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T1666 The Awakening of Faith

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BDK English Tripi†aka 63-IV THE AWAKENING OF FAITH Attributed to AΩvagho≈a

Translated from the Chinese of Paramårtha (Taishø Volume 32, Number 1666) by

Yoshito S. Hakeda Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research 2005

Portions of this work were prepared under a grant from the Carnegie Corporation and a contract with the U.S. O‡ce of Education for the production of texts to be used in undergraduate education. The draft translations so produced have been used in the Columbia College Oriental Humanities program and have subsequently been revised and expanded for publication in the present form.

Original Edition (ISBN: 0-231-08336-X Paperbound; ISBN: 0-231-03025-8 Clothbound) Copyright © 1967 Columbia University Press Yoshito S. Hakeda was Associate Professor of Japanese in the Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures and Associate Professor in the Department of Religion at Columbia University. Reprinted by permission of Columbia University Press Reprint edition ± 2005 by Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means —electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher. First Printing, 2005

ISBN: 1-886439-33-8

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005930580 Published by

Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research 2620 Warring Street

Berkeley, California 94704

Printed in the United States of America

Copyright

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripi†aka The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand di›erent teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha's basic approach was to prescribe a di›erent treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a di›erent medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular su›ering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the su›ering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha's Great Demise over twenty-five hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha's teachings. Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha's eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishø edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.

It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the e›orts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has finally gotten o› the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATA Yehan

Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripi†aka Project

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATA Yehan, the founder of the Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishø edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripi†aka was o‡cially convened.

The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shøy¥ (Chairperson), (late) BANDØ Shøjun, ISHIGAMI Zennø, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, KANAOKA Sh¥y¥, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKIShinkø, (late) SHIOIRIRyøtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, URYÁZU Ry¥shin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWAAtsushi, WATA NABEShøgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.

Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.

vii

Editorial Foreword

It must be mentioned here that the final object of this project is not academic fulfillment but the transmission of the teaching of the Buddha to the whole world in order to create harmony and peace among humankind. To that end, the translators have been asked to minimize the use of explanatory notes of the kind that are indispensable in academic texts, so that the attention of general readers will not be unduly distracted from the primary text. Also, a glossary of selected terms is appended to aid in understanding the text. To my great regret, however, Dr. NUMATApassed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATAToshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMA Shøy¥, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, then Vice President of Musashino Women's College, to be the Chair in October 1995. The Committee has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. NUMATA, under the leadership of Mr. NUMATA Toshihide. The present members of the Committee are MAYEDA Sengaku (Chairperson), ISHIGAMIZennø, ICHISHIMAShøshin, KANAOKASh¥y¥, NARAYasuaki, TAMARUNoriyoshi, URYÁZURy¥shin, YUYAMAAkira, Kenneth K. Tanaka, WATANABE Shøgo, and assistant member YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the BDK English Tripi†aka First Series. In December 1991, the Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center, with Professor Philip Yampolsky as the Chairperson. To our sorrow, Professor Yampolsky passed away in July 1996. In February 1997, Dr. Kenneth K. Inada became Chair and served in that capacity until August 1999. The current Chair, Dr. Francis H. Cook, has been continuing the work since October 1999. All of the remaining texts will be published under the supervision of this Committee, in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo. MAYEDA Sengaku

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripi†aka

viii

Publisher’s Foreword

Publisher's Foreword

The Publication Committee shares with the Editorial Committee the responsibility of realizing the vision of Dr. Yehan Numata, founder of Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai, the Society for the Promotion of Buddhism. This vision is no less than to make the Buddha's teaching better known throughout the world, through the translation and publication in English of the entire collection of Buddhist texts compiled in the Taishø Shinsh¥ Daizøkyø, published in Tokyo in the early part of the twentieth century. This huge task is expected to be carried out by several generations of translators and may take as long as a hundred years to complete. Ultimately, the entire canon will be available to anyone who can read English and who wishes to learn more about the teaching of the Buddha.

The present generation of sta› members of the Publication Committee includes Marianne Dresser; Reverend Brian Nagata, president of the Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, California; Eisho Nasu; and Reverend Kiyoshi Yamashita. The Publication Committee is headquartered at the Numata Center and, working in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee, is responsible for the usual tasks associated with preparing translations for publication.

In October 1999, I became the third chairperson of the Publication Committee, on the retirement of its very capable former chair, Dr. Kenneth K. Inada. The Committee is devoted to the advancement of the Buddha's teaching through the publication of excellent translations of the thousands of texts that make up the Buddhist canon. Francis H. Cook

Chairperson

Publication Committee

Note on the BDK English Tripitaka Series Reprint Edition

Note on the BDK English Tripi†aka Series

Reprint Edition

After due consideration, we, the Editorial Committee of the BDK English Tripi†aka Series, chose to reprint of Dr. Yoshito S. Hakeda's translation of The Awakening of Faith,originally published by Columbia University Press in 1967, in order to make more widely available this exemplary and seminal translation of this important text. In an e›ort to preserve the quality and cohesion of the original edition, we have retained in this reprint edition Dr. Hakeda's chapter and subdivision headings and his commentaries, which are set in italicized paragraphs within the text itself. Aside from minor typographical changes to accomodate the style parameters of the BDK English Tripi†aka Series, this edition reproduces as closely as possible Dr. Hakeda's original translation.

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripi†aka NUMATA Yehan v

Editorial Foreword MAYEDA Sengaku vii Publisher's Foreword Francis H. Cook ix Note on the BDK English Tripi†aka Series Reprint Edition xi Foreword to the Original Edition Wm. Theodore de Bary xvi Preface to the Original Edition Yoshito S. Hakeda xix Translator's Introduction Yoshito S. Hakeda xxi The Awakening of Faith

Invocation 3

The Contents of the Discourse 3 Part One. The Reasons for Writing 5 Part Two. Outline 7

Part Three. Interpretation 11 Chapter I. Revelation of True Meaning 11 I. One Mind and Its Two Aspects 11 A. The Mind in Terms of the Absolute 12 1. Truly Empty 14

2. Truly Nonempty 15

B. The Mind in Terms of Phenomena 16 1. The Storehouse Consciousness 16 a. The Aspect of Enlightenment 17 (1) Original Enlightenment 17 (2) The Process of Actualization of Enlightenment 17 (a) Purity of Wisdom 20

xiii

Contents

(b) Suprational Functions 21 (3) The Characteristics of the Essence of Enlightenment 21 b. The Aspect of Nonenlightenment 23 c. The Relationships between Enlightenment and Nonenlightenment 25 (1) Identity 25

(2) Nonidentity 26 2. The Cause and Conditions of Humankind's Being in Samsara 26

a. Mind 27

b. Consciousness 29 c. Defiled States of Mind 31 d. Comments on the Terms Used in the Foregoing Discussion 32

3. The Characteristics of Beings in Samsara 34 a. Permeation of Ignorance 36 b. Permeation of Suchness 37 (1) Permeation through Manifestation of the Essence of Suchness 39 (2) Permeation through Influences 41 (a) The Specific Coordinating Causes (b) The General Coordinating Causes 41 42

II. The Essence Itself and the Attributes of Suchness, or the Meaning of Mahå A. The Greatness of the Essense of Suchness B. The Greatness of the Attributes of Suchness C. The Greatness of the Influences of Suchness III. From Samsara to Nirvana Chapter II. The Correction of Evil Attachments I. The Biased Views Held by Ordinary People II. The Biased Views Held by the Hinayanists 44 44

Chapter III. Analysis of the Types of Aspiration for Enlightenment, or the Meanings of Yåna 59 xiv

Contents

I. The Aspiration for Enlightenment through the Perfection of Faith 60 II. The Aspiration for Enlightenment through Understanding and Deeds 65 III. The Aspiration for Enlightenment through Insight 66 Part Four. On Faith and Practice On Four Faiths 71 On Five Practices 72 The Practice of Cessation 74 The Practice of Clear Observation 71 78

Part Five. Encouragement of Practice and the Benefits Thereof 81

Notes 83

Glossary 91

Bibliography 95

Index 99

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripi†aka (First Series) xv

Foreword to the Original Edition

The Awakening of Faithis one of the Translations from the Oriental Classics by which the Committee on Oriental Studies [of Columbia University] has sought to transmit to Western readers representative works of the major Asian traditions in thought and literature. These are works which in our judgment any educated person should have read. Frequently, however, this reading has been denied him or her by the lack of suitable translations. All too often readers have had to choose between excerpts in popular anthologies on the one hand, and on the other heavily annotated translations intended primarily for the specialist, which in many cases are out of date or out of print. Here we o›er translations of whole works, based on scholarly studies but written for the general reader as well as the specialist. Of the major traditions of Oriental thought Chinese and Japanese Buddhism is the least well represented by competent translations, despite the quantity of secondary writing on the subject. This is due in part to linguistic di‡culties. In the case of the Awakening of Faith, one confronts also the inherent subtlety and complexity of its basic ideas. Though these concepts have entered into Mahayana philosophy as a whole and are accepted by the leading schools, this wide currency derives not from their common appeal or ease of access to the Buddhist faithful, but to their profundity in dealing with the central problems of Buddhism. In this sense the Awakening of Faith defies popularization. Its very conciseness and apparent simplicity will only confound the reader not well versed in the teachings of Buddhism. Professor Hakeda has done a great service in providing a straightforward translation with explanatory notes, drawing on his own extensive learning to interpret these pregnant but often enigmatic lines. In the process he has distilled a great mass of earlier commentary in xvii

Foreword to the Original Edition order to convey simply what we must know in order to grasp the essential meaning. Wm. Theodore de Bary xviii

Preface to the Original Edition

The Awakening of Faith is one of the basic texts of Mahayana Buddhism, used by most of its major schools. The popularity of the text in East Asian Buddhism is well attested by the numerous works written on it throughout the ages in China, Korea, and Japan. It is hoped that this translation of the work will prove of value to Western readers in increasing their understanding of the basic tenets and practices of Mahayana Buddhism, and that it will assist them to become more familiar with that rich and important branch of the Buddhist religion which, along with the other great religious and philosophical systems of Asia, is rapidly coming to be recognized as part of the cultural heritage of all humankind.

In preparing this translation I have received financial assistance from the Committee on Oriental Studies at Columbia University, for which I would like to express my gratitude. The final portion of the work was supported under a contract in the U.S. O‡ce of Education under which the Committee is preparing texts for foreign area studies. I also wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Wm. Theodore de Bary, who encouraged me to undertake this project, and who read the manuscript and o›ered invaluable suggestions; to Professor Burton Watson for reading the manuscript and painstakingly comparing the translation with the original line by line, improving on its style at many points; and to Dr. Philip Yampolsky, Mr. Robert Olson, and Mr. Fred Underwood for their pertinent suggestions. Without their help and encouragement, this work could not have been completed. Yoshito S. Hakeda

Columbia University

March 1, 1966

xix

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

History of the Text

The text known as the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (Da cheng qi xin lun) is a short treatise occupying only nine pages in the Taishø edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka.

1 The reconstructed Sanskrit

title of the work is MahåyånaΩraddhotpåda-Ωåstra;it is said to have been written in Sanskrit by AΩvagho≈a and translated into Chinese in 550 C.E. by the famous Indian translator of Buddhist texts, Para mårtha. No Sanskrit version of the text exists today, however, and all our knowledge of the work is based upon this Chinese version, and a second version that dates from a somewhat later period. The work is a comprehensive summary of the essentials of Mahayana Buddhism, the product of a mind extraordinarily apt at synthesis. It begins with an examination of the nature of the absolute or enlightenment and of the phenomenal world or nonenlightenment, and discusses the relationships that exist between them; from there it passes on to the question of how human beings may transcend their finite state and participate in the life of the infinite while still remaining in the midst of the phenomenal order; it concludes with a discussion of particular practices and techniques that will aid the believer in the awakening and growth of his faith. In spite of its deep concern with philosophical concepts and definitions, therefore, it is essentially a religious work, a map drawn by a man of unshakable faith that will guide the believer to the peak of understanding. But the map and the peak are only provisional symbols, skillful and expedient ways employed to bring people to enlightenment. The text and all the arguments in it exist not for their own sake, but for the sake of this objective alone. The treatise is, indeed, a true classic of Mahayana Buddhism. xxi

Translator's Introduction

The style of the work is extremely terse. It is evident that the author took the utmost pains to make the text as succinct as possible. In fact, the text was designed for his intellectual contemporaries in the fifth or sixth century who, according to the author, "looked upon

the wordiness of extensive discourses as troublesome, and who sought after what was comprehensive, terse, and yet contained much meaning. "2 As noted earlier, the author has succeeded in presenting a summary of the principles and basic methods of practice of Mahayana Buddhism in a form terse enough to delight his most exacting contemporaries, and for them the text may not have presented any particular di‡culties. But for us today, who are so remote from him in time, the very e›ort of the author to write concisely is a hindrance to our understanding. As Edward Conze, commenting upon a similar text of Buddhist doctrine, has put it,

"We at present must reconstruct

laboriously what 1,500 years ago seemed a matter of course. "3 It is

indeed as though the author had written in the spirit of the ancient Sanskrit grammarians, who were said to have rejoiced, as over the birth of a son, when they were able to save even a syllable in the formulation of their grammatical rules. This is especially true in the more theoretical sections in the first half of the text, where it is almost impossible to understand certain passages without the aid of commentaries. Other di‡culties arise from the nature of the Chinese language, which, though highly symbolic and suggestive, lacks the logical precision of Sanskrit. The fact that we have no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of the text to assist our understanding of the Chinese makes the problem of interpretation doubly di‡cult.

The intrinsic di‡culty of the text, as well as the high esteem in which it has been held over the centuries, accounts for the fact that more than one hundred and seventy commentaries have been written on it.

4 In spite of this mass of exegetical material, however, many problems remain unsolved, while the methods of modern critical scholarship, when applied to the text, have raised new problems concerning the date and authorship of the work. Japanese scholars, joined later by Chinese and European scholars, have since the turn of the century engaged in heated debate over such questions.

5 Some have gone so

xxii

Translator's Introduction

far as to assert that the text is a forgery, denying the hitherto unquestioned Indian authorship and the assumption that the text represents a Chinese translation of a Sanskrit original; instead, attempts have been made to postulate one or another Chinese Buddhist writer as the true author. No conclusive evidence has so far been brought forth either to support or disprove these theories.

One thing is clear, however, from evidence within the text itself: that it was not written by the AΩvagho≈a who lived in the first or second century C.E. and who has been honored as the first Sanskrit poet of the kåvyaor court poetry style, the earliest dramatic writer in India whose work has survived, and the distinguished predecessor of the great Kålidåsa. Only three works are agreed upon with certainty by Indologists as having been written by this AΩvagho≈a, among many other works preserved, mainly in Chinese and Tibetan translations, which bear his name. These are the Buddhacarita (Life of Buddha);6 Saundarananda (Nanda the Fair);7 and the ¸åri putraprakarana (Play on ¸åriputra). 8 The first two are classical Sanskrit

epics and the last is a drama discovered in Central Asia. No evidence of Mahayana thought can be detected in any of these works; they deal strictly with the doctrines of the Theravada or Hinayana branch of Buddhism. Since the Awakening of Faithis dominated by doctrines which did not appear until a few centuries after the time of AΩvagho≈a and which are typical of Mahayana thought, it is evident that the work could not have been written by the AΩvagho≈a we know. It remains an open question, however, whether the text was produced by some anonymous writer in the fifth or sixth century and was attributed to the great Indian poet, or whether it was written by some other man with the name of AΩvagho≈a. Just as there were at least two masters with the name Någårjuna, for example, one the founder of the Mådhyamaka school of Buddhism in the second century C.E., the other a master of later Tantric Buddhism, so it is not surprising that there should be more than one AΩvagho≈a. As a matter of fact, one commentary on the Awakening of Faithmentions six Buddhist teachers with the name AΩvagho≈a.

9 Moreover, we must keep in mind the traditional Indian attitudes toward authorship and the attribution thereof. xxiii

Translator's Introduction

Not only the discourses in the Påli canon, which are of fairly early origin, but the sutras of Mahayana Buddhism are represented as the words of the historical Buddha, though many of them date from several hundred years or more after the Buddha's death. Far from representing a spirit of irresponsibility or deceit, such attributions were made in a spirit of sincere piety. Unlike the modern author, who clamors for recognition, the sutra writers of ancient Buddhism deliberately e›aced their own identity for the greater glory of their religion. In appraising the work, it seems to be best to set aside the question of authorship and concentrate upon content. Unless some new historical evidence comes to light, we will probably never know who the author of the Awakening of Faithactually was.

The fact that AΩvagho≈a's name was attached to the text, however, undoubtedly has had much to do with its popularity. He is known in Chinese as Maming or "Horse-neighing,

" a literal translation of

aΩva-gho≈a";the name derives from the saying that his poems were so moving that when they were recited even the horses neighed in response. So great is the love and respect that AΩvagho≈a commanded as a poet and religious writer that he has been honored with the title of "Bodhisattva,

" and it is easy to imagine why any writer would be happy to bear such a name, or have such a name associated with the text he composed.

Paramårtha, the alleged translator of the text, is equally eminent, the translations credited to his name running to over 300 juan(fascicles) in volume. Paramårtha (499-569) was a monk from Ujjayini in West India who came to China over the southern sea route in 546. According to the Li dai san bao ji(A Record of the Triple Jewels Through the Successive Dynasties), a catalogue of Buddhist works compiled by Fei Changfang in 597, the Awakening of Faithwas translated by Paramårtha in 550. If this date is accepted—and if Para mårtha did indeed make the translation—we may assume that his knowledge of Chinese was, after only four years of residence in China, hardly su‡cient to the task and that he must have relied heavily upon Chinese assistants; in fact, it might be wiser to regard the work as an original composition in Chinese rather than a translation from the Sanskrit. xxiv

Translator's Introduction

Whatever the circumstances of its production, the text of the Awakening of Faithseems to have spread rapidly and to have been accepted without question as the work of AΩvagho≈a. Thus in the earliest extant commentary,

10 that of the monk Tanyan (516-588),

written in all probability between 581 and 587,

11 it is taken for granted

that it is the work of AΩvagho≈a and that the translation was made by Paramårtha. Eminent Buddhist monks of the sixth and seventh centuries, such as Jizang (549-623), quoted freely from the text, unhesitatingly attributing its authorship to AΩvagho≈a. It would appear, therefore, that Chinese readers of the time did not harbor any serious doubts about the authenticity of the text and the translation. Modern scholars are more skeptical. They point to the fact that another early catalogue of Buddhist translations, that compiled by Fajing in 594, lists the Awakening of Faithin the doubtful section. 12

They find further indication of its dubious nature in the fact that no Tibetan translation of the text exists, that there is no reliable evidence of its having circulated in India, and that certain elements of the text are similar to texts which have been identified as forgeries composed in China.

To make the situation more complicated, there is a second translation of the same text13 which is known to have been made by a monk named ¸ik≈ånanda about one hundred and fifty years after that of Paramårtha. This monk was a native of Khotan in Central Asia and died in China in 710. One rather doubtful source tells us that ¸ik≈å nanda brought the Sanskrit text of the Awakening of Faithwith him when he came to China and that he found another old Sanskrit manuscript of the work in China. 14 Another source claims that the Sanskrit

text from which ¸ik≈ånanda made his translation was in fact a translation into Sanskrit of the earlier Chinese version of the text and had been produced by the famous scholar and translator Xuanzang (602-664). 15 According to proponents of this theory, the existence of such a Sanskrit translation may be explained by a passage in the biography of Xuanzang in the Xugaosengzhuan(Further Biographies of Eminent Monks) by Daoxuan (596-667), which states that "upon the request of Indian priests, Xuanzang translated the text of the Awakening of xxv

Translator's Introduction

Faithfrom Chinese into Sanskrit and circulated it throughout all of India.

"16

Whatever its origin, this later version of the Awakening of Faith never enjoyed the same popularity as the earlier version attributed to Paramårtha. This may be seen from the fact that there is only one commentary on it in existence, the work of the famous Ming dynasty monk Zhixu (1599-1655). This second version of the text, if it in fact represents a new translation from a Sanskrit original, was obviously done with constant reference to the older version, from which it borrows words, phrases, or whole clauses with little or no modification. 17

Generally speaking, the di›erences between the two versions are so insignificant that they merit no detailed discussion here. It need only be noted that phrases or passages that are particularly di‡cult or ambiguous in the older version are often omitted in the later one, or replaced by passages which are more readily understandable. The later version is therefore smoother and easier to read, and may often be used as a kind of commentary on or interpretation of the earlier version, providing simple though often rather superficial solutions to the troublesome passages of the older text.

Among the standard commentaries on the Awakening of Faith, that of Huiyuan (523-592),

18 that written by the Korean monk Wπnhyo (617-686), 19 and that of Fazang (643-712)20 have been regarded as the finest. Among these, the last, by Fazang, has been accepted as the final authority for a correct understanding of the text. In Buddhism, not only texts but important commentaries as well have often been treated as the subject of intensive study, and this by Fazang on the Awakening of Faithhas been much discussed and commented upon. There is another important commentary on the Awakening of Faiththat deserves notice, for it too has been intensively studied and has inspired the writing of thirty-six subcommentaries. 21 This is the

commentary attributed to a man named Någår juna,

22 about whom

nothing is known. Because K¥kai (774-835), the founder of the Shingon school of Buddhism in Japan, made much use of this commentary in his systematization of Shingon doctrine and included it in the requirements for study for his students, it has played a role of parxxvi

Translator's Introduction

ticular importance in the history of Shingon Buddhism in Japan up to the present day.

The Awakening of Faithhas exerted a strong influence upon other schools of Buddhism as well. As we have already noted, Fazang, the third patriarch and the greatest systematizer of the Huayan school of Buddhism, wrote what was regarded as the definitive commentary on the Awakening of Faith, and moreover used this text as a foundation in creating his systematization of Huayan doctrine, 23 and for

this reason the text has often been thought of as peculiarly the property of the Huayan school. It is not surprising, therefore, that scholars of the Huayan school in China, Korea, and Japan have produced many works dealing with the text and with Fazang's interpretation of it. For example, Zongmi (780-841), the fifth patriarch of the Huayan school, also wrote a commentary on the Awakening of Faith and used its doctrines as a foundation in his attempts to synthesize the three religions of China, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, in his essay entitled Yuanrenlun (Essential Nature of Man). 24

The Awakening of Faith has also been highly esteemed in the Chan or Zen school of Buddhism. Shenxiu (d. 706), the leader of the so-called Northern School of Chan, made the text an essential part of his course of study,

25 and its influence is clearly discernible in later Chan teaching as well. Finally, because one passage in the text (see translation, p. 80) recommends the practice of faith in Amitåbha Buddha as an expedient means for the attainment of salvation, the Awakening of Faith has been highly esteemed by followers of the Pure Land school, which counsels implicit faith in the saving power of Amitåbha. Some scholars have questioned the authen ticity of this particular passage, however, and it is not clear what influence, if any, the text has had upon the development of Pure Land doctrine. One authority on Buddhism has even gone so far as to state that the philosophical ideas expressed in the Awakening of Faith,along with those of the schools of Consciousness Only (Wei-shi) and of Chan, played an important part in the development of Neo-Confucian thought in Song China.

26 If this last assertion is true, then it may be said that the Awakening of Faithhas had, both directly and indirectly, a truly xxvii

Translator's Introduction

great influence upon the thought and religion of the Far East. Content of the Text

The text opens with an invocation and closes with a prayer. What lies between, the main body of the work, is divided into five parts. In Part One, the author gives eight reasons for writing the work. In Part Two, he presents an outline that is to be developed and elaborated upon in the discussions that follow. In Part Three, he takes up the theoretical tenets of Mahayana doctrine listed in the outline; in Part Four, the practical applications of the theories discussed in the preceding section; and in Part Five, the specific types of devotional practice recommended by the author and the benefits to be received therefrom. The contents of the text have traditionally been summarized as a discourse on "One Mind, Two Aspects, Three Greatnesses, Four Faiths, and Five Practices.

" This summary does not touch upon all

the points mentioned in the work, but it nevertheless serves as a convenient guide to its principal tenets. As such, it has proved useful to those who are giving instruction in the text and has traditionally been recommended to novices for memorization. The summary links up to the parts of the text in the following manner: Subjects of Discussion Parts of the Text

(theoretical)

One Mind Part Two: Outline

Two Aspects of One Mind Part Three:

Three Greatnesses of One Mind Interpretation

}

(practical)

Four Faiths Part Four: Faith

Five Practices Part Four: Practice

Among these five subjects, the most di‡cult to understand is the first, the concept of One Mind. The following two subjects impose much less di‡culty on the reader providing he or she has correctly understood the first subject, and the last two subjects, dealing as they xxviii

Translator's Introduction

do with practice rather than theory, present almost no di‡culty at all. It may be useful to the reader, therefore, to present here some explanatory remarks upon this key concept of One Mind, and its relationship to the two aspects that constitute the second subject. In the author's system of thought, the all-inclusive reality, the unconditional absolute, is called suchness. When it engages the realms of being, it is expressed in terms of Mind, i.e., One Mind, the Mind of sentient being, the essential nature of Mind, etc. The Mind, therefore, represents the absolute as it is expressed in the temporal order. The Mind necessarily contains within itself two orders or aspects— the transcendental and the phenomenal, the universal and the particular, the infinite and the finite, the static and the dynamic, the sacred and the profane, the absolute and the relative, and so forth. The absolute order, therefore, does not exist apart from the relative order; rather, they di›er epistemologically but not ontologically. Human beings are presented as being located at the intersection of these opposing orders. The state of human beings, who belong intrinsically to the absolute order and yet in actuality remains in the phenomenal, finite, and profane order, is expressed in terms of the tathågatagarbha or "matrix of Tathågata. " An understanding of this

important term may prove to be the clue to the comprehension of the entire text.

The concept of the "matrix of Tathågata" grew up out of attempts to explain how human beings, while residing in the temporal order, at the same time may possess the potential ability to instate or reinstate themselves in the infinite order; that is, in Buddhist terms, to attain enlightenment; or, in more popular terms, to gain salvation. The term Tathågata was originally one of the epithets given to the historical Buddha, ¸åkyamuni, but it later came to be used in Mahayana Buddhism in a much broader sense. In the compound tathågatagarbha, it denotes suchness, the absolute, or the Eternal Buddha (dharmakåya). The word garbha,meaning a matrix, germ, or embryo, symbolizes the receptacle of Tathågata or the absolute. It is suchness in human beings, the Buddha-nature that is a part of the intrinsic nature of all humans, the element of original enlightenment, the xxix

Translator's Introduction

potentiality for salvation that waits to be actualized. This concept of the "matrix of Tathågata" had been unknown in the earlier form of Buddhism, the Theravada, often referred to somewhat derogatorily by the Mahayanists as the Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle. Even among the Mahayana thinkers of India it did not develop as an independent system or school of thought in the way that the Mådhyamaka or Yogåcåra did, though the concept is explicitly manifested in various Mahayana sutras and other writings, especially in the later Tantric Buddhist texts. It was the Chinese monk Fazang who, in his definitive commentary on the Awakening of Faith,for the first time drew attention to great importance of this concept, to which he felt proper notice had hitherto not been paid either in India or China In the introduction to his commentary to the Awakening of Faith,

27 Fazang made an attempt to classify all Indian Buddhism under the following four categories: 1) Hinayana, 2) Mådhyamaka, 3) Yogåcåra, and 4) tathågatagarbha. As the important works belonging to the last, he lists such texts as the Lankåvatåra-s¥tra, 28 the Ratna gotra-Ωåstra,

29 and the Awakening of Faith,with a short remark that this doctrine represents the theory of the interpenetration of the universal (li) and the particular (shi). In the introduction to his publication of the Sanskrit text of the Ratnagotra-Ωåstra,the editor, E. H.Johnston, remarks on the essentials of the text:

The ultimate reality consists of an Absolute, called the dharma kåya, but which has several other names to indicate various aspects of it such as Tathågata, tathatå, dharmadhåtu; the sattvadhåtu,the sphere of individual, phenomenal existence, is merely the dharmadhåtuin its temporal aspect, which is to be found in each being of the sattvadhåtuin the shape of the Tathågata-garbha.The latter is defined as the cittaprakriti[essential nature of Mind], which is pariΩuddha [pure], that is, not only pure from all time but incapable of defilement, and prabhå svara, "radiant,

" implying presumably that it is spiritual, not material, in essence.

This remark can immediately be applied to the concept of the xxx

Translator's Introduction

"matrix of Tathågata" as it is expressed in the Awakening of Faith. From the point of view of the history of Buddhist thought, the Awakening of Faithmay be regarded as representing the highest point in the development of the tathågatagarbha concept in Mahayana Buddhism.

The basic assumption of the text is the belief in the absolute, which, as we have seen, is at the same time both transcendental and immanent. What is real is suchness alone; all else is unreal, a mere appearance only, because it is relative, being devoid of independent self-nature or own-being. Metaphysically, the author may be defined as taking the stand of monism; dualism, pluralism, materialism, and nihilism are all alike rejected. However, to define the author's view in such a way would, we must remember, not be acceptable from his own point of view, for, according to his views, to advocate any "ism" at all is merely another type of biased and partial approach which may in fact blind one. The approach of the text is dialectical and iconoclastic, yet in the end essentially religious. What may be baffling to the reader of the translation is the abundant use of underdefined, sometimes undefined, terms that may be regarded as belonging to the vocabulary of theology, epistemology, psychology, or even biology. The di‡culty results basically from the monistic outlook of the text, as well as in part from the author's attitude toward his work. The entire text, in a sense, is an outline that necessarily requires further elucidation and exegesis. The e›ort of the author to present his outline as succinctly as possible has resulted in insu‡cient definition of the terms used and underdeveloped argument. Furthermore, the author has made an attempt to systematize all phases of Mahayana teaching and practice under the simplest, most fundamental, yet universal formulas, with the use of various religious, philosophical, and psychological terms that represent many di›erent trends in the Mahayana teaching of his time. The attitude to take when reading the text is, perhaps, to understand the symbolical significance of these terms in context and the intention of the argument, putting as much aside as much as possible the more comxxxi

Translator's Introduction

monly accepted definitions of such terms.

The text, as we have noted, sets out to give a concise logically ordered summary of Mahayana doctrine. It therefore deliberately eschews most of the literary devices flourishes which characterize so many of the Mahayana sutras and other texts of Indian Buddhism. There are no anecdotes or dramatic episodes, no poems or descriptive passages. Even the fondness for hyperbole which is such a marked characteristic of the Indian mind figures only in vestigial form in such conventional expressions as "defilements more numerous than the sands of the Ganges [River].

" The text accordingly lacks the imaginativeness and rich imagery of the great Mahayana sutras, but it also avoids their repetitiousness and unwieldy proportions. Its virtues are concision, orderliness of presention, and—within the limitations of its rather obscure terminology—logic of ideas. To the best of the translator's knowledge, there are three English translations of the Awakening of Faith. One was done by Dr. D. T. Suzuki in 1900 from the later Chinese translation attributed to ¸ik≈ånanda;32 the other two were done by Rev. Timothy Richard in 1907,

33 and by Bhik≈u Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard in 1937, 34 both

from the older Chinese translation of Paramårtha. It is in a way unfortunate that Dr. Suzuki's translation done from the later Chinese text, which has not played a significant role in traditional Buddhism, though Dr. Suzuki lists in his footnotes some of the important disagreements between the new and the old versions of the text. His translation, nevertheless, is the most reliable among the three.

The translation done by Rev. Timothy Richard su›ers from an attempt to read Christianity into the text. Mr. Richard found a striking similarity between the religious thought of the text and that of Christianity. In his introduction he remarks: If it be, as it is more and more believed, that the Mahayana Faith is not Buddhism, properly so called, but an Asiatic form of the same Gospel of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, in Buddhist nomenclature, di›ering from the old Buddhism just xxxii

Translator's Introduction

as the New Testament di›ers from the Old, then it commands a world-wide interest, for in it we find an adaptation of Christianity to ancient thought in Asia, and the deepest bond of union between the di›erent races of the East and the West, viz., the bond of a common religion.… The almost universal reception of the doctrines contained in this book by both the East and the West constitutes to my mind its highest claim to our attention. 35

Though, as may be judged from these remarks, the translator is extremely sympathetic to the text, his translation inevitably is more Christian than Buddhist in tone.

The translation made by Bhik≈u Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard su›ers from an excessive freedom in rendition. The translators claim that "the teaching of [AΩvagho≈a] is seen now for the first time in its true colors as a profoundly inspiring psychological appeal designed to awaken faith in the minds of all seekers for Truth. "36 To the present

writer, however, it seems that these two translators have done their work rather too freely. To begin with, the translation is incomplete. In addition, it is often di‡cult to identify the translated passages with the original, and there are many interpolations and unwarranted interpretations. The text being logical rather than aesthetic in nature, this type of translation is hardly satisfactory.

The purpose of the present translation, done from the old text of Paramårtha, is to present as accurate as possible translation of the text as it is interpreted in the light of the traditional commentaries, at the same time taking into consideration the results of modern critical scholarship on the text and the history of Buddhist thought in general. An e›ort has been made to translate the text so as to make it easily accessible to the general reader, but the demands of specialists, who will be comparing it with the original, have also been kept in mind. As a result, the translation is more literal than literary. The translator's main concerns have been philological accuracy and correctness in the interpretation of ideas. He does not flatter himself that he has been successful in all cases, however. A text of such di‡culty and conciseness of language may be interpreted in many xxxiii

Translator's Introduction

ways depending upon the translator's karma—his predisposition, mentality, life experience, etc. The translation of this type of text, in fact, is not so much a question of technical skill in translating as of the understanding and interpretation of the text. This, translation, therefore, is o›ered as no more than another attempt, to be improved upon by others.

In order to aid the reader in an understanding of the ideas and technical terms of the text, the translator has inserted lines or paragraphs of explanation at appropriate points in the body of the translation, which, it is hoped, will allow the reader to keep abreast of the logical development of the argument and save him or her the trouble of constantly referring to footnotes. These explanatory comments are [marked "Translator's Note" and] set in [italicized] type. Bracketed words also have been inserted before and after the terse and suggestive passages whenever it was felt that supplementary information was necessary in order to help the reader grasp their meanings. The explanations in the brackets are often based upon the classical commentaries. Material in the footnotes is limited to source references and other information intended mainly for the specialist. The text used in this translation is that found in the Taishø edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka, No. 1666. Among the Chinese commentaries, that written by Fazang (643-712) has been used most frequently because of its intrinsic value and the position of authority that has been accorded it in traditional Buddhist studies. Among modern works on the text, those by Itø Kazuo, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Ui Hakuju, and Shih Yinshun have proved most useful for a basic understanding of the text. A selected bibliography listing these and other important works on the text has been provided at the end of the translation for further reference.

xxxiv

THE AWAKENING OF FAITH

Invocation

I take refuge in [the Buddha,] the greatly Compassionate One, the savior of the world, omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, of most excellent deeds in all the ten directions;

And in [the Dharma, the manifestation of his essence, the reality, the sea of suchness, the boundless storehouse of excellencies; [And in the Sangha, whose members] truly devote themselves to the practice,

May all sentient beings be made to discard their doubts, cast aside their evil attachments, and give rise to the correct faith in the Mahayana, that the lineage of the Buddhas may not be broken o›. Translator's Note: The text opens with an invocation reflecting the traditional pattern universally adopted by all Buddhists throughout the ages, the manifesto of acceptance of and devotion to the Three Treasures (triratna)—the Buddha, the Dharma (the teaching), and the Sangha (the Buddhist community). This expression of the author's resolution is followed by a prayer that the purpose of the writing of this book may be fulfilled. "Suchness" is a

synonym of the absolute, zhenruin Chinese, tathatåor bh¥tatathatåin Sanskrit, which may be translated literally as "

real

suchness,

" "true suchness,

" "the state that is really so,

" etc. For

the sake of brevity, and in agreement with more or less established usage, the rendition

suchness" is adopted here.

575b12

The Contents of the Discourse

There is a teaching (Dharma) that can awaken in us the root of faith in the Mahayana, and it should therefore be explained. The explanation is divided into five parts. They are 1) the Reasons for Writing; 2) the Outline; 3) the Interpretation; 4) on Faith and Practice; 5) the Encouragement of Practice and the Benefits Thereof. 3

Part One

The Reasons for Writing

Someone may ask the reasons why I was led to write this treatise. I reply: there are eight reasons.

The first and the main reason is to cause human beings to free themselves from all su›ering and to gain the final bliss; it is not that I desire worldly fame, material profit, or respect and honor. The second reason is that I wish to interpret the fundamental meaning [of the teachings] of the Tathågata so that people may understand them correctly and not be mistaken about them. Translator's Note: "Tathågata" in this context is used as one of the epithets of the Buddha, the Awakened One, and is usually interpreted as

"Thus come,

" "Thus gone,

" or by some as

"One who

has come from the truth or the absolute.

The third reason is to enable those whose capacity for goodness has attained maturity to keep firm hold upon a nonretrogressive faith in the teachings of the Mahayana.

The fourth reason is to encourage those whose capacity for goodness is still slight to cultivate the faithful mind. The fifth reason is to show them expedient means (upåya) by which they may wipe away the hindrance of evil karma, guard their minds well, free themselves from stupidity and arrogance, and escape from the net of heresy.

The sixth reason is to reveal to them the practice [of two methods of meditation], cessation [of illusions] and clear observation (Ωamathaand vipaΩyanå;Ch., zhiguan), so that ordinary people and the followers of the Hinayana may cure their minds of error. The seventh reason is to explain to them the expedient means of singleminded meditation (sm®ti) so that they may be born in 5

575c

The Awakening of Faith

the presence of the Buddha and keep their minds fixed in a nonretrogressive faith. The eighth reason is to point out to them the advantage [of studying this treatise] and to encourage them to make an e›ort [to attain enlightenment]. These are the reasons for which I write this treatise.

Question:What need is there to repeat the explanation of the teaching when it is presented in detail in the sutras? Answer:Though this teaching is presented in the sutras, the capacity and the deeds of people today are no longer the same, nor are the conditions of their acceptance and comprehension. That is to say, in the days when the Tathågata was in the world, people were of high aptitude and the Preacher excelled in his form, mind, and deeds, so that once he had preached with his perfect voice, di›erent types of people all equally understood; hence, there was no need for this kind of discourse. But after the passing away of the Tathågata, there were some who were able by their own power to listen extensively to others and to reach understanding; there were some who by their own power could listen to very little and yet understand much; there were some who, without an mental power of their own, depended upon the extensive discourses of others to obtain understanding; and naturally there were some who looked upon the wordiness of extensive discourses as troublesome, and who sought after what was comprehensive, terse, and yet contained much meaning, and then were able to understand it. Thus, this discourse is designed to embrace, in a general way, the limitless meaning of the vast and profound teaching of the Tathågata. This discourse, therefore, should be presented.

Part Two

Outline

The reasons for writing have been explained. Next the outline will be given. Generally speaking, the Mahayana is to be expounded from two points of view. One is the principle and the other is the significance.

Translator's Note: It should be noted that the term "Mahayana"

here is not used in the usual sense of the word, that is, Mahayana versus Hinayana. According to the definition given in the discussion immediately following, Mahayana designates suchness or the absolute. The title of the text, the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana,should therefore be understood as the "Awakening of Faith

in the Absolute,

" not in Mahayana Buddhism as distinguished from Hinayana Buddhism.

The principle is ''the Mind of the sentient being. " This Mind

includes in itself all states of being of the phenomenal world and the transcendental world. On the basis of this Mind, the meanings of the Mahayana may be unfolded. Why? Because the absolute aspect of this Mind represents the essence (svabhåva) of the Mahayana; and the phenomenal aspect of this Mind indicates the essence, attributes (lak≈ana) and influences (kriyå) of the Mahayana itself. 37

Translator's Note: The term

"Mind" is used neither as the individual mental faculty nor as mind contrasted with matter. It symbolizes the metaphysical principle as defined in the Introduction (see pp. xxvi-xxvii). When the term "

mind" is thought to be used

in this particular sense, the first letter will be capitalized. Some of the synonyms for the

"Mind of the sentient being" are tathågatagarbha, "the essential nature of Mind,

" "One Mind,

" and "the fountainhead of Mind.

" Though they differ in nuance and emphasis, these expressions mean the same thing. This introduction of the 7

The Awakening of Faith

principle is abrupt, but no doubt it is intended to impress upon the reader the importance of an awareness of the intrinsic value of the human being as being grounded on the absolute. Though the term

sentient being" is used for the sake of universal significance, it is obvious that it refers to human beings. This paragraph gives the outline to be developed in the discussion in Part Three, Chapter I, "Revelation of True Meaning.

The term translated as

phenomenal aspect" is literally

primary

cause (hetu) and conditions (coordinating causes; pratyaya)[for a sentient being to remain only] in the order of birth and death (phenomenal order; samsara), and the characteristics (lak≈ana) [of a sentient being in samsara].

" This will be discussed in detail

later under the two headings,

"The Cause and Conditions of

Humanity's Being in Samsara" and "The Characteristics of Beings in Samsara.

At first glance this outline may appear to be lines of ciphers. Be that as it may, the important thing is that here the Mind is discussed from two viewpoints: the absolute and the phenomenal. As for the absolute aspect, only essence (unconditional and selfidentical substance or being) is mentioned; but in the case of the phenomenal aspect, essence, attributes, and influences are listed. That which is common in the two aspects is the essence; the attributes and influences belong only to the phenomenal aspect of the Mind and not to the absolute aspect.

Of the significance [of the adjective mahå(great) in the compound, mahåyåna], there are three aspects: 1) the "greatness" of the essence, for all phenomena (dharmas) are identical with suchness and are neither increasing nor decreasing; 2) the "greatness" of the attributes, for the tathågatagarbhais endowed with numberless excellent qualities; 3) the "greatness" of the influences, for the influences [of suchness] give rise to the good causes and e›ects in this and in the other world alike.

Translator's Note: "The significance of the adjective mahå" is discussed in detail in Part Three, Chapter I, Section II, under the 8

Part Two

three categories: "The Greatness of the Essence of Suchness, " "The

Greatness of the Attributes of Suchness, " and "The Greatness of the Influences of Suchness. "

Tathågatagarbha is an immanent aspect of the absolute (tathatå)in the phenomenal order, in contradistinction to the transcendental aspect of it in the absolute order; in other words, it is the intrinsic Buddha-nature in all sentient beings yet to be actualized. On tathågatagarbha,see the Introduction, pp. xxvii-xxviii. [The significance of the term yåna(vehicle) in the compound, mahåyåna.The term yånais introduced] because all Enlightened Ones (Buddhas) have ridden [on this vehicle], and all Enlightened Ones-to-be (bodhisattvas), being led by this principle, will reach the stage of Tathågata. Translator's Note: "The significance of the term yåna"is elaborated upon in terms of theory in Part Three, Chapter III, "Analysis

of the Types of Aspiration for Enlightenment, " and in terms of practice in Part Four, "On Faith and Practice. "

576a

9 9 9

Part Three

Interpretation

The part on outline has been given; next the part on interpretation [of the principle of the Mahayana] will be given. It consists of three chapters: 1) Revelation of the True Meaning; 2) Correction of Evil Attachments; 3) Analysis of the Types of Aspiration for Enlightenment. Chapter I

Revelation of True Meaning I. One Mind and Its Two Aspects The revelation of the true meaning [of the principle of the Mahayana can be achieved] by [unfolding the doctrine] that the principle of One Mind has two aspects. One is the aspect of Mind in terms of the absolute (tathatå;suchness), and the other is the aspect of Mind in terms of phenomena (samsara; birth and death). Each of these two aspects embraces all states of existence. Why? Because these two aspects are mutually inclusive. Translator's Note: The most authoritative interpreter, Fazang, defines

"One Mind (ekacitta; Ch., yixin)" as thetathatågarbha. 38

It should be noted that " one" is used to indicate "

absolute" in the

sense of "

one without any second, " not one among many. On One Mind, see the Introduction, pp. xxvi-xxvii. 11

The Awakening of Faith

"Because these two aspects are mutually inclusive": Reality is conceived as the intersection of the absolute order and the phenomenal order; therefore, it contains in itself both the absolute and the phenomenal order at once. The absolute order is thought to be transcendental and yet is conceived as not being outside of the phenomenal order. Again the phenomenal order is thought to be temporal and yet is conceived as not being outside of the absolute order. In other words, they are ontologically identical; they are two aspects of one and the same reality. Perhaps the most famous and simplest statement of the relationship between the absolute and the phenomenal order can be found in the sayings of Någårjuna (second century C.E.), e.g.,

"There is no difference whatsoever between nirvana (absolute) and samsara (phenomena); there is no difference whatsoever between samsara and nirvana.

"39

A. The Mind in Terms of the Absolute

The Mind in terms of the absolute is the one world of reality (dharma dhåtu) and the essence of all phases of existence in their totality.

Translator's Note: Fazang says of the phrase

"in their totality":

"Because the two aspects of One Mind, i.e., the absolute aspect and the phenomenal aspect, are not differentiated, but include each other, the words

'in their totality' are used. The one world of reality is nothing but the world of samsara. At the same time the world of samsara is nothing but the world of the absolute. In order to indicate these meanings, the essence which is the same in both aspects is mentioned.

"41

That which is called "the essential nature of the Mind" is unborn and is imperishable. It is only through illusions that all things come to be di›erentiated. If one is freed from illusions, then to him there will be no appearances (lak≈ana) of objects [regarded as absolutely independent existences]; therefore all things from the beginning transcend all forms of verbalization, description, 12

Part Three

and conceptualization and are, in the final analysis, undi›erentiated, free from alteration, and indestructible. They are only of the One Mind; hence the name suchness. All explanations by words are provisional and without validity, for they are merely used in accordance with illusions and are incapable [of denoting suchness]. The term suchness likewise has no attributes [which can be verbally specified]. The term suchness is, so to speak, the limit of verbalization wherein a word is used to put an end to words. But the essence of suchness itself cannot be put an end to, for all things [in their absolute aspect] are real; nor is there anything which needs to be pointed out as real, for all things are equally in the state of suchness. It should be understood that all things are incapable of being verbally explained or thought of; hence, the name suchness.

Translator's Note: "Unborn (anutpanna)" is a technical term used in the sense of "beyond time determination. " For further discussion on

unborn,

" see p. 58.

The statement that the absolute transcends all modes of thought is constantly repeated in the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. The ideas expressed in the preceding several lines are found in terse presentation in the following passage by Någårjuna: "While

the object of thought is absent predication ceases; for, just as in the case cf nirvana, the essential nature of all things (dharmatådharma-svabhåva), which is neither born nor perishes, cannot be predicated.

"42

In regard to the sentence,

"The term suchness is, so to speak,

the limit of verbalization wherein a word is used to put an end to words,

" a Korean monk, Wπnhyo, in his commentary on this text written in the early part of the eighth century says, "It is just as

though one stops the voices with a voice. "43Following this comment

by Wπnhyo, Fazang explains,

"It is just like saying 'Be quiet!' If

this voice were not there, other voices would not be made to cease. "44

The term suchness (tathatå)is symbolic. It is an index to that which is transcendental; it is a provisional device of language on 13 13 13

The Awakening of Faith

576b

the conceptual plane used in an attempt to establish some sort of communication in a realm where all verbal communication fails. Question:If such is the meaning [of the principle of the Mahayana], how is it possible for people to conform themselves to and enter into it?

Answer:If they understand that, concerning all things, though they are spoken of, there is neither that which speaks, nor that which can be spoken of, and though they are thought of, there is neither that which thinks, nor that which can be thought of, then they are said to have conformed to it. And when they are freed from their thoughts, they are said to have entered into it. Next, suchness has two aspects if predicated in words. One is that it is truly empty (Ω¥nya), for [this aspect] can, in the final sense, reveal what is real. The other is that it is truly nonempty (aΩ¥nya), for its essence itself is endowed with undefiled and excellent qualities. 45

Translator's Note: To paraphrase in more familiar terms, Ω¥nyaapproach" may be replaced by "

negative approach" which rejects

any affirmative identification of the absolute with any mode of thought; and "aΩ¥nya-approach" by

positive approach" which

affirms the absolute by means of its attributes and influences. The two approaches are regarded in the text as complementary. 1. Truly Empty

[Suchness is empty] because from the beginning it has never been related to any defiled states of existence, it is free from all marks of individual distinction of things, and it has nothing to do with thoughts conceived by a deluded mind. It should be understood that the essential nature of suchness is neither with marks nor without marks; neither not with marks nor not without marks; nor is it both with and without marks simultaneously; it is neither with a single mark nor with di›erent marks; neither not with a single mark nor not with di›erent marks; nor is it both with a single [mark] and with di›erent marks simultaneously. 14

Part Three

Translator's Note: This effort at negation of any predication of the essential nature of suchness is typical of Buddhist ways of thought since early times. Beginning with the famous silence of the Buddha on questions such as whether the universe is permanent or impermanent, or whether the universe is limited or unlimited, this attitude has been maintained by Buddhist thinkers. In particular, in a group of sutras known as the Prajñåpårmitå or [Perfection of] Wisdom sutras, the oldest stratum of which belongs to the formative stage of Mahayana Buddhism in the first or second century B.C.E., the negative approach was ruthlessly emphasized. Någårjuna formulated, on the basis of the [Perfection of] Wisdom sutras, the pattern for refuting any false identification of that which is beyond, so that the absolute remains absolute and is not brought down to the level of the finite. He gives four alternative predications in order to show the absurdity of affirming any of them. The basic alternatives are two: being and nonbeing, i.e., affirmation and negation. Based on these two alternatives, two more predications are possible by affirming or denying both at once: both being and nonbeing, and neither being nor nonbeing. These four alternatives are negated in the beginning of the sentence; further elaborations follow.

In short, since all unenlightened people discriminate with their deluded minds from moment to moment, they are alienated [from suchness]; hence, the definition "empty"; but once they are free from their deluded minds, they will find that there is nothing to be negated.

2. Truly Nonempty

Since it has been made clear that the essence of all things is empty, i.e., devoid of illusions, the true Mind is eternal, permanent, immutable, pure, and self-su‡cient; therefore, it is called "nonempty. " And also there is no trace of particular marks to be noted in it, as it is the sphere that transcend thoughts and is in harmony with enlightenment alone.

15 15

The Awakening of Faith Translator's Note: This is one of the applications of the method of argument known as

affirmation is negation and negation is affirmation. " For example, to say that "this is a pen" is to deny that "this is a teacup.

" To say that "this is not blue" is to affirm that "this is of some color other than blue. " To say that "

suchness is

empty" is to suggest that suchness is something which defies any conceptualization; i.e., to say that suchness is not this, not that, etc., is to say that suchness is transcendental, empty of concepts. But this negation does not exclude the possibility of suchness being seen elsewhere or from a different view or order with which one is not accustomed. Hence there is room to present suchness, if it is done symbolically, as eternal, permanent, immutable, etc. "Emptiness" does

not mean

nonexistence" literally; it is usually used in the sense of, "

empty of or devoid of a distinct, absolute, independent, permanent, individual entity or being as an irreducible component in a pluralistic world,

" or of "

empty of all predications. " According to this way of thinking, even

nonbeing" is a

"being,

" as it is contingent upon "being.

" The term

empty" results from a dialectic consciousness of transcending this dichotomy of "being" and " nonbeing.

" In order

to prevent the danger of interpreting " emptiness" as nonbeing or as an advocation of nihilism, Någårjuna says, "Emptiness (Ω¥nyatå), ill conceived, destroys a stupid person, as would a snake when handled improperly, or a spell badly executed. "47

B. The Mind in Terms of Phenomena 1. The Storehouse Consciousness The Mind as phenomena (samsara) is grounded on the tathågatagarbha. 48What is called the storehouse consciousness is that in which "neither birth nor death (nirvana)" di›uses harmoniously with "birth and death (samsara), " and yet in which both are neither identical nor di›erent. This consciousness has two aspects that embrace all states of existence and create all states of existence. They are: 1) the aspect of enlightenment, and 2) the aspect of nonenlightenment.

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Translator's Note: "The storehouse consciousness (ålayavijñåna)": According to the Yogåcåra school of Mahayana Buddhism, the system of perception, mind, ego-consciousness, and subconscious mind is divided into eight categories: the five sense perceptions, vijñåna(mind), mano-vijñåna(ego-consciousness), and ålaya-vijñåna(storehouse consciousness). The relationship that exists between the storehouse consciousness and suchness— whether they are identical or nonidentical—has been a subject of great contention among the sectarian scholars. What is essential here, according to the text, is that the storehouse consciousness be defined as the place of intersection of the absolute order and of the phenomenal order, or enlightenment and nonenlightenment, in human beings.

a. The Aspect of Enlightenment

(1) Original Enlightenment.The essence of Mind is free from thoughts. The characteristic of that which is free from thoughts is analogous to that of the sphere of empty space that pervades everywhere. The one [without any second, i.e., the absolute] aspect of the world of reality (dharmadhåtu) is none other than the undi›erentiated dharmakåya,the "essence body" of the Tathågata. [Since the essence of Mind is] grounded on the dharmakåya, it is to be called the original enlightenment. Why? Because "original enlightenment" indicates [the essence of Mind (a priori)] in contradistinction to [the essence of Mind in) the process of actualization of enlightenment; the process of actualization of enlightenment is none other than [the process of integrating] the identity with the original enlightenment.

Translator's Note: "The process of actualization of enlightenment, " if translated literally, is the

"inception of enlightenment.

By this expression the author denotes the entire process from the inception of enlightenment or awakening to the full realization of enlightenment.

(2) The Process of Actualization of Enlightenment.Grounded 17 17 17

The Awakening of Faith

on the original enlightenment is nonenlightenment. And because of nonenlightenment, the process of actualization of enlightenment can be spoken of.

Translator's Note: Original enlightenment is intrinsic, but nonenlightenment is accidental. The latter is the unactualized state of the same original enlightenment. That is to say, human beings are originally enlightened or saved, but suffer because they do not realize that they are enlightened or saved and continue on as blind or faithless persons, groping for enlightenment or salvation elsewhere. The premise is that if human beings are not enlightened or saved originally, there is no possibility of their attaining enlightenment or salvation at all.

Now, to be [fully] enlightened to the fountainhead of Mind is called the final enlightenment; and not to be enlightened to the fountainhead of Mind, nonfinal enlightenment.

What is the meaning of this? An ordinary person becomes aware that his former thoughts were wrong; then he is able to stop (nirodha) such thoughts from arising again. Although this sometimes may also be called enlightenment, [properly it is not enlightenment at all] because it is not enlightenment [that reaches the fountainhead of Mind].

The followers of the Hinayana, who have some insight, and those bodhisattvas who have just been initiated become aware of the changing state (anyathåtva) of thoughts and are free from thoughts which are subject to change [such as the existence of a permanent self (atman), etc.]. Since they have forsaken the rudimentary attachments derived from unwarranted speculation (vikalpa), [their experience] is called enlightenment in appearance. Bodhisattvas [who have come to the realization] of the dharma kåyabecome aware of the [temporarily] abiding state (sthiti) of thoughts and are not arrested by them. Since they are free from their rudimentary [false] thoughts derived from the speculation [that the components of the world are real, their experience] is 18

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called approximate enlightenment.

Those bodhisattvas who have completed the stages of a bodhisattva and who have fulfilled the expedient means [needed to bring forth the original enlightenment to the fullest extent] will experience the oneness [with suchness] in an instant; they will become aware of how the inceptions of [the deluded thoughts of the mind arise (jåti), and will be free from the rise of any [deluded] thought. Since they are far away even from subtle [deluded] thoughts, they are able to have an insight into the original nature of Mind. [The realization] that Mind is eternal is called the final enlightenment. It is, therefore, said in a sutra that if there is a man who is able to perceive that which is beyond thoughts, he is advancing toward the Buddha wisdom.

Translator's Note: Here the author applies, in the analysis of the process of the actualization of enlightenment, the four characteristic states of existence, in reverse order. The four characteristic states (avasthå)are: 1) arising—the coming into existence analogous to the birth of a child (jati);2) abiding—the state of continuity in growth analogous to the stage from childhood to manhood (sthiti); 3) change—the stage of changing periods analogous to the period from the prime of life to old age (anyathåtva);and 4) stopping— the period of senility and destruction (nirodha).These four characteristic states, when used in a cosmic sense, designate one cycle of the cosmic age that continues with infinite repetition. This application of the four characteristic states of existence in reverse order for the description of the process of the actualization of enlightenment seems to be unknown elsewhere. The simile of a dream, or of mistaking a rope for a snake, treasured especially in the writings of the Yogåcåra school of Buddhism, might be helpful in understanding the first sentence of the last paragraph, which is insufficiently explained. To illustrate, only when awake can one realize the true nature of a dream; while dreaming one is not aware that one is dreaming. Being aware that it was a dream, one can be free from the dream. Similarly, only when a cor-19 19 19

576c

The Awakening of Faith

rect view is established can one realize that one's former views were wrong and be able to understand why wrong views were entertained on certain partial or incorrect assumptions. Only then will one be free from the rise of any deluded thoughts.

Though it is said that there is [an inception of] the rising of [deluded) thoughts in the mind, there is no inception as such that can be known [as being independent of the essence of Mind]. And yet to say that the inception [of the rising of deluded thoughts] is known means that it is known as [existing on the ground of] that which is beyond thoughts [i.e., the essence of Mind]. Accordingly, all ordinary people are said not to be enlightened because they have had a continuous stream of [deluded] thoughts and have never been freed from their thoughts; therefore, they are said to be in a beginningless ignorance. If a person gains [insight into] that which is free from thoughts, then he knows how those [thoughts] that characterize the mind [i.e., deluded thoughts] arise, abide, change, and cease to be, for he is identical with that which is free from thoughts. But, in reality, no di›erence exists in the process of the actualization of enlightenment, because the four states [of rising, abiding, etc.] exist simultaneously and each of them is not self-existent; they are originally of one and the same enlightenment [in that they are taking place on the ground of original enlightenment, as its phenomenal aspects]. And, again, original enlightenment, when analyzed in relation to the defiled state [in the phenomenal order], presents itself as having two attributes. One is the "purity of wisdom" and the other is the "suprarational functions.

Translator's Note: Purity of wisdom and the suprarational functions of the absolute, or enlightenment, can be discussed only in relation to phenomena, or nonenlightenment. About the absolute, or enlightenment, in its totally transcendental aspect, nothing can be said.

(a) Purity of Wisdom. By virtue of the permeation (våsanå, 20

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perfuming) of the influence of Dharma [i.e., the essence of Mind or original enlightenment], a person comes to truly discipline himself and fulfills all expedient means [of unfolding enlightenment]; as a result, he breaks through the compound consciousness (i.e., the storehouse consciousness that contains both enlightenment and nonenlightenment), puts an end to the manifestation of the stream of [deluded] mind, and manifests the dharmakåya(i.e., the essence of Mind), for his wisdom (prajñå) becomes genuine and pure. What is the meaning of this? All modes (lak≈ana) of mind and consciousness [under the state of nonenlightenment] are [the products of] ignorance. Ignorance does not exist apart from enlightenment; therefore, it cannot be destroyed [because one cannot destroy something that does not really exist], and yet it cannot not be destroyed [insofar as it remains]. This is like the relationship that exists between the water of the ocean (i.e., enlightenment) and its waves (i.e., modes of mind) stirred by the wind (i.e., ignorance). Water and wind are inseparable; but water is not mobile by nature, and if the wind stops the movement ceases. But the wet nature remains undestroyed. Likewise, a person's Mind, pure in its own nature, is stirred by the wind of ignorance. Both Mind and ignorance have no particular forms of their own and they are inseparable. Yet Mind is not mobile by nature, and if ignorance ceases, then the continuity [of deluded activities] ceases. But the essential nature of wisdom (i.e., the essence of Mind, like the wet nature of the water) remains undestroyed.

(b) Suprarational Functions. [He who has fully uncovered the original enlightenment] is capable of creating all manner of excellent conditions because his wisdom is pure. The manifestation of his numberless excellent qualities is incessant; accommodating himself to the capacity of other people he responds spontaneously, reveals himself in manifold ways, and benefits them. (3) The Characteristics of the Essence of Enlightenment.The characteristics of the essence of enlightenment have four great significances that are identical with those of empty space or that 21 21 21

The Awakening of Faith

are analogous to those of a bright mirror.

First, [the essence of enlightenment is like] a mirror that is really empty [of images]. It is free from all marks of objects of the mind and it has nothing to reveal in itself, for it does not reflect any images.

Translator's Note: From the absolute point of view, the plurality of particulars does not exist. What exists is the absolute only, just as space is one without any second. Division of space is man-made, the result of thought construction made for the sake of convenience; intrinsically it is nonexistent.

Second, [it is, as it were] a mirror, influencing (våsanå) [all human beings to advance toward enlightenment], serving as the primary cause [of their attaining enlightenment]. That is to say, it is truly nonempty; appearing in it are all the objects of the world which neither go out nor come in; which are neither lost nor destroyed. It is eternally abiding One Mind. [All things appear in it] because all things are real. And none of the defiled things are able to defile it, for the essence of wisdom (i.e., original enlightenment) is una›ected [by defilements], being furnished with an unsoiled quality and influencing all human beings [to advance toward enlightenment].

Third, [it is like] a mirror that is free from [defiled] objects [reflected in it]. This can be said because the nonempty state [of original enlightenment] is genuine, pure, and bright, being free from hindrances both a›ectional and intellectual, and transcending characteristics of that which is compounded (i.e., the storehouse consciousness).

Fourth, [it is like] a mirror influencing [a person to cultivate his capacity for goodness], serving as a coordinating cause [to encourage him in his endeavors]. Because [the essence of enlightenment] is free from [defiled] objects, it universally illumines the mind of a human being and induces him to cultivate his capacity for goodness, presenting itself in accordance with his desires [as a mirror presents his appearance].

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Translator's Note: Of the four arguments, the first and second correspond to the arguments on the two aspects of the absolute in terms of empty and nonempty. The third and fourth arguments correspond to

purity of wisdom" and "

suprarational functions"

in the preceding section.

b. The Aspect of Nonenlightenment

Because of not truly realizing oneness with suchness, there emerges an unenlightened mind and, consequently, its thoughts. These thoughts do not have any validity to be substantiated; therefore, they are not independent of the original enlightenment. It is like the case of a man who has lost his way: he is confused because of [his wrong sense of] direction. If he is freed from [the notion of] direction altogether, then there will be no such thing as going astray. It is the same with human beings: because of [the notion of] enlightenment, they are confused. But if they are freed from [the fixed notion of] enlightenment, then there will be no such thing as nonenlightenment. Because [there are people] of unenlightened, deluded mind, for them we speak of true enlightenment, knowing well what this [relative] term stands for. Independent of the unenlightened mind, there are no independent marks of true enlightenment itself that can be discussed.

Translator's Note: "Not truly realizing oneness with suchness": Literally:

"Not knowing that the dharmaof suchness is one, " or

perhaps,

"Not knowing that suchness and dharmas (phenomena) are one.

" In any case, the meaning remains the same. This has been called the

"basic ignorance.

The discussion is on the two seemingly opposing concepts of enlightenment and nonenlightenment. From the author's point of view, these polar concepts are not mutually exclusive or contradictory; they are merely relative, since enlightenment is inconceivable in the absence of nonenlightenment; they coexist temporarily, as it were, in mutual dependency, on the ground of the original enlightenment or the absolute. Neither enlightenment nor nonenlightenment should be considered to be an absolute state. The irrelevancy 577a

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The Awakening of Faith

of taking either of them to be a concrete state of being—in other words, the absurdity of regarding a relative as an absolute, or a conventional and symbolic expression as literally true—is here demonstrated.

Because of its nonenlightened state, [the deluded mind] produces three aspects which are bound to nonenlightenment and are inseparable from it.

First is the activity of ignorance. The agitation of mind because of its nonenlightened state is called activity. When enlightened, it is unagitated. When it is agitated, anxiety (du˙kha) follows, for the result (i.e., anxiety) is not independent of the cause (i.e., the agitation contingent upon ignorance).

Second is the perceiving subject. Because of the agitation [that breaks the original unity with suchness], there appears the perceiving subject. When unagitated, [the mind] is free from perceiving. Third is the world of objects. Because of the perceiving subject, the world of objects erroneously appears. Apart from the perceiving, there will be no world of objects.

Conditioned by the [incorrectly conceived] world of objects, [the deluded mind] produces six aspects.

First is the aspect of the [discriminating] intellect. Depending on the [erroneously conceived] world of objects, the mind develops the discrimination between liking and disliking. Second is the aspect of continuity. By virtue of [the discriminating function of] the intellect, the mind produces an awareness of pleasure and pain [with regard to things] in the world of objects. The mind, developing [deluded] thoughts and being bound to them, will continue uninterrupted.

Third is the aspect of attachment. Because of the continuity [of deluded thoughts], the mind, superimposing its deluded thoughts on the world of objects and holding fast to [the discriminations of liking and disliking] develops attachments [to what it likes].

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Fourth is the aspect of the speculation (vikalpa) on names and letters (i.e., concepts). On the basis of erroneous attachments, [the deluded mind) analyzes words which are provisional [and therefore devoid of validity].

Fifth is the aspect of giving rise to [evil] karma. Relying on names and letters (i.e., concepts that have no validity), [the deluded mind] investigates names and words and becomes attached to them, and creates manifold types of evil karma. Sixth is the aspect of anxiety attached to the [e›ects of evil] karma. Because of the [law of] karma, the deluded mind su›ers the e›ects and will not be free.

It should be understood that ignorance is able to produce all types of defiled states; all defiled states are aspects of nonenlightenment. c. The Relationships between Enlightenment and Nonenlightenment Two relationships exist between the enlightened and nonenlightened states. They are "identity" and "nonidentity. "

(1) Identity.Just as pieces of various kinds of pottery are of the same nature in that they are made of clay, so the various magiclike manifestations (måyå) of both enlightenment (anåsrava: non defilement) and nonenlightenment (avidyå) are aspects of the same essence, suchness. For this reason, it is said in a sutra that "all sentient beings intrinsically abide in eternity and are entered into nirvana. The state of enlightenment is not something that is to be acquired by practice or to be created. In the end, it is unobtainable. [for it is given from the beginning].

"49 Also it has no corporeal

aspect that can be perceived as such. Any corporeal aspects [such as the marks of the Buddha] that are visible are magic-like products [of suchness manifested] in accordance with [the mentality of human beings in] defilement. It is not, however, that these corporeal aspects [which result from the, suprarational functions] of wisdom are of the nature of nonemptiness (i.e., substantial); for wisdom has no aspects that can be perceived.

577b

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(2) Nonidentity.Just as various pieces of pottery di›er from each other, so di›erences exist between the state of enlightenment and that of nonenlightenment, and between the magic-like manifestations [of suchness manifested] in accordance with [the mentality of human beings in] defilement, and those [of people of ignorance] who are defiled (i.e., blinded) as to the essential nature [of suchness].

2. The Cause and Conditions of Humankind's Being in Samsara

Translator's Note: A literal translation of this title is: "The cause

and conditions of birth and death.

" The cause stands for the aspect

of nonenlightenment in the storehouse consciousness, i.e., ignorance; the conditions stand for mind and consciousness in the state of nonenlightenment. In short, this section undertakes to deal with the mentality of a person who is unaware of the absolute order, despite the fact that he is intrinsically in it. In the following argument some similarity can be found between the author's thought and the doctrines of the Yogåcåra school of Mahayana Buddhism. The Yogåcåra school advocates the concept of "

mind only" and its

doctrine is known as subjective idealism. The author presents the subject in his own way, developing the concept of tathatågarbha, but some basic ideas and terms must have been taken into his system from Yogåcåra sources. That a person is in samsara results from the fact that his mind (manas) and consciousness (vijñåna) develop on the ground of the storehouse consciousness (citta). This means that because of [the aspect of nonenlightenment of] the storehouse consciousness, he is said to be in possession of ignorance [and thus is bound to remain in samsara].

Translator's Note: Citta, manas,and vijñånaare synonymous in the earliest phase of Buddhism, indicating " mind" in the ordinary sense of the word. Along with the systematization of and speculation on the Buddha's doctrines, Buddhist thinkers (Abhi -26

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dharma philosophers) differentiated among them, ascribing unique psychometaphysical meanings to each. The Yogåcåra school of Buddhism, in an attempt to analyze the levels of mind of the non enlightened person, established a distinctive use of these terms. According to this school, cittacorresponds to the ålaya-vijñåna(storehouse consciousness), manasto the mano-vijñåna(ego-conscious mind), and vijñånaremains as it was, denoting the ordinary mind and sometimes the five [sense] perceptions. Though the author (or translator) uses these same terms, their content is often quite different from that found in Yogåcåra philosophy. This section, therefore, should be interpreted in the light of the overall thought of the text, without reference to the Yogåcåra interpretation of these technical terms. Attempts to equate or harmonize it with Yogåcåra thought will invite unnecessary confusion and misunderstanding. a. Mind

[The mentality] that emerges in the state of nonenlightenment, which [incorrectly] perceives and reproduces [the world of objects] and, conceiving that the [reproduced] world of objects is real, continues to develop [deluded] thoughts, is what we define as mind. This mind has five di›erent names.

The first is called the "activating mind,

" for, without being

aware of it, it breaks the equilibrium of mind by the force of ignorance. The second is called the "evolving mind,

" for it emerges, contingent upon the agitated mind as [the subject] that perceives [incorrectly].

The third is called the "reproducing mind,

"50for it reproduces

the entire world of objects as a bright mirror reproduces all material images. When confronted with the objects of the five senses, it reproduces them at once. It arises spontaneously at all times and exists forever [reproducing, the world of objects] in front [of the subject].

The fourth is called the "analytical mind,

" for it di›erentiates

what is defiled and what is undefiled.

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The fifth is called the "continuing mind,

" for it is united with

[deluded] thoughts and continues uninterrupted. It retains the entire karma, good and bad, accumulated in the immeasurable lives of the past, and does not permit any loss. It is also capable of bringing the results of the pain, pleasure, etc., of the present and the future to maturity; in doing so, it makes no mistakes. It can cause one to recollect, suddenly the things of the present and the past and to have sudden and unexpected fantasies of the things to come.

The triple world, therefore, is unreal and is of mind only. Apart from it there are no objects of the five senses and of the mind. What does this mean? Since all things are, without exception, developed from the mind and produced under the condition of deluded thoughts, all di›erentiations are no other than the di›erentiations of one's mind itself. [Yet] the mind cannot perceive the mind itself; the mind has no marks of its own [that can be ascertained as a substantial entity as such]. It should be understood that [the conception of] the entire world of objects can be held only on the basis of a person's deluded mind of ignorance. All things, therefore, are just like the images in a mirror that are devoid of any objectivity that one can get hold of; they are of the mind only and are unreal. When the [deluded] mind comes into being, then various conceptions (dharmas) come to be; and when the [deluded] mind ceases to be, then these various conceptions cease to be. Translator's Note: "The triple world, therefore, is unreal and is of mind only": The oldest recorded expression of this statement, encountered in many scriptures of later origin, is found in one of the earliest Mahayana sutras of the first or second century C.E., called the Ten Stages Sutra (DaΩabh¥mika-s¥tra), which was later incorporated, most likely in Central Asia or China, into the Avataµsaka-s¥tra.This statement was not only taken up by the Huayan school, but was also utilized as one of the authentic proofs to provide a foundation to the Yogåcåra system. In fact, the virtual founder of the Yogåcåra school, Vasubandhu, com posed a com-28

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mentary on the DaΩabh¥mika-s¥tra.

51 As it appears in the sutra,

the original sentence may be translated:

"What belongs to this

triple world is mind only."52The triple world is the world of desire (kåmadhåtu), the world of form or materiality (r¥padhåtu), and the world of formlessness (år¥pyadhåtu).

b. Consciousness

What is called "consciousness (vijñåna)" is the "continuing mind.

" Because of their deep-rooted attachment, ordinary people imagine that "I" and "mine" are real and cling to them in their illusions. As soon as objects are presented, this consciousness rests on them and discriminates the objects of the five senses and of the mind. This is called "

vijñåna"(i.e., the di›erentiating consciousness) or the "separating consciousness.

" Or, again, it is called the "objectdiscriminating consciousness. " [The propensity for discrimination

of] this consciousness will be intensified by both [the intellectual] defilement of holding fast to perverse views and [the a›ectional] defilement of indulgence in passion.

That the [deluded mind and] consciousness arise from the permeation of ignorance is something that ordinary people cannot understand. The followers of the Hinayana, with their wisdom, likewise fail to realize this. Those bodhisattvas who, having advanced from their first stage of correct faith by setting the mind [upon enlightenment] through practicing contemplation, have come to realize the dharmakåya,can partially comprehend this. Yet even those who have reached the final stage of bodhisattvahood cannot fully comprehend this; only the Enlightened Ones (Buddhas) have thorough comprehension of it. Why? The Mind, though pure in its self-nature from the beginning, is accompanied by ignorance. Being defiled by ignorance, a defiled [state of] mind comes into being. But, though defiled, the Mind itself is eternal and immutable. Only the Enlightened Ones are able to understand what this means. What is called the essential nature of Mind is always beyond thoughts. It is, therefore, defined as "immutable. " When the one

world of reality is yet to be realized, the Mind [is mutable and] is 577c

29 29 29

The Awakening of Faith not in perfect unity [with suchness]. Suddenly, [a deluded] thought arises; [this state] is called ignorance. Translator's Note: "Suddenly" is a literal translation of the Chinese adverbial compound huran.Here, casually and in a sentence of a few words, the origin of ignorance (avidyå)is explained. Ignorance is the most fundamental problem of Buddhism, comparable in its significance to that of original sin in Christianity. The author's avowed determination to make his discourse as brief as possible should be appreciated, but often he has achieved his aim at the risk of being understood incorrectly, or of not being understood at all. There has been much discussion on the meaning of huranin connection with the origin of ignorance, mainly on the basis of interpretations proposed by Fazang, the most celebrated commentator on the text. Following the comment made by the Korean monk Wπnhyo, 53Fazang says of it: 1) that ignorance alone becomes the source of defiled states of being. It is the subtlest; no other state of being can be the origin of this. It is therefore said in the text that ignorance emerges suddenly. 2) Commenting on a quotation from a sutra, he "

says

suddenly" means

"beginninglessly,

" since the passage quoted makes clear that there is no other state of being prior to the state of ignorance. 3) The word " suddenly" is not used from the standpoint of time but is used to account for the emergence of ignorance without any instance of inception. 54It is clear, then, that Fazang interpreted "

suddenly" as

without beginning.

" Accordingly, the conclusion may be drawn that ignorance, the primary cause of the nonenlightened state of human beings, has no beginning but does have an ending, since it disappears with enlightenment. A monk of Ming China, named Zhenjie, in his commentary to the Awakening of Faithwritten in 1599, glosses "

suddenly" as

bujue,which may mean "

unconsciously" or

without being aware

of the reason.

"55

If huranis a translation of a Sanskrit word, the original word akasmåtmay be posited. 56 Akasmåtmeans

without reason" or

accidentally.

" If this is correct, the following metaphor quoted by 30

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another Chinese monk, Zixuan (d. 1038) of the Huayan school, in interpreting "

suddenly" is peculiarly relevant. He writes:

"[Ignorance is] like dust which has suddenly collected on a mirror, or like clouds which have suddenly appeared in the sky. "57

In the earlier part of the text, the claim was made that human beings are originally enlightened and that ignorance or nonenlightenment are not intrinsic but accidental. Ignorance results from an unconscious and accidental estrangement from the essence of Mind (suchness). In the absence of the awareness of estrangement, however, the origin of ignorance cannot be an object of intellectual analysis. For the intellect, the origin of ignorance is unimaginable, unless mythologized; hence,

suddenly" would appear to be an

excellent solution.

c. Defiled States of Mind

Six kinds of defiled states of mind [conditioned by ignorance] can be identified.

The first is the defilement united with attachment [to atman], from which those who have attained liberation in the Hinayana and those [bodhisattvas] at the "stage of establishment of faith" are free.

The second is the defilement united with the "continuing mind, "

from which those who are at the "stage of establishment of faith" and who are practicing expedient means [to attain enlightenment] can gradually free themselves and free themselves completely at the "stage of pure-heartedness.

The third is the defilement united with the discriminating "analytical mind, " from which those at the "stage of observing precepts" begin to be liberated and finally are liberated completely when they arrive at the "stage of expedient means without any trace. "

The fourth is the [subtle] defilement disunited from the represented world of objects, from which those at the "stage of freedom from the world of objects" can be freed.

The fifth is the [subtler] defilement disunited from the "[evolving] mind that perceives" (i.e., the defilement existing prior to the act of perceiving), from which those at the "stage of freedom from 31 31 31

The Awakening of Faith

the [evolving] mind" are freed.

The sixth (and most subtle] is the defilement disunited from the basic "activating mind,

" from which those bodhisattvas who

have passed the final stage and have gone into the "stage of Tathågatahood" are freed. Translator's Note: "Basic

activating mind'" means human

beings' propensity to prefer to remain in the state of ignorance. It exists prior to the separation of the subject-and-object relationship in the context of nonenlightenment. It may be regarded as analogous to the tendency toward evil that exists prior to the motivation and commitment of evil acts that cause evil karma; it is the basic blindness (avidyå), lurking in the deepest level of the subconscious mind. d. Comments on the Terms Used in the Foregoing Discussion On [the expression] "the one world of reality is yet to realized. "

From this state those [bodhisattvas] who have advanced from the "stage of the establishment of faith" to the "stage of pure-heartedness, " after having completed and severed [their deluded thoughts], will be more and more liberated as they advance, and when they reach the "stage of Tathågatahood,

" they will be completely liberated.

On "united.

" By the word "united" [appearing in the first three defilements] is meant that though di›erence (i.e., duality) exists between the mind (subject) and the datum of the mind (object), there is a simultaneous relation between them in that when the subject is defiled the object is also defiled, and when the subject is purified the object is also purified.

On "disunited.

" By the word "disunited" is meant that [the second three subtle and fundamental defilements are the aspects of] nonenlightenment on the part of the mind existing prior to the di›erentiation [into the subject-and-object relationship]; therefore, a simultaneous relation between the subject and object is not as yet established.

On the "defiled state of mind.

" It is called "the hindrance orig-32

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inating from defilements,

" for it obstructs any fundamental insight

into suchness.

On "ignorance.

" Ignorance is called the "hindrance originating from misconceptions of objects,

" for it obstructs the wisdom that

functions spontaneously in the world.

Because of the defiled [state of] mind, there emerges the subject that perceives [incorrectly] ( i.e., the evolving mind) and that which reproduces [the reproducing mind], and thus one erroneously predicates the world of objects and causes oneself to deviate from the undi›erentiated state [of suchness]. Though all things are always in quiescence and devoid of any marks of rising, because of the nonenlightenment due to ignorance, one erroneously strays from the Dharma (i.e., suchness); thus one fails to obtain the wisdom that functions spontaneously by adapting oneself to all circumstances in the world. Translator's Note: "The wisdom that functions spontaneously in the world.

" Technically this wisdom is called the

"later-obtained

wisdom" (p®≈†halabdha-jñåna; Ch.,houdezhi). It is the wisdom that, after achieving enlightenment and witnessing the pitiful state of existence of the world, naturally emerges to help save the world. When a person caught in a vicious cycle of frustration awakens to his essential being, returns to the absolute order, and reinstates suchness in himself, he can for the first time see the suffering world in its full scope. As eyes cannot see eyes, so as long as he is in the midst of suffering, without transcending it, he cannot see the real state of existence of the world. A keen awareness of the fact that, so long as a person is not awakened, everything is suffering, came to the Buddha after he had attained enlightenment. The well-known words of the Buddha that "

everything is suffering (sarvaµ

du˙kam)" were, in fact, uttered after he had attained enlightenment. Hence, he was compelled to work for the salvation of the world. 3. The Characteristics of Beings in Samsara

In analyzing the characteristics of beings in samsara, categories may be distinguished. The one is "crude,

" for [those who belong

33 33 33

578a

The Awakening of Faith

to this category are] united with the [crude activities of the defiled] mind; the other is "subtle,

" for [those who belong to this category are] disunited from the [subtle activities of the defiled] mind. [Again, each category may in turn be subdivided into the cruder and the subtler]. The cruder of the crude belongs to the range of mental activity of ordinary people; the subtler of the crude and the cruder of the subtle belong to that of bodhisattvas; and the subtler of the subtle belongs to that of Buddhas. Translator's Note: Reference is to be made to the of mind" in the foregoing discussion. The the first three defilements of mind and the "defiled states

crude" corresponds to

subtle" to the second

three defilements of mind.

"The subtler of the subtle [belongs] to that of Buddhas. " Does

this mean that the Buddhas, the Enlightened Ones, still have some sort of basic defilement, even though it is the subtlest of all? This question was answered by Wπnhyo, 58 whose words were adapted

by Fazang in the following way: "[The range of mental activity belonging to the subtler of the subtle takes place] where there is no separation of subject and object. Since the characteristic of its activity is extremely subtle, only Buddhas can know about it. "59In the later

translation of the text by ¸ik≈ånanda this clause is omitted. These two categories of beings in the phenomenal order come about because of the permeation of ignorance; that is to say, they come about because of the primary cause and the coordinating causes. By the primary cause,

"nonenlightenment" is meant; and by the coordinating causes,

"the erroneously represented world of objects.

When the primary cause ceases to be, then the coordinating causes will cease to be. Because of the cessation of the primary cause, the mind disunited [from the represented world of objects, etc.] will cease to be; and because of the cessation of the coordinating causes, the mind united [with the attachment to atman, etc.] will cease to be.

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Question:If the mind ceases to be, what will become of its continuity? If there is continuity of mind, how can you explain its final cessation?

Answer:What we speak of as "cessation" is the cessation of the marks of [the deluded] mind only and not the cessation of its essence. It is like the case of the wind which, following the surface of the water, leaves the marks of its movement. If the water should cease to be, then the marks of the wind would be nullified and the wind would have no support [on which to display its movement]. But since the water does not cease to be, the marks of the wind may continue. Because only the wind ceases, the marks of its movement cease accordingly. This is not the cessation of water. So it is with ignorance; on the ground of the essence of Mind there is movement. If the essence of Mind were to cease, then people would be nullified and they would have no support. But since the essence does not cease to be, the mind may continue. Because only stupidity ceases to be, the marks of the [stupidity of the] mind cease accordingly. It is not that the wisdom (i.e., the essence) of Mind ceases. Translator's Note: This simile, well known for its occurrence in this text, has been popular among the Buddhist thinkers in the Far East as one of the best means to explain the relationship that exists between phenomena and the absolute.

Because of the four kinds of permeation, the defiled state, and the pure state emerge and continue uninterrupted. They are 1) the pure state, which is called suchness; 2) the cause of all defilements, which is called ignorance; 3) the deluded mind, which is called the "activating mind"; 4) the erroneously conceived external world, which is called the "objects of the five senses and of the mind. "

The meaning of permeation. Clothes in the world certainly have no scent in themselves but if man permeates them with perfumes, then they come to have a scent. It is just the same with the case we are speaking of. The pure state of suchness certainly has no defilement but if it is permeated by ignorance, then the marks 35 35 35

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The Awakening of Faith

of defilement appear on it. The defiled state of ignorance is indeed devoid of any purifying form but if it is permeated by suchness, then it will come to have a purifying influence. a. Permeation of Ignorance

How does the permeation [of ignorance] give rise to the defiled state and continue uninterrupted? It may be said that, on the ground of suchness (i.e., the original enlightenment], ignorance (i.e., nonenlightenment) appears. Ignorance, the primary cause of the defiled state, permeates into suchness.

Because of this permeation a deluded mind results. Because of the deluded mind, [deluded thoughts further] permeate into ignorance. While the principle of suchness is yet to be realized, [the deluded mind], developing thoughts [fashioned in the state] of nonenlightenment, predicates erroneously conceived objects of the senses and of the mind. These erroneously conceived objects of the senses and of the mind, the coordinating causes in [bringing about] the defiled state, permeate into the deluded mind and cause the deluded mind to attach itself to its thoughts, to create various [evil] karma, and to undergo all kinds of physical and mental su›ering.

The permeation of the erroneously conceived objects of the senses and of the mind is of two kinds. One is the permeation that accelerates [deluded] thoughts, and the other is the permeation that accelerates attachments.

The permeation of the deluded mind is of two kinds. One is the basic permeation by the "activating mind,

" which causes arhats,

pratyekabuddhas, and all bodhisattvas to undergo the su›ering of samsara, and the other is the permeation that accelerates [the activities of] the "object-discriminating consciousness" and which makes ordinary people su›er from the bondage of their karma. Translator's Note: The word "

arhat" was originally an epithet

for the Buddha meaning "

worthy,

" but it came to be used often in

Mahayana writings in a derogatory sense to designate the perfected one in Hinayana Buddhism who needs to be retrained in Mahayana 36

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Buddhism in order to attain true enlightenment. Here it is used in the latter sense.

The term "pratyekabuddha"designates one who has attained enlightenment on his own without joining the religious order. Because of his selfish attitude and his unwillingness to help save the world, he also is regarded as an inferior sage in the polemical writings of Mahayana literature, though he is slightly higher than an arhat. A bodhisattva, who sacrifices himself for the world, is classified as higher than either of them.

The permeations of ignorance are of two kinds. One is the basic permeation, since it can put into operation the "activating mind, "

and the other is the permeation that develops perverse views and attachments, since it can put in operation the "object-discriminating consciousness.

b. Permeation of Suchness

How does the permeation [of suchness] give rise to the pure state and continue uninterrupted? It may be said that there is the principle of suchness, and it can permeate into ignorance. Through the force of this permeation, [suchness causes the deluded mind to loathe the su›ering of samsara and to aspire for nirvana. Because this mind, though still deluded, is [now] possessed with loathing and aspiration, permeates into suchness [in that it induces suchness to manifest itself]. Thus a person comes to believe in his essential nature, to know that what exists is the erroneous activity of the mind and that the world of objects in front of him is non existent, and to practice teachings to free himself [from the erroneously conceived world of objects]. He knows what is really so—that there is no world of objects in front of him—and therefore with various devices he practices courses by which to conform [himself to suchness]. He will not attach himself to anything nor give rise to any [deluded] thoughts. Through the force of this permeation [of suchness] over a long period of time, his ignorance ceases. Because of the cessation of ignorance, there will be no more rising of the [deluded activities of] mind. Because of the nonarising [of the 37 37 37

The Awakening of Faith

deluded activities of mind], the world of objects [as previously conceived] ceases to be; because of the cessation of both the primary cause (ignorance) and the coordinating cause (objects), the marks of the [defiled] mind will all be nullified. This is called "gaining nirvana and accomplishing spontaneous acts. "

The permeation [of suchness] into the deluded mind is of two kinds. The first is the permeation into the "object-discriminating consciousness.

" [Because of this permeation], ordinary people and the Hinayanists come to loathe the su›ering of samsara, and thereupon each, according to his capacity, gradually advances toward the highest enlightenment (Ch., dao). The second is the permeation into mind. [Because of this permeation,] bodhisattvas advance to nirvana rapidly and with aspiration and fortitude. Two kinds of permeation of suchness [into ignorance] can be identified. The first is "the permeation through manifestation of the essence [of suchness], and the second is "the permeation through [external] influences.

Translator's Note: The phrase,

"the permeation through manifestation of the essence (of suchness], " can perhaps be rendered literally as

"the permeation through manifestation of essence on its own accord.

" Following Fazang's comment, this permeation has traditionally been understood as

"internal permeation" (Ch.,

neixun).

61 It is the inner urge of suchness in human beings to emerge, so to speak, from the state of unawareness to the state of awareness, or from the unconscious to the conscious. It is an internal movement of suchness within, from potential to actual, or from essence to existence, so that essence permeates into existence, or nirvana into samsara. Suchness within, i.e., original enlightenment, is constantly asserting itself in order to be actualized by breaking through the wall of ignorance. This intrinsic inner dynamics of suchness is suggested by the term

"internal permeation.

(1) Permeation through Manifestation of the Essence of Suchness.[The essence of suchness] is, from the beginningless beginning, 38

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endowed with the "perfect state of purity. " It is provided with

suprarational functions and the nature of manifesting itself. Because of these two reasons it permeates perpetually [into ignorance]. Through the force of [this permeation] it induces a person to loathe the su›ering of samsara, to seek bliss in nirvana, and, believing that he has the principle of suchness within himself, to make up his mind to exert himself.

Translator's Note: "The perfect state of purity (anåsravadharma)" is identified by Fazang with "the original enlightenment of nonemptiness.

"62"The nature of manifesting itself.

" The original

Chinese of this phrase can be literally translated as "the nature

of making the world of object.

" Taken literally, the phrase makes

little sense, though commentators have usually tried to take it that way. For example, Tanyan (516-588), the oldest commentator whose work has been preserved, went so far as to interpret it as a magical creation of the objects of the senses. 63 Suchness, in an

absolute sense, can never be an object or objects. When objectified, it is no longer the absolute but turns into a relative. "Making the

world of object,

" therefore, should be taken symbolically as suggesting " revealing itself,

" "

manifesting itself from within,

" etc. It

does not objectify itself externally, but is internally asserting its absolute subjectivity in human beings.

Question:If this is so, then all sentient beings are endowed with suchness and are equally permeated by it. Why is it that there are infinite varieties of believers and nonbelievers, and that there are some who believe sooner and some later? All of them should, knowing that they are endowed with the principle of suchness, at once make an e›ort utilizing expedient means and should all equally attain nirvana.

Answer: Though suchness is originally one, yet there are immeasurable and infinite [shades of] ignorance. From the very beginning ignorance is, because of its nature, characterized by diversity, and its degree of intensity is not uniform. Defilements, 39 39 39

The Awakening of Faith

578c

more numerous than the sands of the Ganges [River], come into being because of [the di›erences in intensity of] ignorance, and exist in manifold ways; defilements, such as the belief in the existence of atmanand the indulgence in passion, develop because of ignorance and exist in di›erent ways. All these defilements are brought about by ignorance, in an infinitely diversified manner in time. The Tathågatas alone know all about this.

In Buddhism there is [a teaching concerning] the primary cause and the coordinating causes. When the primary cause and the coordinating causes are su‡ciently provided, there will be the perfection [of a result]. It is like the case of wood: though it possesses a [latent] fire nature which is the primary cause of its burning, it cannot be made to burn by itself unless people understand the situation and resort to means [of actualizing fire out of wood by kindling it]. In the same way a human being, though he is in possession of the correct primary cause, [suchness with] permeating force, cannot put an end to his defilements by himself alone and enter nirvana unless he is provided with coordinating causes, i.e., his encounters with the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, or good spiritual friends. Even though coordinating causes from without may be su‡ciently provided, if the pure principle (i.e., suchness) within is lacking in the force of permeation, then a person cannot ultimately loathe the su›ering of samsara and seek bliss in nirvana. However, if both the primary and the coordinating causes are su‡ciently provided, then because of his possession of the force of permeation [of suchness from within] and the compassionate protection of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas [from without], he is able to develop a loathing for su›ering, to believe that nirvana is real, and to cultivate his capacity for goodness. And when his cultivation of the capacity for goodness matures, he will as a result meet the Buddhas and bodhisattvas and will be instructed, taught, benefited, and given joy, and then he will be able to advance on the path to nirvana.

(2) Permeation through Influences.This is the force from without a›ecting human beings by providing coordinating causes. Such 40

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external coordinating causes have an infinite number of meanings. Briefly, they may be explained under two categories: namely, the specific and the general coordinating causes.

(a) The Specific Coordinating Causes. A person, from the time when he first aspires to seek enlightenment until he becomes an Enlightened One, sees or meditates on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas [as they manifest themselves to him]; sometimes they appear as his family members, parents, or relatives, sometimes as servants, sometimes as close friends, or sometimes as enemies. Through all kinds of deeds and incalculable performances, such as the practice of the four acts of loving-kindness, etc., they exercise the force of permeation created by their great compassion, and are thus able to cause sentient beings to strengthen their capacity for goodness and are able to benefit them as they see or hear [about their needs]. This [specific] coordinating cause is of two kinds. One is immediate and enables a person to obtain deliverance quickly; and the other is remote and enables a person to obtain deliverance after a long time. The immediate and remote causes are again of two kinds: the causes which strengthen a person in his practices [of expedient means to help others], and those which enable him to obtain enlightenment (Ch., dao).

Translator's Note: Mahayanists interpreted ¸åkyamuni Buddha as a temporal incarnation in history of the Eternal Buddha, the dharmakåya,who appeared in order to help save the world. This theory made it possible to postulate any number of temporal but unhistorical manifestations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas as the popularization of Mahayana Buddhism progressed. In order to become a popular religion, mythologization was inevitable. Perhaps the best example of this trend can be found in a section of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapu√∂ar∆ka-s¥tra)in which the Bodhisattva AvalokiteΩvara appears in all forms of being in order to protect believers in all conceivable situations, in the end leading them to enlightenment. 64

41 41 41

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The Awakening of Faith

"The four acts of loving-kindness" are defined as charity, kind speech, beneficial action, and cooperation. The translation follows Fazang's interpretation. 65Wπnhyosays

concerning the

causes which strengthen a person in his practice, "

that "they develop various practices such as charity, observance of precepts, etc.

" Concerning the causes

which enable him to obtain

enlightenment,

" he says that they are

"those which develop [the

intention on the part of the devotee] to hear [about doctrines], to think [about them], and to practice [them], and thus [enable him] to obtain enlightenment.

"66

(b) The General Coordinating Causes. The Buddhas and bodhisattvas all desire to liberate all human beings, spontaneously permeating them [with their spiritual influences] and never forsaking them. Through the power of the wisdom that is one [with suchness], they manifest activities in response to [the needs of human beings] as they see and hear them. [Because of this indiscriminately permeating cause], human beings are all equally able, by means of concentration (samådhi), to see the Buddhas. Translator's Note: "The wisdom that is one [with suchness)": Because the comments of Fazang and others are too brief and vague at this point, the translation follows the interpretation of the Chinese monk, Zixuan (d. 1038). He says:

"In essence, this wisdom is the

same as suchness,

" and also that "this [wisdom] enables one to know that all profane (ordinary people) and sacred (enlightened people), defiled and pure, are equally one in what is real."67 This permeation through the influence of the wisdom whose essence is one [with suchness] is also divided into two categories [according to the types of recipients]. The one is yet to be united [with suchness]. Ordinary people, the Hinayanists, and those bodhisattvas who have just been initiated devote themselves to religious practices on the strength of their faith, being permeated by suchness through their mind and consciousness. Not having obtained the indiscriminate mind, however, 42

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they are yet to be united with the essence [of suchness], and not having obtained [the perfection of] the discipline of free acts, they are yet to be united with the influence [of suchness]. Translator's Note: Fazang identifies

"[the perfection of] the discipline of free acts" with the "knowledge that emerges after enlightenment, and which functions spontaneously, adapting itself to all circumstances in the world.

"68

The other is the already united [with suchness]: bodhisattvas who realize the dharmakåyahave obtained undiscriminating mind [and are united with the essence of the Buddhas; they, having obtained free acts,]69are united with the influence of the wisdom of the Buddhas. They singly devote themselves with spontaneity to their religious disciplines, on the strength of suchness within; permeating into suchness [so that suchness will reclaim itself], they destroy ignorance.

Again, the defiled principle (dharma), from the beginningless beginning, continues perpetually to permeate until it perishes by the attainment of Buddhahood. But the permeation of the pure principle has no interruption and no ending. The reason is that the principle of suchness is always permeating; therefore, when the deluded mind ceases to be, the dharmakåya(i.e., suchness, original enlightenment) will be manifested and will give rise to the permeation of the influence [of suchness], and thus there will be no ending to it.

Translator's Note: That is to say, ignorance has no beginning but does have an ending; while original enlightenment, or suchness, has neither beginning nor ending. It is evident that the nature of ignorance is not ontological but is epistemological. If it were ontological and were conceived as "being,

" this conclusion that ignorance has no beginning but has an ending would be absurd. II. The Essence Itself and the Attributes of

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The Awakening of Faith

Suchness, or the Meanings of Mahå70

A. The Greatness of the Essence of Suchness

[The essence of suchness] knows no increase or decrease in ordinary people, the Hinayanists, the bodhisattvas, or the Buddhas. It was not brought into existence in the beginning nor will it cease to be at the end of time; it is eternal through and through. B. The Greatness of the Attributes of Suchness

From the beginning, suchness in its nature is fully provided with all excellent qualities; namely, it is endowed with the light of great wisdom, [the qualities of] illuminating the entire universe, of true cognition and mind pure in its self-nature; of eternity, bliss, self, and purity; of refreshing coolness, immutability, and freedom. It is endowed with [these excellent qualities] which outnumber the sands of the Ganges [River], which are not independent of, disjointed from, or di›erent from [the essence of suchness], and which are suprarational [attributes of] Buddhahood. Since it is endowed completely with all these, and is not lacking anything, it is called the tathågatagarbha[when latent] and also the dharmakåyaof the Tathågata.

Question:It was explained before that the essence of suchness is undi›erentiated and devoid of all characteristics. Why is it, then, that you have described its essence as having these various excellent qualities? Answer: Though it has, in reality, all these excellent qualities, it does not have any characteristics of di›erentiation; it retains its identity and is of one flavor; suchness is solely one. Question:What does this mean?

Answer:Since it is devoid of individuation, it is free from the characteristics of individuation; thus, it is one without any second. 44

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Question:Then how can you speak of di›erentiation (i.e., the plurality of the characteristics of suchness)? Answer:In [contrast to] the characteristics of the phenomena of the "activating mind" [the characteristics of suchness can] be inferred.

Translator's Note: The translation of the last sentence follows in the main the interpretation of Fazang.

71 Literally,

we show it,

depending on the characteristics of birth and death of the activating mind.

" This means that though, in the ultimate sense, suchness defies any predication of its characteristics, the characteristics of suchness can be symbolically suggested in relative terms that are accessible to the deluded mind, and are imagined to be the exact opposites of the characteristics of phenomena of the "

activating

mind.

Question:How can they be inferred?

Answer:All things are originally of the mind only; they in fact transcend thoughts.

"72 Nevertheless, the deluded mind, in non enlightenment, gives rise to [irrelevant] thoughts and predicates the world of objects. This being the case, we define [this mentality] as "the state of being destitute of wisdom (avidyå:ignorance). "

The essential nature of Mind is immutable [in that it does not give rise to any deluded thoughts, and, therefore, is the very opposite of ignorance]; hence, [it is spoken of as having the characteristic of] "the light of great wisdom.

When there is a particular perceiving act of the mind, objects [other than the objects being perceived] will remain unperceived. The essential nature of Mind is free from any partial perceiving; hence, [suchness is spoken of as having the characteristic of] "illuminating the entire universe. "

When the mind is in motion [stirred by ignorance], it is characterized by illusions and defilements, outnumbering the sands of the Ganges [River], such as lack of true cognition, absence of selfnature, impermanence, blisslessness, impurity, fever, anxiety, 579b

45 45 45

The Awakening of Faith

deterioration, mutation, and lack of freedom. By contrast to this, the essential nature of Mind, however, is motionless (i.e., undisturbed by ignorance); therefore, it can be inferred that it must have various pure and excellent qualities, outnumbering the sands of the Ganges [River]. But if the mind gives rise to [irrelevant thoughts] and further predicates the world of objects, it will continue to lack [these qualities]. All these numberless excellent qualities of the pure principle are none other than those of One Mind, and there is nothing to be sought after anew by thought. Thus, that which is fully endowed with them is called the dharmakåya [when manifested] and the tathågatagarbha[when latent]. C. The Greatness of the Influences of Suchness

The Buddha Tathågatas, while in the stages of bodhisattvahood, exercised great compassion, practiced påramitås, and accepted and transformed sentient beings. They took great vows, desiring to liberate all sentient beings through countless eons until the end of future time, for they regarded all sentient beings as they regarded themselves. And yet, they never regarded them as [separate] sentient beings. Why? Because they truly knew that all sentient beings and they themselves were identical in suchness, and that there could be no distinction between them. Translator's Note: "Påramitås": Requirements to be perfected by sentient beings who are potentially enlightened, i.e., by bodhisattvas in order to attain enlightenment. They are means to be practiced by the Mahayanists in order to cross over from this shore of samsara to the other shore of nirvana. The so-called six påra mitås are most frequently encountered in Mahayana literature. They are: charity (dåna), observance of precepts (Ω∆la)(of nonkilling, nonstealing, nonadultery, etc.), patience (k≈ånti), zeal (v∆rya), meditation (dhyåna), and wisdom (prajñå).

The type of paradoxical expression that we meet with here can most frequently be found in the [Perfection of] Wisdom literature. To cite an example similar to the one in our text, a passage from 46

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the Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedikå-s¥tra)which belongs to the body of the [Perfection of] Wisdom literature, says: The Lord said:

"Here, Subhuti, someone who has set out in the vehicle of a bodhisattva should produce a thought in this manner:

'As many beings as there are in the universe of beings, comprehended under the term

"beings"

…all these I

must lead to nirvana, into that realm of nirvana which leaves nothing behind. And yet, although innumerable beings have thus been led to nirvana, no being at all has been led to nirvana. ' And why? If in a bodhisattva the notion of a 'being'

should take place, he could not be called a 'bodhi-being. ' And

why? He is not to be called a bodhi-being, in whom the notion of a self or of a being should take place, or the notion of a living soul or of a person.

"73

Because they possessed such great wisdom [that could be applied] to expedient means [in quest of enlightenment], they extinguished their ignorance and perceived the original dharma kåya. Spontaneously performing incomprehensible activities, exercising manifold influences, they pervade everywhere in their identity with suchness. Nevertheless, they reveal no marks of their influences that can be traced as such. Why? Because the Buddha Tathågatas are no other than the dharmakåyaitself, and the embodiment of wisdom. [They belong to the realm of] the absolute truth, which transcends the world where the relative truth operates. They are free from any conventional activities. And yet, because of the fact that sentient beings receive benefit through seeing or hearing about them, their influences (i.e., of suchness) can be spoken of [in relative terms].

Translator's Note: The double standards of truth, one being the "

absolute truth" and the other the

relative truth,

" have played

an important role in Mahayana Buddhism. The explanations of the double sets of truth vary from school to school, but we can find a classical exposition of them in Någårjuna. His verses on the topic read as follows:

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The Awakening of Faith

Elucidation of the Dharma (doctrine) of the Buddha is on the basis of twofold truth: one is the worldly truth (saµv®ti-satya), and the other, the ultimate truth (paramårtha-satya).

Those who do not know the distinction between these two types of truth do not know the profound truth (tattva) in the instruction of the Buddha.

The ultimate truth is not to be shown except on the basis of the conventional truth (vyavahåra);without gaining the ultimate truth nirvana is not to be obtained. 74

The ultimate truth is the truth of the ultimately real, i.e., suchness, nirvana, etc., which may be experienced but which is devoid of any empirical determinations. On the other hand, the relative truth, or conventional truth, is the empirical truth accepted by people in the world and can be communicated by the use of language; in this category are scientific truths, the truths of social ethics, etc. One is the truth of the absolute order, and the other, that of the phenomenal order.

The influences [of suchness] are of two kinds. The first is that which is conceived by the minds of ordinary people and the followers of the Hinayana (i.e., the influence of suchness as reflected) in the "object-discriminating consciousness.

" This is called [the influence

of suchness in the form of] the "transformation body" (nirmå√akåya). Because they do not know that it is projected by the "evolving mind,

" they regard it as coming from without; they assume that it has a corporeal limitation because their understanding is limited. The second is that which is conceived by the mind of the bodhisattvas, from the first stage of aspiration to the highest stage, (i.e., the influence of suchness as reflected) in the mentality which regards external objects as unreal.

75This is called [the influence of suchness in the form of] the "bliss body" (saµbhogakåya). It has an infinite number of corporeal forms, each form has an infinite number of major marks, and each major mark has an infinite number of subtle 48

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marks. The land where it has its abode has innumerable adornments. It manifests itself without any bounds; [its manifestations are] inexhaustible and free from any limitations. It manifests itself in accordance with the needs [of sentient beings]; and yet it always remains firm without destroying or losing itself. These excellent qualities were perfected by the pure permeation acquired by the practice of the påramitås and the suprarational permeation [of suchness]. Since the influence is endowed with infinite attributes of bliss, it is spoken of as the "bliss body.

Translator's Note: The

major marks (lak≈ana)" are usually

regarded as the thirty-two auspicious physical signs visible on the body of the Buddha or universal monarch (cakravartin), such as the halo, the white curl emitting light between the eyebrows, etc. The

subtle marks (anuvyañjana)" are generally regarded as the eighty minor marks of the Buddha or bodhisattva, such as long, thin, shining fingernails.

What is seen by ordinary people is only the coarse corporeal forms [of the manifestation of suchness]. Depending upon where one is in the six transmigratory states, his vision of it will di›er. [The visions of it conceived by] unenlightened beings are not in a form of bliss; this is the reason why it is called the "transformation body" (i.e., the body appearing in the likeness of the conceiver). Translator's Note: One of the most important concepts in Mahayana Buddhism, which appears in this section dealing with the influences of suchness, is the theory of the triple body (trikåya)of the Buddha, the three aspects of which are known as the dharma kåya,the saµbhogakåya,and the nirmå√akåya.The Awakening of Faithis known, among other things, for its concise presentation of this theory. As presented in the text, thedharmakåyaor "

essence

body" represents the manifested form of pure suchness, which in its latent form is known as the tathatågarbha.The saµbhogakåya or

"bliss body" represents suchness as conceived by the mind of the bodhisattvas, endowed with infinite attributes of bliss. The 579c

49 49 49

The Awakening of Faith

nir må√a kåyaor

"transformation body" represents suchness as

conceived by the minds of ordinary people, the body appearing in the likeness of the conceiver.

"The six transmigratory states" are the states of being or worlds to which sentient beings are led by the force of the karma that they have created in their previous lives. These states are those of: dwellers in hell, hungry ghosts (pretas), animals, vicious fighting spirits (asuras), human beings, and gods (devas). All of them are subject to transmigration, being in the order of samsara. The bodhisattvas in their first stage of aspiration and the others, because of their deep faith in suchness, have a partial insight into [the nature of the influence of suchness]. They know that the things [of the bliss body], such as its corporeal forms, major marks, adornments, etc., do not come from without or go away, that they are free from limitations, and that they are envisioned by mind alone and are not independent of suchness. These bodhisattvas, however, are not free from dualistic thinking, since they have yet to enter into the stage [where they gain complete realization] of the dharmakåya.If they advance to the "stage of pure-heartedness, " [the forms] they see will be subtler and the influences [of suchness] will be more excellent than ever. When they leave the last stage of bodhisattvahood, they will perfect their insight [into suchness]. When they become free from the "activating mind" they will be free from the perceiving [of duality]. The dharmakåyaof the Buddhas knows no such thing as distinguishing this from that. Translator's Note: This is a repeated theme that the "

process of

actualization of enlightenment is the process of integrating the identity with the original enlightenment.

" The direction of the

process can be suggested by the following illustration: Essence > existence > essence; nirvana > samsara > nirvana; potential > unawareness of the potential + partial awareness > actualization of the potential; or absolute order > phenomenal order > absolute order. The process is a flight of suchness to suchness; nirvana to nirvana; Buddha to Buddha.

Part Three

Question:If the dharmakåyaof the Buddhas is free from the manifestation of corporeal form, how can it appear in corporeal form?

Answer:Since the dharmakåyais the essence of corporeal form, it is capable of appearing in corporeal form. The reason this is said is that from the beginning corporeal form and Mind have been nondual. Since the essential nature of corporeal form is identical with wisdom, the essence of corporeal form which has yet to be divided into tangible forms is called the "wisdom body. " Since the

essential nature of wisdom is identical with corporeal form, [the essence of corporeal form which has yet to be divided into tangible forms] is called dharmakåyapervading everywhere. Its manifested corporeal forms have no limitations. It can be freely manifested as an infinite number of bodhisattvas, Buddhas of the bliss body, and adornments in the ten quarters of the universe. Each of them has neither limitation nor interference. All of these are incomprehensible to the dualistic thinking of the [deluded] mind and consciousness, for they result from the free influence of suchness. Translator's Note: The foregoing discussion would seem to suggest the familiar concept, so often found in creation myths or in rituals of magic practice, that "to think is to create. " Essentially, however,

it is different in that these manifestations are visions which are conceived in accordance with the mind; that is, they depend on the mentality of the devotee. What is really noteworthy is the statement that "from the beginning corporeal form (r¥pa; Ch.,se)and mind have been nondual (advaya; Ch.,buer).

" The nonduality of mind

and matter, spirit and body is the basic concept of this text and a common presupposition of Mahayana Buddhism.

III. From Samsara to Nirvana

Lastly, how to enter into the realm of suchness from the realm of samsara will be revealed. Examining the five components, we find 51 51 51

The Awakening of Faith

that they may be reduced to matter (object) and mind (subject). The objects of the five senses and of the mind are in the final analysis beyond what they are thought to be. And the mind itself is devoid of any form or mark and is, therefore, unobtainable as such, no matter where one may seek it. Just as a man, because he has lost his way, mistakes the east for the west, though the actual directions have not changed place, so people, because of their ignorance, assume Mind (suchness) to be what they think it to be, though Mind in fact is una›ected [even if it is falsely predicated]. If a person is able to observe and understand that Mind is beyond what it is thought to be, then he will be able to conform to and enter the realm of suchness.

Translator's Note: "The five components (skandhas)": The constituents of all physical and mental states. In early Buddhism, particularly in the Hinayana school called Sarvåstivådin (" one

who asserts that everything is"), they were believed to be real. They are: matter (r¥pa), feeling(vedanå), ideation (saµjñå), predisposition (saµskåra), and consciousness (vijñåna). For

"beyond what they are thought to be,

" the original has

wu nian,which literally means

no-thought.

" Wunianis used in

the text in the sense of "beyond empirical predication or determination, " and probably corresponds to a Sanskrit term acintya ("

unthinkable") or avikalpaya("

unanalyzable by intellect"). At

first glance, this section seems to be disappointingly short and elusive. However, what else could have been said about the problem? The solution lies in personal experience rather than in verbal description. The purport of the paragraph, however, is clear: the knowledge that is relevant within the framework of the subjectobject relationship—in other words, the dualistic mentality—must be transcended in order to gain the vision of suchness and to reinstate oneself in the absolute order. 52

Nguồn: BDK America — English Tripiṭaka (bdkamerica.org).