyatå,taken as a view among views, must be negated. Chapter III

Analysis of the Types of

Aspiration for Enlightenment,

or the Meanings of Yåna80

All bodhisattvas aspire to the enlightenment (bodhi; Ch.,dao) realized by all the Buddhas, disciplining themselves to this end, and advancing toward it. Briefly, three types of aspiration for 59 59 59

The Awakening of Faith

enlightenment can be distinguished. The first is the aspiration for enlightenment through the perfection of faith. The second is the aspiration for enlightenment through understanding and through deeds. The third is the aspiration for enlightenment through insight. I. The Aspiration for Enlightenment

through the Perfection of Faith

Question:By whom and through what kind of discipline can faith be perfected so that the aspiration for enlightenment may be developed?

Answer:Among those who belong to the group of the undetermined, there are some who, by virtue of their excellent capacity for goodness developed through permeation, believe in the [law of] retribution of karma and observe the ten precepts. They loathe the su›ering of samsara and wish to seek the supreme enlightenment. Having been able to meet the Buddhas, they serve them, honor them, and practice the faith. Their faith will be perfected after ten thousand eons. Their aspiration for enlightenment will be developed either through the instruction of the Buddhas and the bodhisattvas, or because of their great compassion [toward their su›ering fellow beings], or from their desire to preserve the good teaching from extinction. Those who are thus able to develop their aspiration through the perfection of faith will enter the group of the determined and will never retrogress. They are called the ones who are united with the correct cause [for enlightenment] and who abide among those who belong to the Tathågata family. Translator's Note: "The group of the undetermined": Those who have not established a nonretrogressive faith, i.e., those who repeatedly advance and retreat in the course of attaining enlightenment; or in mythological terms, those who have not received the assurance of attaining enlightenment by a certain Buddha. The exact nature of the

"ten precepts" differs in the different

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traditions of Buddhism. The following ten are popularly accepted in the Mahayana tradition of the Far East: not to kill, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, not to use flowery words, not to slander, not to be double-tongued, not to covet, not to give way to anger, not to harbor biased views.

"Eon" is a translation of the Sanskrit kalpa,a unit of time, often said to be the time it would take for a celestial maiden who comes down to the earth once every hundred years to wear away an immense rock by brushing it with her sleeve. Such expressions, needless to say, should be taken symbolically. They are used sometimes in order to suggest the extreme difficulty of establishing correct faith, or sometimes to convey an entirely new sense of dimension. Often a qualitative difference is expressed by an extremely exaggerated quantitative expression.

There are, however, people [among those who belong to the group of the undetermined] whose capacity for goodness is slight and whose defilements, having accumulated from the far distant past, are deep-rooted. Though they may also meet the Buddhas and honor them, they will develop the potentiality merely to be born as human beings, as dwellers in heaven, or as followers of the Hinayana. Even if they should seek after the Mahayana, they would sometimes progress and sometimes regress because of the inconsistent nature of their capacity. And also there are some who honor the Buddhas and who, before ten thousand eons have passed, will develop an aspiration because of some favorable circumstances. These circumstances may be the viewing of the Buddhas' corporeal forms, the honoring of monks, the receiving of instructions from the followers of the Hinayana, or the imitation of others' aspiration. But these types of aspiration are all inconsistent, for if the people who hold them meet with unfavorable circumstances, they will relapse and fall back into the stage of attainment of the followers of the Hinayana.

Now, in developing the aspiration for enlightenment through the perfection of faith, what kind of mind is to be cultivated? Briefly 580c

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speaking, three kinds can be discussed. The first is the mind characterized by straightforwardness, for it correctly meditates on the principle of suchness. The second is the mind of profoundness, for there is no limit to its joyful accumulation of all kinds of goodness. The third is the mind filled with great compassion, for it wishes to uproot the su›erings of all sentient beings.

Question:Earlier it has been explained that the world of reality is one, and that the essence of the Buddhas has no duality. Why is it that people do not meditate [of their own accord] on suchness alone but must learn to practice good deeds?

Answer:Just as a precious gem is bright and pure in its essence but is marred by impurities, [so is a human being.] Even if a person meditates on his precious nature, unless he polishes it in various ways by expedient means, he will never be able to purify it. The principle of suchness in human beings is absolutely pure in its essential nature but is filled with immeasurable impurity of defilements. Even if a person meditates on suchness, unless he makes an e›ort to be permeated by it in various ways by applying expedient means, he certainly cannot become pure. Since the state of impurity is limitless, pervading throughout all states of being, it is necessary to counteract and purify it by means of the practice of all kinds of good deeds. If a person does so, he will naturally return to the principle of suchness.

As to the expedient means, there are, in short, four kinds: The first is the fundamental means to be practiced. That is to say, a person is to meditate on the fact that all things in their essential nature are unborn, divorcing himself from deluded views so that he does not abide in samsara. [At the same time] he is to meditate on the fact that all things are [the products of the union of the primary and coordinating causes, and that the e›ect of karma will never be lost. [Accordingly] he is to cultivate great compassion, practice meritorious deeds, and accept and transform sentient beings equally without abiding in nirvana, for he is to conform himself to [the functions of the essential nature of reality (dhar-62

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matå) which knows no fixation.

Translator's Note: The last clause in the immediately preceding paragraph,

"for he is to conform himself to…

" can literally be

translated as

"because he is to follow the nonabiding of the essential nature of reality (dharmatå).

" The term

"

nonabiding" (aprati≈†˙ita)

suggests freedom, spontaneity, nonattachment, nondogmatism, etc. It is a way of life, a practical application of " emptiness"

(Ω¥nyatå)in a life situation encompassing both intellectual and affectional aspects.

In this paragraph, three ideas are presented: First, faith in the absolute order; second, the legitimate recognition of the phenomenal order where the law of causality operates; third, the synthesis of these two orders in a way of life for human beings. The second is the means of stopping [evils]. The practice of developing a sense of shame and repentance can stop all evils and prevent them from growing, for one is to conform oneself to the faultlessness of the essential nature of reality. The third is the means of increasing the capacity for goodness that has already been developed. That is to say, a person should diligently honor and pay homage to the Three Treasures, and should praise, rejoice in, and beseech the Buddhas. Because of the sincerity of his love and respect for the Three Treasures, his faith will be strengthened and he will be able to seek the unsurpassed enlightenment. Furthermore, being protected by the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, he will be able to wipe out the hindrances of evil karma. His capacity for goodness will not retrogress because he will be conforming himself to the essential nature of reality, which is free from hindrances produced by stupidity. The fourth is the means of the great vow of universal salvation. This is to take a vow that one will liberate all sentient beings, down to the last one, no matter how long it may take to cause them to attain the perfect nirvana, for one will be conforming oneself to the essential nature of reality which is characterized by the absence of discontinuity. The essential nature of reality is all-embracing, 581a

63 63 63

The Awakening of Faith

and pervades all sentient beings; it is everywhere the same and one without duality; it does not distinguish this from that, because it is, in the final analysis, in the state of quiescence. When a bodhisattva develops this aspiration for enlightenment [through faith], he will be able, to a certain extent, to realize the dharmakåya.Because of this realization of the dharmakåya,and because he is led by the force of the vow [that he made to liberate all sentient beings], he is able to present eight types of manifestation of himself for the benefit of all sentient beings. These are: the descent from the Tu≈ita Heaven; the entrance into a human womb; the stay in the womb; the birth; the renunciation; the attainment of enlightenment; the turning of the wheel of the Dharma (doctrine); and the entrance into nirvana. However, such a bodhisattva cannot be said [to have perfectly realized] the dharmakåya, for he has not yet completely destroyed the outflowing evil karma that has been accumulated from his numberless existences in the past. He must su›er some slight misery deriving from the state of his birth. However, this is due not to his being fettered by karma, but to his freely made decision to carry out the great vow [of universal salvation in order to understand the su›ering of others]. Translator's Note: "The eight types of manifestation" reflect the historio-mythic account of the life of ¸åkyamuni Buddha. In the usual account, however, a phase called the

"

subduing of Måra, the

[Evil] Tempter,

" appears after

"the renunciation,

" and "the stay in

the womb" is omitted.

"To turn the wheel of the Dharma" means to

preach. The first sermon of the Buddha at Benares is known as "the

turning of the wheel of the Dharma.

" The form given here is commonly known as the "

eight types of manifestation of the Mahayana. "

It is said in a sutra that there are some [bodhisattvas of this kind] who may regress and fall into evil states of existence, but this does not refer to a real regression. It says this merely in order to frighten and stir the heroism of the newly initiated bodhisattvas who have not yet joined the group of the determined, and who may be indolent.

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Furthermore, as soon as this aspiration has been aroused in the bodhisattvas, they leave cowardice far behind them and are not afraid even of falling into the stage of the followers of the Hinayana. Even though they hear that they must su›er extreme hardship for innumerable eons before they may attain nirvana, they do not feel any fear, for they believe and know that from the beginning all things are of themselves in nirvana. II. The Aspiration for Enlightenment

through Understanding and Deeds

It should be understood that this type of aspiration is even more excellent than the former. Because the bodhisattvas [who cherish this aspiration] are those who are about to finish the first term of the incalculable eons since the time when they first had the correct faith, they have come to have a profound understanding of the principle of suchness and to entertain no attachment to their attainments obtained through discipline. Knowing that the essential nature of reality is free from covetousness, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection of charity. Knowing that the essential nature of reality is free from the defilements that originate from the desires of the five senses, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection of precepts. Knowing that the essential nature of reality is without su›ering and free from anger and anxiety, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection of patience. Knowing that the essential nature of reality does not have any distinction of body and mind and is free from indolence, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection of zeal. Knowing that the essential nature of reality is always calm and free from confusion in its essence, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection of meditation. Knowing that the essential nature of reality is always characterized by gnosis and is free from ignorance, they, in conformity to it, devote themselves to the perfection 65 65 65

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of wisdom.

III. The Aspiration for Enlightenment through

Insight

[As for the bodhisattvas of this group, who range] from the "stage of pure-heartedness" to the "last stage of bodhisattvahood, " what

object do they realize? They realize suchness. We speak of it as an object because of the "evolving mind,

" but in fact there is no object

in this realization [that can be stated in terms of a subject-object relationship]. There is only the insight into suchness [transcending both the seer and the seen]; we call [this the experience of] the dharmakåya.

Translator's Note: The

"

evolving mind (prav®tti-vijñåna)" is

that which, because of ignorance, emerges as the perceiving and thinking subject. The implication of the sentence is that, though suchness cannot be predicated, when explanation is needed there is no other way but to use relative terms that are accessible to the mind which functions only in terms of subject-object relationships. The bodhisattvas of this group can, in an instant of thought, go to all worlds of the universe, honor the Buddhas, and ask them to turn the wheel of the Dharma. In order to guide and benefit all human beings, they do not rely on words. Sometimes, for the sake of weak-willed people, they show how to attain perfect enlightenment quickly by skipping over the stages [of the bodhisattva]. And sometimes, for the sake of indolent people, they say that human beings may attain enlightenment at the end of numberless eons. Thus they can demonstrate innumerable expedient means and suprarational feats. But in reality all these bodhisattvas are the same in that they are alike in their lineage, their capacity, their aspiration, and their realization [of suchness]; therefore, there is no such thing as skipping over the stages, for all bodhisattvas must pass through the three terms of innumerable eons 66

Part Three

[before they can fully attain enlightenment]. However, because of the di›erences in the various worlds of beings, and in the objects of seeing and hearing, as well as in the capacity, desires, and nature of the various beings, there are also di›erent ways of teaching them what to practice. Translator's Note: The opening sentence in this paragraph that ends with "the Dharma" is a symbolic presentation of the suprarational influences of suchness, i.e., dharmakåya. Since the bodhisattvas who have realized the dharmakåyaare one with suchness, they are thought to function in accordance with the mysterious functions of suchness. It also corresponds to the spontaneous action of saving others after attaining enlightenment. The clause,

"they do not rely on words (buyiwenzi)" is ambiguous. Fazang and other commentators give us no clue to the meaning. In the later translation of the Awakening of Faith,made by ¸ik≈ånanda, this clause is replaced by the words, "they do not seek

to hear any melodious sounds or words,

"81 which would seem to

imply that the bodhisattvas devote themselves to the salvation of humankind and do not remain in heaven enjoying the celestial music and songs—another way of saying that they do not stay in the bliss of nirvana. The statement that "they do not rely on words" is close in spirit to the claim of Zen Buddhism that the "transmission

of Zen does not rely on words but is from mind to mind. " Here, in

view of what follows, the statement would seem to mean that the bodhisattvas do not cling to literal interpretations of the scriptures but are ready to interpret them freely, accommodating their interpretation to all possible situations of suffering beings, with the single aim of helping them to advance to the way of salvation. The characteristics of the aspiration for enlightenment entertained by a bodhisattva belonging to this group can be identified in terms of the three subtle modes of mind. The first is the true mind, for it is free from [false intellectual] discrimination. The second is the mind [capable] of [applying] expedient means, for it pervades everywhere spontaneously and benefits sentient beings. The third 67 67 67

The Awakening of Faith

is the mind [subject to the influence] of karma [operating] in subconsciousness, for it appears and disappears in the most subtle ways.

Translator's Note: Of these

"three subtle modes of mind,

" Fazang

says:

"The true mind is the basic wisdom free from discrimination [of subject and object]. The mind of expedient means is the wisdom which, after having obtained enlightenment, functions spontaneously to help save others. The third, the subconsciousness, is the storehouse consciousness which is the basis of these other two kinds of wisdom.

"82

If the third is the storehouse consciousness, as Fazang says, then the expression

"

appearing and disappearing,

" literally

"birth

and cessation,

" is the characterization of the storehouse consciousness, which is explained by Vasubandhu as being analogous to the flow of a river that changes from moment to moment and yet retains its identity.

83 The implication may be that, though these bodhisattvas are enlightened and actively engaged in the work of helping others, they have yet to be perfected, being subject to the influence of the

"

activating mind,

" which is stirred by ignorance

in the storehouse consciousness.

Again, a bodhisattva of this group, when he brings his excellent qualities to perfection, manifests himself in the Heaven of AkaniŠha as the highest physical being in the world. Through wisdom united with [original enlightenment or suchness] in an instant of thought, he suddenly extinguishes ignorance. Then he is called [the one who has obtained] all-embracing knowledge. Performing suprarational acts spontaneously, he can manifest himself everywhere in the universe and benefit all sentient beings. Translator's Note: "The Heaven of AkaniŠha" is the highest heaven in the world of form, according to the cosmology of Indian Buddhism.

Question:Since space is infinite, worlds are infinite. Since worlds are infinite, beings are infinite. Since beings are infinite, the variety 68

Chapter I

of their mentalities must also be infinite. The objects of the senses and of the mind must therefore be limitless, and it is di‡cult to know and understand them all. If ignorance is destroyed, there will be no thoughts in the mind. How then can a comprehension [that has no content] be called "all-embracing knowledge"? Answer:All objects are originally of One Mind and are beyond thought determination. Because unenlightened people perceive objects in their illusion, they impose limitations in their mind. Since they erroneously develop these thought determinations, which do not correspond to reality (dharmatå), they are unable to reach any inclusive comprehension. The Buddha Tathågatas are free from all perverse views and thoughts [that block correct vision; therefore,] there are no corners into which their comprehension does not penetrate. Their Mind is true and real; therefore, it is no other than the essential nature of all things. [The Buddhas], because of their very nature, can shed light on all objects conceived in illusion. They are endowed with an influence of great wisdom [that functions as the application] of innumerable expedient means. Accommodating themselves to the capacity of understanding of various sentient beings, they can reveal to them the manifold meanings of the doctrine. This is the reason they may be called those who have "all-embracing knowledge.

"

Question:If the Buddhas are able to perform spontaneous acts, to manifest themselves everywhere, and to benefit all sentient beings, then the sentient beings should all be able, by seeing their physical forms, by witnessing their miracles, or by hearing their preachings, to gain benefit. Why is it then that most people in this world have not been able to see the Buddhas?

Answer:The dharmakåyaof all the Buddhas, being one and the same everywhere, is omnipresent. Since the Buddhas are free from any fixation of thought, their acts are said to be "spontaneous. "

They reveal themselves in accordance with the mentalities of all the various sentient beings. The mind of the sentient being is like 581c

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The Awakening of Faith

a mirror. just as a mirror cannot reflect images if it is coated with dirt, so the dharmakåyacannot appear in the mind of the sentient being if it is coated with the dirt [of defilements]. 70

Part Four

On Faith and Practice

Having already discussed interpretation, we will now present a discussion of faith and practice. This discussion is intended for those who have not yet joined the group of beings who are determined to attain enlightenment. On Four Faiths

Question:What kind of faith [should a person have] and how should he practice it?

Answer:Briefly, there are four kinds of faith. The first is the faith in the ultimate source. Because [of this faith] a person comes to meditate with joy on the principle of suchness. The second is the faith in the numberless excellent qualities of the Buddhas. Because [of this faith] a person comes to meditate on them always, to draw near to them in fellowship, to honor them, and to respect them, developing his capacity for goodness and seeking after the all-embracing knowledge. The third is the faith in the great benefits of the Dharma (the teaching). Because [of this faith] a person comes constantly to remember and practice various disciplines leading to enlightenment. The fourth is the faith in the Sangha (the Buddhist community) whose members are able to devote themselves to the practice of benefiting both themselves and others. Because [of this faith] a person comes to approach the assembly of bodhisattvas constantly and with joy and to seek instruction from them in the correct practice.

Translator's Note: The word "bodhisattva" does not here refer to beings such as MañjuΩr∆, AvalokiteΩvara, etc., but to any sentient 71

The Awakening of Faith

being who is intrinsically enlightened but who has yet to actualize the original enlightenment, and who is making an effort to this end. On Five Practices

There are five ways of practice which will enable a person to perfect his faith. They are the practices of charity, [observance of] precepts, patience, zeal, and cessation [of illusions] and clear observation. Question:How should a person practice charity?

Answer:If he sees anyone coming to him begging, he should give him the wealth and other things in his possession insofar as he is able; thus, while freeing himself from greed and avarice, he causes the beggar to be joyful. Or, if he sees one who is in hardship, in fear, or in grave danger, he should give him freedom from fear insofar as he is able. If a person comes to seek instruction in the teaching, he should, according to his ability and understanding, explain it by the use of expedient means. In doing so, however, he should not expect any fame, material gain, or respect, but he should think only of benefiting himself and others alike and of extending the merit [that he gains from the practice of charity] toward the attainment of enlightenment.

Question:How should he practice the [observance of] precepts? Answer:He is not to kill, to steal, to commit adultery, to be double-tongued, to slander, to lie, or to utter exaggerated speech. He is to free himself from greed, jealousy, cheating, deceit, flattery, crookedness, anger, hatred, and perverse views. If he happens to be a monk [or nun] who has renounced family life, he should also, in order to cut o› and suppress defilements, keep himself away from the hustle and bustle of the world and, always residing in solitude, should learn to be content with the least desire and should practice vigorous ascetic disciplines. He should be frightened and filled with awe by any slight fault and should feel shame and repent. He should 72

Part Four

not take lightly any of the Tathågata's precepts. He should guard himself from slander and from showing dislike so as not to rouse people in their delusion to commit any o›ense or sin. Question: How should he practice patience?

Answer:He should be patient with the vexatious acts of others and should not harbor thoughts of vengeance, and he should also be patient in matters of gain or loss, honor or dishonor, praise or blame, su›ering or joy, etc.

Question:How should he practice zeal?

Answer:He should not be sluggish in doing good, he should be firm in his resolution, and he should purge himself of cowardice. He should remember that from the far distant past he has been tormented in vain by all of the great su›erings of body and mind. Because of this he should diligently practice various meritorious acts, benefiting himself and others, and liberate himself quickly from su›ering. Even if a person practices faith, because he is greatly hindered by the evil karma derived from the grave sins of previous lives, he may be troubled by the Evil Tempter (Måra) and his demons, or entangled in all sorts of worldly a›airs, or afflicted by the su›ering of disease. There are a great many hindrances of this kind. He should, therefore, be courageous and zealous, and at the six four-hour intervals of the day and night should pay homage to the Buddhas, repent with sincere heart, beseech the Buddhas [for their guidance], rejoice in the happiness of others, and direct all the merits [thus acquired] to the attainment of enlightenment. If he never abandons these practices, he will be able to avoid the various hindrances as his capacity for goodness increases. Question:How should he practice cessation and clear observation? Answer:What is called "cessation" means to put a stop to all characteristics (lak≈ana) of the world [of sense objects and of the mind], because it means to follow the Ωamatha(tranquility) method 73

582a

The Awakening of Faith

of meditation. What is called "clear observation" means to perceive distinctly the characteristics of the causally conditioned phenomena (samsara), because it means to follow the vipaΩyanå(discerning) method of meditation.

Question: How should he follow these?

Answer:He should step by step practice these two aspects and not separate one from the other, for only then will both be perfected. Translator's Note: These two methods of meditation, i.e., Ωamatha (Ch., zhi) and vipaΩyanå(Ch., guan), singly and also as a pair, appear in the scriptures of old Påli sources. Much discussion of them is to be found in the sutras and commentaries. Explanations differ, but the basic notion that Ωamathaimplies "tranquilization,

stabilization, cessation, etc.,

" and that vipaΩyanåimplies

"discerning, clear observation, distinct perception, etc. " remains unchallenged. The most elaborate descriptions of them are to be found in the Tiantai school of Buddhism in China.

84

The Practice of Cessation

Should there be a person who desires to practice "cessation, " he

should stay in a quiet place and sit erect in an even temper. [His attention should be focused] neither on breathing nor on any form or color, nor on empty space, earth, water, fire, wind, nor even on what has been seen, heard, remembered, or conceived. All thoughts, as soon as they are conjured up, are to be discarded, and even the thought of discarding them is to be put away, for all things are essentially [in the state of] transcending thoughts, and are not to be created from moment to moment nor to be extinguished from moment to moment; [thus one is to conform to the essential nature of reality (dharmatå) through this practice of cessation]. 85And it

is not that he should first meditate on the objects of the senses in the external world and then negate them with his mind, the mind 74

Part Four

that has meditated on them. If the mind wanders away, it should be brought back and fixed in "correct thought.

" It should be understood that this "correct thought" is [the thought that] whatever is, is mind only and that there is no external world of objects [as conceived]; even this mind is devoid of any marks of its own [which would indicate its substantiality] and therefore is not substantially conceivable as such at any moment.

86

Even if he arises from his sitting position and engages in other activities, such as going, coming, advancing, or standing still, he should at all times be mindful [of the application] of expedient means [of perfecting "cessation"], conform [to the immobile principle of the essential nature of reality],

87and observe and examine [the

resulting experiences]. When this discipline is well mastered after a long period of practice, [the ideations of] his mind will be arrested. Because of this, his power of executing "cessation" will gradually be intensified and become highly e›ective, so that he will conform himself to, and be able to be absorbed into, the "concentration (samådhi) of suchness.

" Then his defilements, deep though they

may be, will be suppressed and his faith strengthened; he will quickly attain the state in which there will be no retro gression. But those who are skeptical, who lack faith, who speak ill [of the teaching of the Buddha], who have committed grave sins, who are hindered by their evil karma, or who are arrogant or indolent are to be excluded; these people are incapable of being absorbed into [the samådhiof suchness].

Next, as a result of this samådhi,a person realizes the oneness of the world of reality (dharmadhåtu), i.e., the sameness everywhere and nonduality of the dharmakåyaof all the Buddhas and the bodies of sentient beings. This is called "the samådhiof one movement."88It should be understood that [the samådhiof] suchness is the foundation of [all other] samådhis. If a person keeps practicing it, then he will gradually be able to develop countless other kinds of samådhis.

If there is a person who lacks the capacity for goodness, he will be confused by the Evil Tempter, by heretics, and by demons. Some-75 582b

The Awakening of Faith

times these beings will appear in dreadful forms while he is sitting in meditation, and at other times they will manifest themselves in the shapes of handsome men and women. [In such a case] he should meditate on [the principle of] "mind only,

" and then these objects

will vanish and will not trouble him any longer. Sometimes they may appear as the images of heavenly beings or bodhisattvas, and assume also the figure of the Tathågata, furnished with all the major and minor marks; or they may expound the spells or preach charity, the precepts, patience, zeal, meditation, and wisdom; or they may discourse on how the true nirvana is the state of universal emptiness, of the nonexistence of characteristics, vows, hatreds, a›ections, causes, and e›ects; and of absolute nothingness. They may also teach him the knowledge of his own past and future states of existence, the method of reading other people's minds, and perfect mastery of speech, causing him to be covetous and attached to worldly fame and profit; or they may cause him to be frequently moved to joy and anger and thus to have unsteadiness of character, being at times very kindhearted, very drowsy, very ill, or lazyminded; or at other times becoming suddenly zealous, and then afterward lapsing into negligence; or developing a lack of faith, a great deal of doubt, and a great deal of anxiety; or abandoning his fundamental excellent practices [toward religious perfection] and devoting himself to miscellaneous religious acts, or being attached to worldly a›airs which involve him in many ways; or sometimes they may cause him to experience a certain semblance of various kinds of samådhis, which are all the attainments of heretics and are not the true samådhi;or sometimes they may cause him to remain in samådhifor one, two, three, or up to seven days, feeling comfort in his body and joy in his mind, being neither hungry nor thirsty, partaking of natural, fragrant, and delicious drinks and foods, which induce him to increase his attachment to them; or at other times they may cause him to eat without any restraint, now a great deal, now only a little, so that the color of his face changes accordingly.

For these reasons, he who practices ["cessation"] should be dis-76

Part Four

creet and observant, lest his mind fall into the net of evil [doctrine]. He should be diligent in abiding in "correct thought, " neither grasping nor attaching himself to [anything]; if he does so, he will be able to keep himself far away from the hindrance of these evil influences.

He should know that the samådhis of the heretics are not free from perverse views, craving, and arrogance, for the heretics are covetously attached to fame, profit, and the respect of the world. The samådhi of suchness is the samådhi in which one is not arrested by the activity of viewing [a subject] nor by the experiencing of objects [in the midst of meditation]; even after concentration one will be neither indolent nor arrogant and one's defile ments will gradually decrease. There has never been a case in which an ordinary person, without having practiced this samådhi, was still able to join the group that is entitled to become Tathågatas. Those who practice the various types of dhyåna(meditation) and samådhithat are popular in the world will develop much attachment to their flavors and will be bound to the triple world because of their perverse view that atmanis real. They are therefore the same as heretics, for as they depart from the protection of their good spiritual friends, they turn to heretical views. Next, he who practices this samådhidiligently and wholeheartedly will gain ten kinds of advantages in this life. First, he will always be protected by the Buddhas and the bodhisattvas of the ten directions. Second, he will not be frightened by the [Evil] Tempter and his evil demons. Third, he will not be deluded or confused by the ninety-five kinds of heretics89 and wicked spirits. Fourth, he will keep himself far away from slanders of the profound teaching [of the Buddha], and will gradually diminish the hindrances derived from grave sins. Fifth, he will destroy all doubts and wrong views on enlightenment. Sixth, his faith in the realm of the Tathågata will grow. Seventh, he will be free from sorrow and remorse and in the midst of samsara will be full of vigor and undaunted. Eighth, having a gentle heart and forsaking arrogance, he will not be vexed by others. Ninth, even if he has not yet expe-77 582c

The Awakening of Faith

rienced samådhi,he will be able to decrease his defilements in all places and at all times, and he will not take pleasure in the world. Tenth, if he experiences samådhi, he will not be startled by any sound from without. Now, if he practices "cessation" only, then his mind will be sunk [in self-complacency] and he will be slothful; he will not delight in performing good acts but will keep himself far away from the exercise of great compassion. It is, therefore, necessary to practice "clear observation" [as well]. The Practice of Clear Observation

He who practices "clear observation" should observe that all conditioned phenomena in the world are unstationary and are subject to instantaneous transformation and destruction; that all activities of the mind arise and are extinguished from moment to moment; and that, therefore, all of these induce su›ering. He should observe that all that had been conceived in the past was as hazy as a dream, that all that is being conceived in the present is like a flash of lightning, and that all that will be conceived in the future will be like clouds that rise up suddenly. He should also observe that the physical existences of all living beings in the world are impure and that among these various filthy things there is not a single one that can be sought after with joy.

He should reflect in the following way: all living beings, from the beginningless beginning, because they are permeated by ignorance, have allowed their mind to remain in samsara; they have already su›ered all the great miseries of the body and mind, they are at present under incalculable pressure and constraint, and their su›erings in the future will likewise be limitless. These su›erings are di‡cult to forsake, di‡cult to shake o›, and yet these beings are unaware [that they are in such a state]; for this, they are greatly to be pitied.

After reflecting in this way, he should pluck up his courage and make a great vow to this e›ect: May my mind be free from discriminations so that I may practice all of the various meritorious 78

Part Four

acts everywhere in the ten directions; may I, to the end of the future, by applying limitless expedient means, help all su›ering sentient beings so that they may obtain the bliss of nirvana, the ultimate goal.

Having made such a vow, he must, in accordance with his capacity and without faltering, practice every kind of good at all times and at all places and not be slothful in his mind. Except when he sits in concentration in the practice of "cessation, " he should at

all times reflect upon what should be done and what should not be done.

Whether walking, standing, sitting, lying, or rising, he should practice both "cessation" and "clear observation" side by side. That is to say, he is to meditate upon the fact that things are unborn in their essential nature; but at the same time he is to meditate upon the fact that good and evil karma, produced by the combination of the primary cause and the coordinating causes, and the retributions [of karma] in terms of pleasure, pain, etc., are neither lost nor destroyed. Though he is to meditate on the retribution of good and evil karma produced by the primary and coordinating causes (i.e., he is to practice "clear observation"), he is also to meditate on the fact that the essential nature [of things] is unobtainable [by intellectual analysis]. The practice of "cessation" will enable ordinary people to cure themselves of their attachments to the world, and will enable the followers of the Hinayana to forsake their views, which derive from cowardice. The practice of "clear observation" will cure the followers of the Hinayana of the fault of having narrow and inferior minds that bring forth no great compassion, and will free ordinary people from their failure to cultivate the capacity for goodness. For these reasons, both "cessation" and "clear observation" are complementary and inseparable. If the two are not practiced together, then one cannot enter the path to enlightenment.

Next, suppose there is a person who learns this teaching for the first time and wishes to seek the correct faith but lacks courage and strength. Because he lives in this world of su›ering, he fears 79

583a

The Awakening of Faith

that he will not always be able to meet the Buddhas and honor them personally, and that, faith being di‡cult to perfect, he will be inclined to fall back. He should know that the Tathågatas have an excellent expedient means by which they can protect his faith: that is, through the strength of wholehearted meditation on the Buddha, he will in fulfillment of his wishes be able to be born in the Buddha land beyond, to see the Buddha always, and to be forever separated from the evil states of existence. It is as the sutra says: "If a person meditates wholly on Amitåbha Buddha in the world of the Western Paradise and wishes to be born in that world, directing all the goodness he has cultivated [toward that goal], then he will be born there."90 Because he will see the Buddha at all times, he will never fall back. If he meditates on the dharma kåya,the suchness of the Buddha, and with diligence keeps practicing [the meditation], he will be able to be born there in the end because he abides in the correct samådhi.

91

80

Part Five

Encouragement of Practice

and the Benefits Thereof

As has already been explained in the preceding sections, the Mahayana is the secret treasury of the Buddhas. Should there be a person who wishes to obtain correct faith in the profound realm of the Tathågata and to enter the path of Mahayana, putting far away from himself any slandering [of the teaching of Buddha], he should lay hold of this treatise, deliberate on it, and practice it; in the end he will be able to reach the unsurpassed enlightenment. If a person, after having heard this teaching, does not feel any fear or weakness, it should be known that such a person is certain to carry on the lineage of the Buddha and to receive the prediction of the Buddha that he will obtain enlightenment. Even if a person were able to reform all living beings throughout all the systems in the universe and to induce them to practice the ten precepts, he still would not be superior to a person who reflects correctly upon this teaching even for the time spent on a single meal, for the excellent qualities which the latter is able to obtain are unspeakably superior to those which the former may obtain. If a person takes hold of this treatise and reflects on and practices [the teachings given in it] only for one day and one night, the excellent qualities he will gain will be boundless and indescribable. Even if all the Buddhas of the ten directions were to praise these excellent qualities for incalculably long periods of time, they could never reach the end of their praise, for the excellent qualities of the reality (dharmatå) are infinite and the excellent qualities gained by this person will accordingly be boundless. If, however, there is a person who slanders and does not believe in this treatise, for an incalculable number of eons he will undergo 81

583b

The Awakening of Faith

immense su›ering for his fault. Therefore all people should reverently believe in it and not slander it, [for slander and lack of faith] will gravely injure oneself as well as others and will lead to the destruction of the lineage of the Three Treasures. Through this teaching all Tathågatas have gained nirvana, and through the practice of it all bodhisattvas have obtained Buddha wisdom. It should be known that it was by means of this teaching that the bodhisattvas in the past were able to perfect their pure faith; that it is by means of this teaching that the bodhisattvas of the present are perfecting their pure faith; and that it is by means of this teaching that the bodhisattvas of the future will perfect their pure faith. Therefore people should diligently study and practice it.

92

Profound and comprehensive are the great principles of the Buddha,

Which I have now summarized as faithfully as possible. May whatever excellent qualities I have gained from this endeavor

In accordance with reality be extended for the benefit of all beings.

82

Back Matters

Notes

1 T. 32: 575-83 (No. 1666). The Taishø edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka will henceforward be abbreviated as T.

2 Part One: The Reasons for Writing; cf. translation p. 6. 3 Edward Conze, Buddhist Wisdom Books(London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958), p. 101.

4 Mochizuki Shinkø, one of the modern specialists on the text, in a work written in 1922 identified one hundred and seventy-six commentaries. Since he included two English translations and a commentary on the later version of the text as translated by ¸ik≈ånanda, this figure, to be exact, should be reduced to one hundred and seventy-three in his listings. Cf. his Daijø kishin-ron no kenky¥(Study of the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana) (Tokyo, 1922), pp. 201-346. 5 The most sound and comprehensive study on these problems can be found in Paul Demiéville's article,

"Sur l'authenticité du Ta Tch'ing Ki Sin Louen,

"

Bulletin de la Maison Franco-Japonaise,II (no. 2, 1929), pp. 1-78. Also recommended is an article by Walter Liebenthal,

"New Light on the

Mahåyåna-Ωraddhotpåda Ωåstra,

" T'oung Pao,XLVI (1958), pp. 155-216.

His approach is radical; he suggests that Daochong (476?-550?) might have been the author (ibid.,pp. 210-15). In addition, consult the articles written by modern Chinese Buddhist scholars and collected in a book edited by Shi Taixu, entitled Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun chen-wei pien(Wuchang, China, 1923). The book contains nine articles representing both radical and conservative approaches.

6 The Buddhacaritais the most famous work of AΩvagho≈a. It is the finest work of the entire Buddhist literature in this genre. In the Sanskrit manuscripts only about half of the epic has been preserved; therefore, translations into Western languages done from Sanskrit contain the account of the life of Buddha from his birth to the attainment of enlightenment only, and not to his last day on earth. The missing half can be supplied from Chinese and Tibetan translations of the missing Sanskrit portions. For those who are interested, a selected bibliography of the translations into Western languages follows: From the Sanskrit: 1) E. B. Cowell, TheBuddhakarita of AΩvaghosha,Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 49 (Oxford, 1894); 2) 83

Notes

Carl Cappeller, Buddha's Wandel (Jena, 1922); 3) Richard Schmidt, Buddha's Leben(Hanover, 1923); 4) E. H. Johnston, The Buddhacarita or, Acts of the Buddha,Part II (Calcutta, 1936). From the Chinese: Samuel Beal, A Life of Buddha by AΩvaghosha Bodhisattva (translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by DharmarakΩa, 420 C.E.), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 19 (Oxford, 1883). From the Tibetan: Friedrich Weller, Das Leben des Buddha von AΩvaghosha,2 vols. (Leipzig, 1926-28). 7 The Saundaranandais an epic on the conversion to Buddhism of a handsome young man named Nanda. Though there is no Chinese or Tibetan translation, the Sanskrit manuscripts have been preserved, and there is a good English translation by E. H. Johnston, The Saundarananda or Nanda the Fair(Oxford University Press, 1932). 8 The ¸åriputra-prakara√a,though fragmentary, is significant as being the earliest evidence of dramatic literature in India. It is written partly in Sanskrit and partly in dialects in accordance with the standard style of old Indian drama. The di›erent dialects are spoken by persons such as women and servants and reflect the social status of these characters. 9 T. 32: 594bc.

10 Zokuzøkyø,Part I, Case 71, Vol. 3, pp. 264-80. 11 Walter Liebenthal,

"The Oldest Commentary of the MahåyånaΩraddhotpåda ¸åstra, " Bukkyø bunka kenky¥(Studies in Buddhism and Buddhist Civilization), Nos. 6, 7 (Kyoto, 1958), p. 7. 12 T. 55: 142a.

13 T. 32: 584-91.

14 This information is found in the introduction to the new translation of the text, and is probably a much later addition. Cf. T. 32: 583c. 15 Mochizuki Shinkø, Daijø kishin-ron no kenky¥,p. 99. 16 T. 50: 458b.

17 Those who are interested in the comparative study of the two texts in the original can find a systematic presentation of similarities and di›erences in the following article: Kashiwagi Hiroo,

"Shikushananda no yaku to

tsuta erareru Daijø kishin-ron" ("On the Translation of the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana attributed to ¸ik≈ånanda"), Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies,X (No. 2, March, 1962), pp. 124-5. 18 T. 44: 175-201.

19 T. 44: 202-26.

20 T. 44: 240-87.

84

Notes

21 Mochizuki Shinkø, Daijø kishin-ron no kenky¥,pp. 255-6. 22 T. 32: 591-668.

23 Cf. Takamine Ryøsh¥, Kegon shisø shi(History of Huayan Thought) (Kyoto, 1962), p. 64; and Kobayashi Jitsugen,

"Kishin-ron kaishaku no hensen"

("Transitions in the Interpretations of the Awakening of Faith"), Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, XIII (No. 2, March, 1965), pp. 225-28. 24 This short essay is recommended for students of Chinese thought and religion in general, as it deals with both Confucianism and Daoism from the Buddhist point of view. The characteristic pattern of later Chinese Buddhism, syncretism, is remarkably evidenced in this. It has been said that Zongmi wrote this treatise in reply to the denunciation of Buddhism by Hanyou (768-824), one of the noted champions of Confucianism in the Tang period. Cf. Kegon shisø (Huayan Thought), edited by Kawada Kumatarø and Nakamura Hajime (Kyoto, 1960), p. 507. It has been translated into French and German but not as yet into English. Cf. Paul Masson-Oursel, trans., "Le Yuan Jen Louen,

" Journal Asiatique,May-April,

1915, pp. 4-58; Heinrich Dumoulin,

"Genninron, Tsungmi's Traktat vom

Ursprung des Menschen,

" Monumenta Nipponica,I, pp. 178-221.

25 Cf. Zokuzøkyø,Part I, Case 14, Vol. 3, Zongmi's Yuanjuejingda shu shi yi chao,p. 277c. 26 Cf. Tsukamoto Zenry¥: "Min-shin seiji no bukkyø kyosei" ("Emasculation of Buddhism by the Ming and the Qing Governments"), Bukkyø Bunka Kenky¥(The Journal of Buddhistic Culture), No. 2 (1952), p. 2. 27 T. 44: 243b.

28 Cf. D. T. Suzuki, trans., The Lankavatara Sutra(London, 1932) 29 This text has been translated from Tibetan. Cf. E. Obermiller, trans., "The

Sublime Science of Buddhist Monism,

" Acta Orientalia,Vol. IX, Parts, 1,

2, 3, 1931.

30 E. H. Johnston, ed., Ratnagotra-vibhåga-mahåyanottaratantra-Ωåstra (Patna, 1950), p. vii. Words within brackets are those supplied by the present translator. 31 Detailed information on the system can be obtained from such publications as: Tamaki Køshirø,

"The Development of the Thought of Tathågatagarbha from India to China, " Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, IX

(No. 1, January 1961), pp. 378-86; Katsumata Shunkyø, Bukkyø ni okeru shinshiki-setsu no kenky¥ (A Study of the Citta-vijñåna Thought in Buddhism) (Tokyo, 1961), pp. 593-637; Mizutani Køshø, "Nyoraizø shisø

shi kenky¥ josetsu" ("An Introduction to the Study of the History of Tathågata-garbha Thought"), Bukkyø Daigaku kenky¥ kiyø,XLIV-XLV (Kyoto, 85

Notes

1963), pp. 245-77; Ui Hakuju, Høshøron no kenky¥(The Study of the Ratnagotra-Ωåstra) (Tokyo, 1947). 32 Teitaro Suzuki (D. T. Suzuki), trans., AΩvaghosha's Discourse on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana(Chicago, 1900). 33 Rev. Timothy Richard, trans., The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana Doctrine—The New Buddhism(Shanghai, 1907).

34 Dwight Goddard, ed., A Buddhist Bible(New York, 1952), pp. 357-404. 35 Richard, The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana Doctrine,p. vi. 36 Goddard, A Buddhist Bible,Appendix, pp. 668-9. In the same section of the Appendix (p. 668), there is mention of one more English translation of which the present translator has no knowledge: "Another was made by several Sanskrit scholars from a Sanskrit text remade from the Chinese, and misses the profound esoteric significance of the original. This was published in the magazine, The Shrine of Wisdom,in 1929 and 1930. "

37 This pattern of analysis in terms of essence (Ch., ti), attribute (or manifestation, appearance, etc.; Ch., xiang), and influence (or function, activity, etc.; Ch., yong) is one of the great contributions that the Awakening of Faithhas made to later Far Eastern thinkers. To cite an example: The master K¥kai (774-835), the founder of Shingon Buddhism in Japan, made use of this pattern as a basis in systematizing his religious philosophy. Sokushinjøbutsugi(On Attaining Enlightenment with This Very Body), Købø daishi zensh¥,Vol. I (Tokyo and Kyoto, 1910), pp. 507-8. The pattern of analysis in terms of essence and influence is found in the Zhaolunof Sengzhao (374 -414). Cf. Tsukamoto Zenry¥, ed., Jøron kenky¥(Kyoto, 1955), p. 200.

38 T. 44: 251b.

39 Mådhyamaka-kårikåsXXV, 19.

40 Of the phrase,

"all phases of existence in their totality,

" Døgen (1200-1253), the founder of Japanese Søtø Zen, says, "In the one world of reality,

the essence (the absolute) and appearances (phenomena) are inseparable and birth and death cannot be spoken about. There is nothing that is not of the essential nature of Mind, including even enlightenment and nirvana. All existences, the entire [range of] phenomena, are of the One Mind alone, and nothing is excluded. All these manifold phases of existences are equally of the One Mind and none di›ers from it. To discuss it in this manner is, indeed, an indication that a Buddhist really understands the essential nature of Mind. This being truly so, how can one falsely divide this One Reality into body and mind and into samsara and nirvana?" Døgen, Bendøwa, Shøbøgenzø (Iwanami Edition) (Tokyo, 1942), pp. 69-70. 86

Notes

41 T. 44: 252b (adapted).

42 Mådhyamaka-kårikåsXVIII, 7.

43 T. 44: 207b.

44 T. 44: 252c.

45 The statement that the tathågatagarbhais of Ω¥nyaand aΩ¥nyais found in the ¸r∆målå-s¥tra,a fact which suggests that this text developed the thought earlier expressed in that sutra. T. 12: 221c. 46 Innumerable expressions of a similar nature can be found in sutras that place emphasis on "emptiness" (Ω¥nyatå) and also in the sayings of Buddhist masters, particularly those of the Zen school. For example, the Japanese Zen master Takuan (1573-1645) has this to say: "All phenomena are like phantoms or dreams; when it is once perceived that they are essentially empty, one does not see any particular marks of individuation in them and thus is free from attachments to them. In order to preclude attachments, this view of the emptiness of everything is taught. When this view is thoroughly realized, attachments will be severed. Having achieved this and on again returning to the world, one will find that there are no particulars to be destroyed and no attachment to be severed. " Takuan, Tøkai yawa,

Takuan oshø zensh¥,Vol. 5 (Tokyo, 1929), p. 19. 47 Mådhyamaka-kårikåsXXIV, 11.

48 An almost identical expression can be found in the ¸r∆målå-s¥tra,which is one of the representative works of tathågatagarbhathought: "O Lord, samsara (birth and death) is grounded on the tathågatagarbha. " T. 12:

222b.

49 I have not been able to identify the source of this quotation. 50 The use of the term, the "reproducing mind (khyåti-vijñåna), " as well as

the "object-discriminating consciousness (vastu-prativikalpa-vijñåna), "

which will appear later in the text, is known to be peculiar to the Lankåvatåra-s¥tra. This piece of evidence, among others, may indicate the influence of the sutra on this text. Cf. D. T. Suzuki: Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra(London, 1930; reprinted 1957), pp. 189-91. 51 The corresponding line in the commentary is found in T. 26: 169a. 52 DaΩabh¥mika-s¥tra,ed. J. Ralider (Paris, 1926), p. 49; ed. R. Kondø (Tokyo, 1936), p. 98.

53 T. 44: 214c-215a.

54 T. 44: 267a.

55 Zokuzøkyø,Part I, Case 7 1, Vol. 5, p. 456d. 87

Notes

56 Proposed by Itø Kazuo. Cf. Itø Kazuo, Shinchi no tanky¥(The Search for True Wisdom) (Kyoto, 1947), p. 46. 57 T. 44: 360c.

58 T. 44: 216a.

59 T. 44: 269a.

60 The idea and simile expressed in this paragraph somewhat correspond to a few passages in the Lankåvatåra-s¥tra.Cf. D. T. Suzuki: The Lankavatara Sutra,p. 42.

61 T. 44: 271c.

62 T. 44: 271c

63 Zokuzøkyø,Part 1, Case 71, Vol. 3, p. 280a. 64 Cf. for example, The Lotus of the True Law,trans. by H. Kern, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXI (New York: Dover, 1963), pp. 406-18. 65 T. 44: 272c.

66 T. 44: 218a.

67 T. 44: 372b.

68 T. 44: 273a.

69 The passage within the brackets is missing in the text of the Taishø Tripi†aka. The missing passage was supplied from the commentary of Fazang (T. 44: 273a) and the Koyasan University Edition (1955). 70 Headings in this section do not exist in the original. In order to clarify the discussion, the traditional practice of supplying these headings has been adopted, using the commentaries of Fazang (T. 44: 273b) and of Wπnhyo (T. 44: 218b) as a basis. 71 T. 44: 273c.

72 The original for "transcend thoughts" is wuyunian,literally, "not to be in

thoughts.

" This implies that all things are beyond what they are thought to be by the unenlightened mind, namely, they are not real, since they are falsely predicated by the deluded mind alone. In other words, reality defies any thought determinations. 73 Edward Conze, trans., Buddhist Wisdom Books(London, 1958), p. 25. 74 Mådhyamaka-kårikåsXXIV, 8, 9, 10. 75 Following the interpretation of Fazang (T. 44: 275b). The latter part of the sentence reads literally, "depending on the activating mind. " The use of

88

Notes

the term "activating mind" here is very strange, a typical example of the inconsistent use of technical terms.

76 T. 44: 276c.

77 T. 44: 276c.

78 T. 44: 277b.

79 T. 44: 277b.

80 This chapter is an analysis of the meaning of the word yånain the compound mahåyånagiven in the Outline. 81 T. 32: 589c.

82 T. 44: 280c.

83 Vasubhandhu: TrimΩikå4.

84 Zhiyi (539-597), the founder of the Tiantai school in China, had enthusiastically emphasized the importance of these two methods of meditation as the foundation of all Buddhist practices. There are two books on meditation written by him which contain the words zhiguanor "cessation and observation" in their titles. One is the Mohezhiguan (Great Cessation and Observation) (T. 46: 1-140) in ten fascicles; the other, the Xaozhiguan (Smaller Cessation and Observation) (T. 46: 462-73) in one fascicle; both have exerted a lasting influence in the Far East.

85 The portion in brackets is added to clarify the nature of this meditation and is based on the comment of Fazang. Cf. T. 44: 283b. 86 The two sentences starting with "if the mind wanders away… " are quoted

by Zhiyi in the Xiaozhiguan(T. 46: 467a) as authority to support his assertions concerning meditation. Because of Zhiyi's citation, the Awakening of Faithhas been highly esteemed in the Tiantai tradition. A recent critical study of the textual tradition of the Xiaozhiguanhas, however, revealed that this famous quotation was a later accretion. Cf. Sekiguchi Shindai, Tendai shøshikan no henky¥ (A Study of the Tiantai Xiaozhiguan) (Tokyo, 1953), pp. 282, 302-3, 307-10.

87 The portions in brackets are based upon Fazang's interpretation. Cf. T. 44: 283c.

88 Ekacaryå samådhi(Ch., yixing sanmei)—the absorption into the absolute— was first introduced in the [Perfection of] Wisdom sutras and has played an important role in Far Eastern Buddhism. In the Tiantai tradition it is known as one of the four basic samådhis as defined by Zhiyi; in the Pure Land school, it was advocated by Shandao (618-681) as the concentrated meditation on Amitåbha Buddha by the recitation of his name; in the Chan 89

Notes

or Zen tradition, perhaps because the term appears in the Platform Scripture of Huineng(cf. Wing-tsit Chan: The Platform Scripture,New York, 1963, p. 46), this samådhihas traditionally been regarded as a part of the authentic Zen teaching. It is also called the "samådhi of one aspect (ekalak≈ana samådhi;Ch., yixiang sanmei),

" perhaps because the term

appears in this form in the later version of the Awakening of Faith(T. 32: 590c).

89 Said to be the number of heretical doctrines held by non-Buddhist groups in India at the time of ¸åkyamuni Buddha. There are two traditions: one enumerates ninety-five, the other, ninety-six.

90 No such quotation is found in any of the three basic sutras of the Pure Land school of Buddhism, though the idea expressed is typical of the teachings of that school. 91 The followers of Pure Land Buddhism, having found a confirmation of their beliefs in this celebrated and sophisticated text, have naturally esteemed the Awakening of Faithvery highly. The fact that this expedient means to salvation for those who are deeply aware of their incapability is given at the end of the section on practice may be considered, in a sense, as indicating the conclusion of the text. Though the faith in Amitåbha Buddha is suggested as the seventh item in the Reasons for Writing in the beginning of the text (pp. 5 -6), it is somewhat strange that the exhortation to the faith in and meditation on Amitåbha Buddha appears immediately after the discussion on the two basic methods of meditation, cessation and clear observation. In fact, this paragraph does not belong to the discussion of the five practices but is an appendix. It is not surprising that one Western scholar, being skeptical of this evidence of Amitåbha worship in the text, thought that this paragraph might have been added later by the worshipers of Amitåbha or by the author under pressure from a group of Amitåbha worshipers. Cf. Walter Liebenthal,

"New Light on the Mahå yåna -Ωraddhotpåda ¸åstra,

" T'oung Pao,XLVI (1958), pp. 189-97.

92 There has been some feeling among modern scholars that this last section, which is rather crude and propagandizing in tone, is incompatible with the lofty spirit of what has gone before. Some regard it as a later accretion, while some have even taken it as evidence that the entire text was forged in China. As a matter of fact, however, such passages praising the merits of the text are customarily found at the end of the sutras of Mahayana Buddhism, and though the Awakening of Faithis not, technically speaking, a sutra, it is not altogether surprising to find such a passage at the conclusion. The section may in fact have been added at a later date by some enthusiastic supporter or supporters of the text, but in the absence of any concrete evidence of that fact it is best to regard it as an integral part of the text.

90