T1645 The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, and The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines

THE TREATISE ON THE ELUCIDATION OF THE KNOWABLE and THE CYCLE OF THE FORMATION OF THE SCHISMATIC DOCTRINES

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BDK English Tripi†aka 61-VI, 76-I THE TREATISE ON THE

ELUCIDATION OF THE KNOWABLE Translated from the Chinese (Taishø Volume 32, Number 1645) by

Charles Willemen

THE CYCLE OF THE FORMATION OF THE SCHISMATIC DOCTRINES Translated from the Chinese (Taishø Volume 49, Number 2031) by

TSUKAMOTOKeishø

Numata Center

for Buddhist Translation and Research 2004

± 2004 by Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai and

Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means —electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher. First Printing, 2004

ISBN: 1-886439-30-3

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004107180 Published by

Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research 2620 Warring Street

Berkeley, California 94704

Printed in the United States of America

Copyright

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripi†aka The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand di›erent teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha's basic approach was to prescribe a di›erent treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a di›erent medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular su›ering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the su›ering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha's Great Demise over twenty-five hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha's teachings. Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha's eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishø edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.

It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the e›orts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has finally gotten o› the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATAYehan

Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripi†aka Project

v

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATAYehan, the founder of the Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishø edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripi†aka was o‡cially convened.

The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMAShøy¥ (Chairperson), BANDØShøjun, ISHIGAMIZennø, (late) KAMATAShigeo, KANAOKASh¥y¥, MAYEDASengaku, NARAYasuaki, (late) SAYEKIShinkø, (late) SHIOIRIRyøtatsu, TAMARUNoriyoshi, (late) TAMURAKwansei, URYÁZURy¥shin, and YUYAMAAkira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWAAtsushi, WATANABE Shøgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium. After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.

Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATAwished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.

It must be mentioned here that the final object of this project is not academic fulfillment but the transmission of the teaching of the vii

Editorial Foreword

Buddha to the whole world in order to create harmony and peace among humankind. To that end, the translators have been asked to minimize the use of explanatory notes of the kind that are indispensable in academic texts, so that the attention of general readers will not be unduly distracted from the primary text. Also, a glossary of selected terms is appended to aid in understanding the text. To my great regret, however, Dr. NUMATApassed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATAToshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMAShøy¥, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, then Vice President of Musashino Women's College, to be the Chair in October 1995. The Committee has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. NUMATA, under the leadership of Mr. NUMATAToshihide. The present members of the Committee are MAYEDASengaku (Chairperson), ISHIGAMIZennø, ICHISHIMAShøshin, KANAOKASh¥y¥, NARAYasuaki, TAMARUNoriyoshi, URYÁZURy¥shin, YUYAMAAkira, Kenneth K. Tanaka, WATANABE Shøgo, and assistant member YONEZAWAYoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the BDK English Tripi†aka First Series. In December 1991, the Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center, with Professor Philip Yampolsky as the Chairperson. To our sorrow, Professor Yampolsky passed away in July 1996. In February 1997, Dr. Kenneth K. Inada became Chair and served in that capacity until August 1999. The current Chair, Dr. Francis H. Cook, has been continuing the work since October 1999. All of the remaining texts will be published under the supervision of this Committee, in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo. MAYEDASengaku

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripi†aka

viii

Publisher’s Foreword

Publisher's Foreword

The Publication Committee shares with the Editorial Committee the responsibility of realizing the vision of Dr. Yehan Numata, founder of Bukkyø Dendø Kyøkai, the Society for the Promotion of Buddhism. This vision is no less than to make the Buddha's teaching better known throughout the world, through the translation and publication in English of the entire collection of Buddhist texts compiled in the Taishø Shinsh¥ Daizøkyø, published in Tokyo in the early part of the twentieth century. This huge task is expected to be carried out by several generations of translators and may take as long as a hundred years to complete. Ultimately, the entire canon will be available to anyone who can read English and who wishes to learn more about the teaching of the Buddha.

The present generation of sta› members of the Publication Committee includes Marianne Dresser; Brian Nagata, president of the Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, California; Eisho Nasu; and Reverend Kiyoshi Yamashita. The Publication Committee is headquartered at the Numata Center and, working in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee, is responsible for the usual tasks associated with preparing translations for publication.

In October 1999, I became the third chairperson of the Publication Committee, on the retirement of its very capable former chair, Dr. Kenneth K. Inada. The Committee is devoted to the advancement of the Buddha's teaching through the publication of excellent translations of the thousands of texts that make up the Buddhist canon. Francis H. Cook

Chairperson

Publication Committee

ix

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripi†aka NUMATA Yehan v

Editorial Foreword MAYEDA Sengaku vii Publisher's Foreword Francis H. Cook ix The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable Contents 3

Translator's Introduction Charles Willemen 5 Text of the Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable 9 Notes 67

Bibliography 77

The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Contents 81

Translator's Introduction TSUKAMOTOKeishø 83 Text of the Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines 89 Bibliography 137

Glossary 139

Index 147

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripi†aka (First Series) xi

THE TREATISE ON THE

ELUCIDATION OF THE KNOWABLE

Contents

The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable Translator's Introduction Charles Willemen 5 Fascicle One 11

I. The Inanimate World 11 II. The Animate World 20 Fascicle Two 39

III. The Factors of the Path 51 IV. The Factors of Fruition 54 V. The Unconditioned Factors 64 Afterword 66

Notes 67

Bibliography 77

3

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

This text, the Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable (Zhangsuo zhi lun, Taishø Vol. 32, No. 1645, pp. 226-36), is a Chinese translation from the Tibetan. The Annals of Buddha and the Patriarchs through the Successive Dynasties (Fozulidaitongzai, Taishø Vol. 49, No. 2036, pp. 484a-490a), a history of Buddhism in China up to 1333 by Nianchang (1282-1341), also gives a portion of the text, i.e., part I and most of part II, the description of the inanimate and animate worlds. The original Tibetan version was translated into English by Constance Hoog, Prince Jiç-gim's Textbook of Tibetan Buddhism (Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1983). A tentative Sanskritization of the title would be JñeyaprakåΩa-Ωåstra. The second and largest of the three parts of the Čiqula kereglegči, a Mongolian treatise on Buddhism by Širegetü güüsi čorǰi, written between 1578 and 1607, is based on the Tibetan text and has been studied by Agata Bareja-Starzynska. 'Phags-pa

The author of this text, the Tibetan 'Phags-pa (1235-1280), whose religious name was Matidhvaja ¸r∆bhadra, was born into a family of abbots and rulers of the Sa-skya Monastery in Tibet, southeast of Lhasa. The ruler of Sa-skya, called Sa-skya Pa√∂ita (1182-1251), and his two young nephews,

'Phags-pa and Phyag-na (1239-1267), went

to the court of the Mongol ruler in 1247, whose spiritual preceptor Saskya became. In 1253 'Phags-pa met the future emperor Qubilai (1215-1294), then still called Sečen, the son of Tolui and grandson of Činggis (ca. 1162-1227). Qubilai ruled from 1260 until his death in 1294. 'Phags-pa became the ruler of Tibet for the Mongols. In 1260 he presided over the enthronement of Qubilai in Qanbalig (Beijing) and received the title Guoshi ("National Preceptor"). In 1265 he returned 5

Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable

to Sa-skya and remained there until 1268. He then went back to the capital and there devised the quadratic alphabet for Mongolian in 1269. In 1270 he was appointed Dishi ("Imperial Preceptor"), the head of the Buddhist church. In 1275 he again returned to Tibet, accompanied partway by Zhenjin (1243-1285) (Tibetan: Jiç-gim; Mongolian: Činggim), the crown prince and Qubilai's second son. 'Phags-pa composed for Zhenjin the ¸es-bya rab-gsal (Jñeya prakåΩa), the Elucidation of the Knowable. It was finished in Tibet in 1278, delayed by the organization of the religious council in Chu-mig in 1277. Zhenjin's son became Qubilai's successor, Chengzong (r. 1294-1307). 'Phags-pa died in 1280, possibly from poison administered by an attendant.

¸es-rab dpal

¸es-rab dpal (1259-1314), or Shaluoba as he is known in Chinese (religious name PrajñåΩr∆), was a Xixia, a Tangut monk who was in 'Phagspa's entourage. He may have known the master 'Phags-pa at the time he was composing this text, a manual for the crown prince Zhenjin, in Tibet. Shaluoba's knowledge of languages served him well as an interpreter for Qubilai. In 1295 he became Inspector General or Overseer of the Buddhist Teaching in all of Jianzhe, and in Fujian in 1298. In 1301 he returned to his native Hexi but went back to the capital in 1308, during the reign of the new emperor Wuzong (r. 1308-1312). During Wuzong's reign Shaluoba received the honorary titles Guang lu Dafu ("Imperial Household Grandee") and Situ ("Grand Instructor"). His successor in the south was another Tangut, dKon-mchog dpal (RatnaΩr∆), Guanzhuba in Chinese. From 1302 to 1306 Guanzhuba had the Xixia Tripi†aka printed in Hangzhou and then distributed in Ningxia and Gansu. He also reinstated the printing of the Jisha edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka, which had begun during the Song dynasty but was interrupted for a long time.

Shaluoba must have completed the translation of the text before 1306, because it has a postscript by Keji dated November 22, 1306. The colophon does not mention the honorary titles bestowed upon him after his return to Beijing in 1308.

6

Translator's Introduction

It seems that Shaluoba did the translation work while he was in his native Hexi, probably in 1302. By the way, this is the "mistaken" date given at the end of this text (see note 83). Just as 'Phags-pa had written the text for Zhenjin while in Tibet, having received his knowledge from Sa-skya Paöita, so the Tangut Sha luo ba seems to have written his text in Hexi, having received his knowledge from 'Phagspa. Shaluoba triumphantly returned to Beijing when the new emperor Wuzong began his reign.

Would it be unreasonable to presume that Shaluoba wrote his text with the crown prince in mind during the time of Chengzong? Also, during the reign of Renzong (r. 1312-1320), Shaluoba stayed in the capital, in the Qingshou Monastery, where he died on November 12, 1314. Besides translating this text, Shaluoba is the author of a number of esoteric texts, including the Yaoshiliuliguangwangqifo ben yuangongdejing, Taishø Nos. 925 and 926; the Sitåtapatra [mahå pra tyaçgirå] dhåra√∆ (Fodingdabaisangaituoluonijing), Taishø No. 976, the MañjuΩr∆ nåma saµg∆ti (Wenshupusazuishengzhenshi ming yijing), Taishø No. 1189; and the Vajravidåra√ådhåra√∆ (Huaixiang jingangtuoluonijing), Taishø No. 1417. Sources

The second stanza at the end clearly mentions Vasubandhu's KoΩa (short for AbhidharmakoΩa) as the main source. This is evident throughout the whole work. The KoΩa was the main doctrinal treatise in Tibet. It is known that there are two Sarvåstivåda scholastic traditions: 1) the Vaibhå≈ika "orthodoxy" in KaΩm∆ra, dominant from the second to seventh centuries, and 2) the Sautråntikas to the west of KaΩm∆ra. This was a heterogeneous group of older Sarvåstivådins, called Sau trån tikas since the second century. From the end of the seventh century at least a considerable part of the Sautråntikas were called M¥la sar våsti vådins. The Abhidharma in China and Japan is Sautråntika. In Tibet the Abhidharma belongs to the same school of thought (Sautråntika, M¥lasarvåstivåda).

The central text is Vasubandhu's AbhidharmakoΩa (fifth century). So it is only normal that 'Phags-pa used the KoΩa to compose his man-7

Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable

ual. This text does not use the terms M¥la sarvåsti våda or Dår≈†åntika. It seems these terms had a Vinaya connotation. There hardly are any explicit references to the Vinaya. Sectarian discussions are avoided. All sources for the text certainly existed in Tibetan versions, a necessity for 'Phags-pa. Texts written by Vasubandhu (ca. 400-480?), the Sautråntika who became a prominent figure with the Yogåcåra school, and by his older brother Asaçga (born in Gandhåra, ca. 390-470?) certainly were an inspiration to 'Phags-pa. Both brothers are of crucial importance for the study of the Sarvåstivåda (Sautråntika) school and of Mahayana scholasticism. Very few texts are mentioned by name. The Abhidharmasamuccaya (Dashengepidamojilun), Taishø Vol. 31, No. 1605, is mentioned. The Pañcaskandhaka, on which Vasu bandhu wrote a prakara√a, an explanatory text, is mentioned (see Taishø Vol. 31, No. 1612). This text also quotes from the Mahå yåna s¥trålaµkåra (see note 20). Mai treya nåtha (ca. 350-430?) may have composed the kårikås (stanzas), and Asaçga may have written a commentary (bhå≈ya). Vasubandhu's commentaries on the DaΩabh¥mika-s¥tra and the Prat∆tya samutpåda-s¥tra also were a source of inspiration. Another text that was very influential in Tibet was the Prajñapti-Ωåstra (Loka prajñapti). This text seems to have been a source for parts I and II, on the inanimate and animate worlds. Prajñåpåramitå (Perfection of Wisdom) literature also seems to have been a source of inspiration. Definite Mahayana ideas appear at the end of the fourth chapter but no text title is mentioned. Another source seems to have been the Pañca viµΩati såhasrikå[prajñå påra mitå-s¥tra] (Moheboreboluomijing), Taishø Vol. 8, No. 223. Esoteric terms or ideas do not occur, except perhaps the four wisdoms (see note 66). This is noteworthy in a time when the Tibetan Sa-skya school was so influential. Chan philosophy was still influential in China, but this school was not very important for 'Phags-pa. This text clearly is acceptable to all Buddhists. At times the explanation is detailed but at other times the text needs a great deal of further explanation—for example, part III,

"The Factors of the Path,

"

needs further clarification.

8

THE TREATISE ON THE

ELUCIDATION OF THE KNOWABLE Composed by

'Phags-pa, Imperial Preceptor of the Yuan Translated by ¸es-rab dpal, Great Teacher and Propagator of the Buddha's Knowledge, Tripi†aka with the Dharma-nature, Overseer of the Buddhist Teaching, preaching in the regions of the Yangtze and Huai Rivers and in Fujian

Fascicle One

226b

Homage to my adamantine teacher, and homage to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

1. In his compassion he has revealed to the beings the contents of his universal knowledge. Homage to his supreme knowledge! I shall elucidate the knowable! 2. The inanimate and the animate worlds, the factors of the path and the factors of fruition, and also the unconditioned factors—these are the five topics outlined.

I. The Inanimate World

The substance of the inanimate world consists of the four great elements, because these elements arise simultaneously. Earth is hard. Water is moist. Fire is warm and wind moves. These are the great elements. The smallest parts of these elements are the particles. One might say that they are near-emptinesses, which cannot be fully explained.

1

Seven of those near-emptinesses are one particle. Seven of those particles are an atom. Seven of those atoms are a gold atom. Seven of those gold atoms are a water atom. Seven of those water atoms are [the width of the tip of] a hare's hair. Seven of those hare's hairs are a sheep's hair. Seven of those sheep's hairs are a bullock's hair. Seven of those bullock's hairs are [a dust mote seen in] a fissure. Seven of those fissures are the size of a nit. Seven of those nit-sizes are the size of a louse. Seven of those louses are the size of a barleycorn. Seven of those barleycorn-sizes are a fingerjoint. Three joints are one inch. A spread of twenty-four inches is one cubit. Four cubits are one arc. Five hundred arcs make one kroΩa. Eight kroΩas make one yojana. These are the measurements 11

226c

Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable

for the shapes in the world.

As for the cause that establishes the world, it comes from the influence of the common deeds of all sentient beings. How is it established? From the sphere of empty space arise winds from the ten directions. Rushing at each other, they become firm and motionless, forming the circle of subtle wind. 2 Its color is light blue and

it is extremely solid. It is sixteen lak≈as3 of yojanas deep and its extent is immeasurable. From its heat comes a cloud, called Suvar√agarbha ("Golden Repository"). It brings a heavy downpour of rain and it is supported by the wind. This is namely the ocean below, which is eleven lak≈as and twenty thousand yojanas deep and twelve lak≈as and three thousand four hundred and fifty yojanas wide. As that water is stirred [by the wind] it curdles on top and becomes gold, just as when one cooks milk it coagulates on top and forms a skin. Because of the circle of the golden earth, the circle of water decreases to just eight lak≈as (yojanas) thick. The remainder is formed little by little and the gold becomes three lak≈as and twenty thousand yojanas thick. The circle of gold and the circle of water are equally wide. Their circumference is three times as big, thirty-six lak≈as and ten thousand three hundred and fifty yojanas on the whole.

The previous circle of wind is the ground for the Sahå world. The two circles of earth and water are the ground of the world of the four [great] continents. On top of the circle of earth further heavy rains fall. They form the great ocean, stirred by the wind. A mass of the finest quality forms Mount Sumeru. A mass of intermediate quality forms the Seven Golden Mountains. A mass of the lowest quality forms Mount Cakravå∂a. A mass of mixed quality forms the four continents. As for the substances of [Mount] Sumeru, in the east it is made of silver (r¥pya), in the south of beryl (vai∂¥rya), in the west of crystal (spha†ika), and in the north of gold (suvar√a). The other seven are gold only. The four continents are made of a mixture of elements, [such as] earth and so on. Mount Cakravå∂a is made only of iron.

As to its size, Mount Sumeru is submerged eighty thousand 12

Fascicle One

yojanas in the water. Being higher and finer than all other mountains,it is called Sumeru. Then successively [there are] the Seven Golden Mountains: 1) Mount Yugaµdhara, which is forty thousand yojanas high; 2) Mount ÔΩådhara, which is twenty thousand yojanas high; 3) Mount Khadiraka, which is ten thousand yojanas high; 4) Mount SudarΩana, which is five thousand yojanas high; 5) Mount AΩvakar√a, which is two thousand five hundred yojanas high; 6) Mount Vinataka, which is one thousand two hundred and fifty yojanas high; 7) Mount Nimiµdhara, which is six hundred and twenty-five yojanas high. (The commentary of the Tibetan treatise has: 1] Mount Yoke Holder, 2] Mount Ploughbeam Holder, 3] Mount Acacia, 4] Mount Good-looking, 5] Mount Horse's Ear, 6] Mount Elephant's Tusk, 7] Mount Fish Mouth.) Beyond the four great continents is Mount Cakravå∂a, which is three hundred and twelve and a half yojanas high. Their width for each of those is equal to their height above the water. Between the Seven Golden Mountains is the place where the dragon (någa) kings amuse themselves, called Lalitasågara.

Between the eight mountains there are seven oceans. The one nearest to Mount Sumeru is 1) the Yugaµdhara Ocean, eighty thousand yojanas wide. Then there is 2) the ÔΩådhara Ocean, forty thousand yojanas wide; 3) the Khadiraka Ocean, twenty thousand yojanas wide; 4) the SudarΩana Ocean, ten thousand yojanas wide; 5) the AΩvakar√a Ocean, five thousand yojanas wide; 6) the Vinataka Ocean, two thousand five hundred yojanas wide; and 7) the Nimiµdhara Ocean, one thousand two hundred fifty yojanas wide. They are full of water possessing the eight qualities. 4

The appearance of the eight mountains and the seven oceans is that all lie in a square. The outer ocean tastes salty. The distance between the two mountains Nimiµdhara and Cakravå∂a is three lak≈as and twenty-two thousand yojanas.

Although there are no divisions in the waters of the outer ocean, because of the color of [Mount] Sumeru the color of the ocean in the east is white. The color of the ocean in the south is bluish green. The color of the ocean in the west is red. The color of the 13

Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable

227a

ocean in the north is yellow. As they manifest these colors they are called the four seas. Its perimeter is thirty-six lak≈as and seven hundred and fifty yojanas. The circumference of the outer Mount Cakravå∂a is thirty-six lak≈as and two thousand six hundred and twenty-five yojanas.

In the south of the outer ocean is the continent Jambu[dv∆pa]. Its shape is like a chariot. It is narrow toward [Mount] Cakravå∂a, three and a half yojanas. The remaining three sides are each two thousand yojanas. Its circumference is six thousand three and a half yojanas. It has two intermediate continents: in the east Cåmara ("Yak") and in the west Aparacåmara ("Superior Yak"). The center of Jambu[dv∆pa] is the land of Magadha, the place where the Buddhas of the three periods come into existence. Then, to the north, beyond nine black mountains, is the great snowy mountain [Himavat], said to possess auspiciousness (¸r∆mat). North of that mountain there is Mount Gandhamådana.

5 Between these two mountains

there is a great dragon king, called Anavatapta. The lake in which he dwells is called Anavatapta ("Without Heat"). 6Its shape is square,

each side fifty yojanas. Its circumference is two hundred yojanas. The lake is filled with water possessing the eight qualities. From this lake come the four great rivers. In the east the Ganges River. It flows forth with silver sand from [a rock like] an elephant's mouth. Together with five hundred rivers it flows to the Eastern Ocean. In the south the Indus River. It flows forth with beryl sand from [a rock like] a bull's mouth. Together with five hundred rivers it flows to the Southern Ocean. In the west the Oxus (Vak≈u) River. It flows forth with crystal sand from [a rock like] a horse's mouth. Together with five hundred rivers it flows to the Western Ocean. In the north the ¸∆tå River. 7 It flows forth

with gold sand from [a rock like] a lion's mouth. Together with five hundred rivers it flows to the Northern Ocean. These four rivers go around Lake Anavatapta seven times, keeping it to the right, and then flow in their own direction.

Twenty yojanas to the north beyond Mount Gandhamådana there is a cli› called the Golden Prågbhåra Cli›. 8 Each side being

14

Fascicle One

fifty yojanas, the circumference is two hundred yojanas. It is three and a half yojanas high. There are eight thousand more smaller cli›s.

Twenty yojanas to the north beyond the cli› is the king of the Ωåla trees, called Suprati≈†hita. Its roots go down forty arcs into the ground and it is eighty arcs high. Seven rows of trees surround it. Twenty yojanas to the east beyond it, there is Lake Mandåkin∆. Its shape is round, fifty yojanas wide, and it has a circumference of a hundred and fifty yojanas. It further has eighty thousand smaller lakes, and is filled with water possessing the eight qualities. In it there are lotus flowers, of which the leaves are like ox-hide. Their stalks are like axle trees and their flowers are like wagon wheels. Their flavor is fine, just like honey. In that place (Golden Cli›), together with eight thousand elephants, there [is] the elephant king Suprati≈†hita, who is ridden by Lord ¸akra when he goes into battle. He spends the four winter months on the Golden Cli›. He spends the four months of the hot season near the Supra ti≈†hita [tree]. He spends the four rainy months near Lake Mandåkin∆. On the shore of Lake Anavatapta there is a jambu tree. Its fruits taste fine and have the measurements of a jar. When they are ripe they fall into the water and make the sound jambu. The dragons (någas) change into fishes and swallow this fruit. [The fruits that are] left over are taken by the current and form jambu gold. Because of the name of this tree, (this continent) is called Jambu[dv∆pa].

To the west of this continent is the great Adamantine Palace of the land of O∂∂iyåna,

9 where those of noble lineage dwell. The

law of the Adamantine Vehicle (Vajrayana) is transmitted from there. A mountain in the Southern Ocean is called Potalaka. The bodhisattva AvalokiteΩvara dwells on its top, and the noble mother Tårå dwells at its foot. In the east there are the Five Peaks (Wutai shan). The bodhisattva MañjuΩr∆ dwells at the top. There are sixteen great countries and one thousand or so smaller countries. There further are three hundred and sixty di›erent peoples and seven hundred and twenty di›erent languages.

15

227b

Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable

The continent to the east of the outer ocean is called Videha, which is shaped like a half-moon. The side opposite Mount Sumeru is three hundred and fifty yojanas. The other side is six thousand yojanas. Its circumference is six thousand three hundred and fifty yojanas. This continent has two intermediate continents at its two sides: Deha ("Body") to the north and Videha ("Excellent Body") to the south. Those three continents surpass the other continents with seven tåla trees. Some say,

"The appearance of the people of the

continent is fine. Because their person is excellent, it is called Videha. "

The northern continent of the outer ocean is called Kuru. Its shape is four-cornered, like a square, each side [measuring] two thousand yojanas. Its circumference is eight thousand yojanas. This continent has two intermediate continents at its two sides. One is called Kurava ("With Excellence") and the other Kaurava ("Relating to Kurava"). Everything that is enjoyed by the people of that continent comes from the wishing tree. Seven days before their death an unpleasant voice comes from the wishing tree, saying, "In seven days you will die.

" Some say,

"The lowly tongue of

the people of the continent is cut. Therefore Kuru means 'unpleasant voice' in the language of the flesh-eating demons (piΩåcas). "

The western continent of the outer ocean is called Godån∆ya. Its shape is like the full moon. Its diameter is two thousand five hundred yojanas and its circumference is seven thousand five hundred yojanas. It has two intermediate continents: to the south ¸å†hå ("With Deceit") and to the north Uttaramantri√a ("Supreme Deportment"). Because the people in that continent possess a great many precious cows, it is called Godån∆ya.

The continents, oceans, and mountains are on the underside all eighty thousand yojanas, because they are near the Golden Ground. The continents Siµhala[dv∆pa], Suvar√adv∆pa, Candradv∆pa, 10and

so on, near Jambudv∆pa, belong to Jambudv∆pa. The same applies to the small continents of the other great continents. Upward from there, forty thousand yojanas in space, on the circle of wind which is pure, unobstructed, and very firm, are the sun, moon, and stars, moving around from the right. The gods who 16

Fascicle One

dwell in space dwell and abide there.

The disc of the sun is made of a fire crystal. Its diameter is fifty-one yojanas and its circumference a hundred and fifty-three yojanas. It is six and one-eighteenth yojanas thick. On top it has a golden rim. Higher up there further are gold, silver, beryl, and crystal, which delicately form four spires. It is the palace where the Sun God and his retinue dwell. It is put into motion by the wind and it goes round the four great continents in one day and night. When the sun goes north, the day becomes longer. When it goes south, the time becomes shorter. When it goes between north and south, [the length of the] day and night are equal. Because of the light in the places where it proceeds there is cold and heat, and it brings the time of winter and summer. It goes six months to the north and six months to the south. When it has reached halfway, this is called the turning back of the sun and moon. Going once round the circle of the stars is called one year. The disc of the moon is made of water crystal. Its diameter is fifty yojanas and its circumference is one hundred and fifty yojanas. It is six and one-eighteenth yojanas thick. On top there further are gold, silver, beryl, and crystal, which delicately form four spires. It is the palace where the Moon God and his retinue dwell. As the distance between the sun and the moon is far or near, its own shadow increases and diminishes. As it increases one part, the waxing moon emerges. When the fifteen parts are complete, it is called full. As it diminishes one part, the waning moon emerges. When its own shadow covers it and when the fifteen parts are complete, it is called not full. Because of the increase or decrease one uses the term skyday. Because of one day and one night, one uses the term earthday. Such thirty [of these days] are called one month. The stars are the palaces of the gods who dwell in space. They are made of precious materials and their shape is in any case round. The smallest is one kroΩa, the middle size is three kroΩas, and the biggest is six kroΩas. Their circumference is threefold, belonging to the group of the [Four Great Heavenly Kings] (catur mahåråjaka -17 227c

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kåyika).

On Mount Sumeru there are four terraces. The one of which the distance from the water level upward is ten times one thousand yojanas is the first terrace. From Mount Sumeru's sides it protrudes sixteen times one thousand yojanas. The one which is ten thousand yojanas upward is the second terrace. It protrudes eight thousand yojanas from the sides. The one which is ten thousand yojanas upward is the third terrace. It protrudes four thousand yojanas from the sides. The one which is ten thousand yojanas upward is the fourth terrace, which protrudes two thousand yojanas from the sides. The four corners at the top of that Mount Sumeru each have a pinnacle that is four and a half yojanas high, one hundred and twenty-five yojanas wide, and five hundred yojanas in circumference. There are yak≈a spirits living there. On top of the mountain is the central city of the thirty-three gods (TråyastriµΩa), called SudarΩana, which is made from pure gold. It is one and a half yojanas high, with each side two thousand five hundred yojanas, and ten thousand yojanas in circumference. Its walls are pure gold, all adorned with one hundred and one di›erent precious gems. The earth is soft like t¥la cotton. On the four sides of that city there are sixteen thousand precious pillars, and there are precious ridges, precious rafters, and precious eaves. [There are] four gates at the four sides, and further one thousand minus one smaller gates. [There are] four main thoroughfares, with smaller streets. By the four gates are five hundred gods guarding those gates, all wearing solid armor. In the city there is the palace of Emperor ¸akra, called Vaija yanta ("Most Excellent Abode" or "Very Excellent Palace"). Its shape is square. It is four and a half yojanas11 high, and each of the sides is two hundred and fifty yojanas. Its circumference is one thousand yojanas. [There are] one hundred and one domes (niry¥has) and for each dome there are seven pavilions. For each precious pavilion [there are] seven smaller pavilions, and for each smaller pavilion [there are] seven ponds. For each pond [there are] seven lotuses, and on each lotus there are seven boys and girls, 18

Fascicle One

playing di›erent kinds of music, singing, dancing, and being merry. To the east of the city of SudarΩana there is [the place] where all ride, called Caitraratha Park, on an elevation of one thousand yojanas. To the south is the place for those who go into battle, called Påru≈yaka Park. To the west [is] the place for all [kinds of] behavior, called MiΩraka Park. To the north [is] the place for merriment, called Nandana Park. Their extent is the same as the first one. At a distance of twenty yojanas beyond these parks there are beautiful grounds, called Caitraratha, Påru≈yaka, MiΩraka, and Nandana, of the same size as the four parks. To the northeast of SudarΩana there is the wishing tree, called Pårijåtaka, also called the "fully-developed" tree. Its roots go down fifty yojanas, and it is one hundred yojanas high. Its branches extend over fifty yojanas. It grants one's wishes. Under it is a stone slab, called Armolika, [which is] as white as a cloth (på√∂u kambala Ωilå tala). [Measuring] fifty yojanas on each side, its circumference is two hundred yojanas. To the southwest of SudarΩana is the place where the gods gather, called the Sudharmå Hall. Its circumference is nine hundred yojanas and its shape is round. In the middle of that hall is the throne of Emperor ¸akra, made of pure gold. Around this throne are the seats of the thirty-two assisting o‡cials. In all [the seats of] the thirty-three gods are arranged.

Eighty thousand yojanas upward is the palace of the Yåma gods, made from precious materials and resting on the wind in space. Its size is twice as big as the top of Mount Sumeru. One hundred and sixty thousand yojanas higher is the palace of the Tu≈ita gods, made from valuables and resting on the wind in space. Its measurements are like those of the Yåma [heaven], but the extent is twice as big. Three lak≈as and twenty thousand yojanas higher is the palace of the Nirmå√arati gods, made from valuables and resting on the wind in space. Its measurements are like those of the Tu≈ita [heaven], but the extent is twice as big. Six lak≈as and forty thousand yojanas higher is the palace of the Paranir mita vaΩavartingods, made from valuables and resting on the wind in space. Its measurements are the same as those of the Nirmå√a -19

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rati [heaven], but the extent is twice as big. This is the realm of desire (kåmadhåtu). Above it is the first meditative trance (dhyåna). And so the four [great] continents, the seven mountains, Mount Sumeru and Mount Cakravå∂a, the six gods of the realm of desire, and the first trance are the so-called realm of the four continents. Up to a thousand are a small chiliocosm. One small chiliocosm is surrounded by a Mount Cakravå∂a. Up to a thousand of these small chiliocosms are a medium chiliocosm. One medium chiliocosm is surrounded by a Mount Cakravå∂a. Up to a thousand of these medium chiliocosms are a trichiliocosm. One trichiliocosm is surrounded by a Mount Cakravå∂a. And so there are a hundred times one hundred thousand realms of the four continents, all spread out surrounded by Mount Cakravå∂as.

In the dark places between the mountains of the continents there is no day or night. When you raise your hand you see nothing. The heaven of the first trance is equal in size to the realm of the four continents. The heaven of the second trance is equal in size to a small chiliocosm. The heaven of the third trance is equal in size to a medium chiliocosm. The heaven of the fourth trance is equal in size to a trichiliocosm. The distance between them always increases twofold. This is namely the realm of form (r¥padhåtu). The realm of non-form (år¥pyadhåtu) has no separate places. If someone is born there, he is [re]born in the place where his life had ended. Because one dwells in an immaterial meditative attainment, it is called the [realm of] non-form. II. The Animate World

The animate world is altogether sixfold: 1) hell[-beings], 2) hungry ghosts (pretas), 3) animals, 4) humans, 5) asuras, and 6) gods (devas). What do the names of these six kinds mean? First, because [their limbs are] cut to pieces, they are called hell-beings. Second, as they are vexed by hunger and thirst, they are called hungry ghosts. Third, because they walk horizontally, they are called ani-20

II. The Animate World

Fascicle One

mals. Fourth, because their mind makes many distinctions, they are called humans, the meaning of manu≈ya. Fifth, because even though their bodies and enjoyments are like those of the gods, they are somewhat inferior, or because of the absence of wine (surå), they are called demigods, the meaning of asura. Sixth, because they are born of a Brahma body and are merry and joyful, or because they are worthy of worship, they are called gods, the meaning of deva. Hell is a wasteland twenty thousand yojanas under the Jambu[d v∆pa] continent. Its four sides are twenty thousand yojanas. It is made entirely of iron, and is thoroughly incandescent with fire. There are eight hot hells: 1) Saµj∆va, 2) Kålas¥tra, 3) Saµ ghåta, 4) Raurava, 5) Mahåraurava, 6) Tåpana, 7) Pratåpana, and 8) Av∆ci.

12

As for the Saµj∆va hell, the beings who are born there are a›ected by their former deeds. Holding weapons in their hands they harbor enmity toward one another and cut each other down. They fall to pieces, faint, and temporarily die. When a voice from space revives them, these beings are immediately revived and they again cut each other down. As for their lifespan, the period of one life of the gods of the Four Great Heavenly Kings is one day and night. Their lifetime, thus calculated, is five hundred years of experiencing this su›ering. As for the Kålas¥tra hell, the hell guards mark the bodies of the beings from head to toe with black threads and cleave their limbs with flaming saws and axes. Through the power of their former deeds the upper part [of the body] revives when they have cut away the lower part. As for their lifespans, the period of one life of the TråyastriµΩa gods is one day and night. Their lifetime, thus calculated, is one thousand years of experiencing this su›ering. As for the Saµghåta hell, the beings who are born there are hit with iron hammers. Or there are two iron mountains, like a ram's head. When the two mountains come together, [the beings] are ground down and crushed. When the two mountains open up, they are spontaneously revived and are crushed again. As for their 21

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lifespans, the period of one life of the Yåma gods is one day and night. Their lifetime, thus calculated, is two thousand years of experiencing this su›ering.

As for the Raurava hell, the beings who are born there are frightened by a pool of hot iron. As they enter a dense forest it is ablaze with flames and they burn [for] long years. Because of the power of their former deeds the extent of their tongue measures one thousand yojanas. There is a big ox with iron horns and hooves and equipped with an iron plough. Ablaze with flames, it ploughs their tongues. As for their lifespans, the period of one life of the Tu≈ita gods is one day and night. Their lifetime, thus calculated, is four thousand years of experiencing this su›ering. As for the Mahåraurava hell, it is the same as the previous one, but [the] su›ering [experienced by those reborn there] is twice as great. As for their lifespans, the period of one life of the Nir må√a rati gods is one day and night. Their lifetime, thus calculated, is eight thousand years of experiencing this su›ering. As for the Tåpana hell, [the beings born there] experience su›ering within three iron walls and are utterly destroyed by fire. As for their lifespans, the period of one life of the Paranirmita vaΩa vartin gods is one day and night. The length of such life is sixteen thousand years of experiencing this su›ering. As for the Pratåpana hell, it is the same as the previous one, but [the] su›ering [experienced by those who are reborn there] is twice as great. Their lifetime equals half an intermediate kalpa (antarakalpa)13 of experiencing this su›ering.

In the Av∆ci hell [beings] experience extreme su›ering. Their bodies are ablaze in flames in an iron room. Their lifetime equals one intermediate kalpa.

As for the sixteen supplementary hells, alongside the eight hot hells there are four on each side.

14 They are: the [first] supplementary hell, Kukkula, in which all sink up to their knees. When beings go there, the moment they put down their foot their skin, flesh, and blood are all burned and fall o›, leaving only bones. When they lift their feet, they grow again, restored as before. 22

Fascicle One

The [second] supplementary hell is Ku√apa, in which beings sink up to their waist in impurity and filth full of many nyaçku†å insects, whose snouts are as sharp as needles. They pierce the skin to the bone and suck out the marrow.

The [third] supplementary hell is K≈uradhårå, further threefold: 1) K≈uramårga—[sharp] blades are spread out there, forming a large path. When beings go there, the moment they put down a foot, their skin, flesh, and blood are all cut up and fall o›. When they lift their feet, they grow again, restored as before; 2) Asipattravana—the trees in this forest have sharp swords as leaves. When beings go there, the wind blows down the leaves, cutting up their limbs. Their flesh and bones fall down. There are fierce black dogs that pull at them with their fangs and eat them; and 3) the forest with the iron thorns, called [Aya˙]Ωålmal∆[vana]—the trees in this forest have sharp iron thorns, sixteen inches long. When beings are forced up and down the trees, the sharp edges of the thorns stab them up and down. The blood, flesh, and skin of these beings hang on the thorns and stain them, leaving only sinews and the bones. There are ravens with an iron beak that peck at the eyes and at the brain of the beings, contending to eat them. These three kinds, K≈uramårga, and so on, may be di›erent but because the iron weapons are the same, they are comprised in one supplementary hell [called K≈uradhårå].

The [fourth] supplementary hell K≈årodakå Nad∆, called Vaitara√∆ ("Without Ford"), is filled with an extremely potent alkaline fluid. When a being enters it, he may drift or sink, go against or with the flow, go sideways or vertically. He is cooked and boiled and his flesh and bones disintegrate. If, for example, one were to place grains of rice in a big cauldron filled with lye and burn a fierce fire under it, the grains of rice in it would go up and down and around and completely decompose. The same applies to [the] beings [reborn in this hell]. If they try to escape, there are guards on both shores, who hold knives and spears in their hands, keeping them o› [the shore] and forcing them to return. There is no way they can escape. This river is like a moat and the previous 23

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three are like parks. They are called nearby hells. [There are] eight cold hells: 1) Arbuda, 2) Nirarbuda, 3) A†a†a, 4) Apapa (Hahava), 5) Huhuva, 6) Bursting Open Like an Utpala Flower (i.e., a blue lotus), 7) Bursting Open Like a Red Lotus (padma), and 8) Bursting Open Like a Very Red Lotus (mahåpadma). 15

In the Arbuda hell, [beings are] born in frozen ice; there is extremely severe cold and they have blisters all over, which is the meaning of Arbuda hell. As for their lifespan, if you take one sesame [seed] every hundred years from eighty bushels of sesame [seeds]— the large bushels used in the land of Magadha—until the sesame [seeds] are used up, their lifetime [in this hell] is just like that. In the Nirarbuda hell, because of extremely severe cold the blisters burst open and yellow pus drips out. The lifespan [of the beings born there] is twenty times longer than in the preceding hell. In the A†a†a hell, because of very severe cold the [beings born there] bear it with shattering teeth. Their lifespan is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell].

In the Apapa hell, [the beings born there] wail while enduring the cold. Their lifespan is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell].

In the Huhuva hell, [the beings born there] emit a painful sound because they cry from cold. Their lifespan is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell].

In the hell Bursting Open Like an Utpala Flower, because of the severe cold the body bursts open like the leaves of an utpala flower. The lifespan [of the beings born there] is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell].

In the hell Bursting Open Like a Red Lotus, because of the severe cold the body bursts open, opening up like a red lotus. The lifespan [of the beings born there] is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell].

In the hell Bursting Open Like a Very Red Lotus, the body bursts open even worse than in the preceding [hell], just as a big red lotus opens up its many leaves. The lifespan [of the beings born 24

Fascicle One

there] is twenty times longer than in the preceding [hell]. The individual hells are in the wilderness and the mountains of Jambudv∆pa. Each day and night one experiences [both] su›ering and happiness, because the feelings are mixed together. And so the eight hot hells, the eight cold hells, the supplementary hells, and the individual hells are called the eighteen hells. In the second place,

16the hungry ghosts. Five hundred yojanas

under the city of Råjag®ha there is the city of the hungry ghosts, called Kapila ("Yellowish White"), also called Candan ("Somber"). The demon king is called Dharma King Yama. He dwells together with thirty-six attendants.

There are four kinds [of hungry ghosts]: 1) those with an outer obstacle, 2) those with an inner obstacle, 3) those with an obstacle to food and drink, and 4) those with an obstacle to eating and drinking. First are those with an outer obstacle—they cannot even hear the sound of eating and drinking. Second, those with an inner obstacle may obtain some food and drink but it cannot get in, as their mouth is like the eye of a needle. Supposing [the food] can enter the mouth, the throat is like a horse's tail (i.e., as narrow as a horse hair). [The food] cannot pass through. [Even] supposing [the food] passes through the throat, the belly, having the dimensions of a mountain, can never be filled. Even if the belly is filled, their legs are like the stalk of a plant and cannot lift it. They experience this great su›ering. Third are those with an obstacle to food and drink. When they see food and drink, countless guards take up arms and guard it, not letting anyone obtain it. Fourth are those with an obstacle to eating and drinking. When they take food and drink, a›ected by their deeds, iron balls and liquid bronze are put in their mouths and flow straight out from below. Such four kinds are all hungry ghosts. As for their lifespans, one month among people equals one night and day. In this way one calculates their lifetimes to be five hundred years, which equals fifteen thousand human years. Some stay among humans, in such places as cemeteries, eating flesh and blood. These all are the kinds of hungry ghosts. In the third place are the animals. They mostly live in rivers 25

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and seas, and dwell in turbid waters like dregs. Since the big ones eat the small ones and the small ones eat the big ones, they all fear one another. Because of the waves of the sea, their dwelling places are not fixed. Some dwell among humans and gods. As for their lifespans, the longest is like the life of a dragon (någa) king, half an intermediate kalpa, and the shortest is like the life of a gnat, that is, one instant (k≈a√a). The size of their bodies is not fixed. In the fourth place are humans. They live in the four great continents, in the eight intermediate continents, and in the minor continents. As for their lifespans, for example the lifetime of the people of Jambudv∆pa was immeasurable in the initial origination kalpa. Thereafter it gradually decreased to sixty years now, and it will continue to gradually decrease to ten years. After that it may gradually increase but without any fixed duration. The people of Kuru to the north definitely live one thousand years. The people of Videha to the east live five hundred years. The people of Godån∆ya to the west live two hundred and fifty years. Except for those of Kuru to the north, the others may meet an untimely end. As for their objects of enjoyment, those of the continent Kuru to the north consume natural wild rice. Their clothes and necklaces come from the wishing tree. Those of the other three continents consume cereals and meat, and they have the enjoyment of riches and valuables.

As for the size of their bodies, the people of Jambudv∆pa [measure four cubits and the people of Videha to the east17] measure eight cubits. The [size of the bodies] of the people of Godån∆ya to the west is sixteen cubits. The people of Kuru to the north are thirty-two cubits [in size]. The face of those people is like the shape of their continent. The people of the smaller continents are like those of the main continents but in each case their bodies have decreased to half [their size]. So they are explained in this way. In the fifth place are the asuras (demigods). Eleven thousand yojanas under the level of the waters of Mount Sumeru, in the city of SåµkåΩya in a mountainous wasteland, lives the asura king called Råhu ("Composing the Mind") with his retinue. Eleven thou-26

Fascicle One

sand yojanas farther lives the asura king called ¸ambara (?) ("Neck Garland") with his retinue in the city of Tåråmålå (?) ("Star Garland"). Eleven thousand yojanas farther lives the asura king called Prahåråda (?) ("Fine Guardian") or Bali ("Strong") with his retinue in the city of D®∂ha (?) ("Stronghold"). Eleven thousand yojanas farther lives the asura king called Vemacitra ("Variety of Strings" or "Multitude of Decorative Lines") with his retinue in the city of Gambh∆ra ("Deep"). He is in a constant battle with his opponent Lord ¸akra. His fortress is called Haimavat∆ ("Golden") and his palace is called Ninådita (?) ("Music"). His wishing tree king is called Citrapå†al∆. His meeting place is called Sudhana and his stone slab is called Bhadra. His parks are called Joy, Fine Joy, Utmost Joy, and Entire Joy, and his fine grounds are also called Joy, Fine Joy, Utmost Joy, and Entire Joy. The elephant he rides into battle is called Du≈prasåha. The elephant he rides to enjoy himself is called Snowdrift, and his horse is called Balåhaka. The asuras fight with the thirty-three gods (TråyastriµΩa) over the flavor of sudhå (divine nectar) and the asura lady [¸ac∆]. They come out of the mountainous wasteland in order to wage battle. Wearing solid armor made of gold, silver, beryl, or crystal, and wielding swords, spears, javelins, or bows and arrows, they lead their four divisions. Either the first three of the asura kings, Råhu, ¸ambara, and Prahåråda, come or all four, including Vemacitra, come. At that time, of the five groups of protectors of Lord ¸akra, the one dwelling in the Lalitasågara, the group of the dragon (någa) kings who rejoice in white (i.e, wholesome) factors wage battle against the asura armies in order to drive them back. If the någas are not victorious, they go to the Karo†apå√i [gods] and the two protectors again both wage battle against the asuras. If they are still not victorious, they further go to the Målådhåra [gods] and all three protectors again wage battle against the asuras. If they are not victorious, they further go to the Sadåmata [gods] and all four protectors again wage battle against the asuras. If they are still not victorious, they further go to the Four [Great Heavenly] Kings and all five protectors again wage battle against 229c

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the asuras. The Four Great Heavenly Kings lead their four armies, donning their precious solid armor and grasping their weapons. The Four [Great] Heavenly Kings usually win in battle, but if they cannot hold them back, they go to the TråyastriµΩa gods and inform Lord ¸akra,

"We, the protectors, cannot drive the asura

armies back. You, king, must rout the enemy!" When they have thus spoken, Lord ¸akra, lord of the gods, mounts his elephant Suprati≈†hita and informs the group of the thirty-three gods: "You must know that the asura armies have now reached the top of Mount Sumeru! Don your solid armor and take your chariots to fight against the asuras!" After he has said these words, the divine sons all don their precious armor and grasp their weapons. They go to Caitraratha Park and take their chariots and, entering Påru≈yaka Park, they steel their bodies and minds. Upon leaving the city of SudarΩana, they engage the battle with their enemies, the asuras. If the asuras are victorious, they invade the city. If the gods gain a victory, they pursue the chariots of the asuras to the first sea. If the gods or asuras are cut at the waist in a battle they die, but if their hands and feet are cut o›, the [limbs] regrow again, just as before. When a Bhagavat, a pratyekabuddha, or a noble universal monarch (cakravartin) dwells in the world, the asuras do not have any belligerent thoughts, but if they come to blows, the gods will certainly be victorious. If that which is wholesome in the world increases, the multitude of the gods will also win. If that which is not wholesome in the world increases, the asuras will win; thus, the gods protect wholesome elements. In the sixth place are the gods.

18[There are] six gods in the realm

of desire, seventeen in the realm of form, and four in the realm of non-form. Of the six gods of the realm of desire, on the first terrace of Mount Sumeru the group of Karo†apå√i [gods] lives. On the second terrace the group of Målådhåra [gods] lives. On the third terrace the group of Sadåmada [gods] lives. To the north on Mount Yugaµdhara there is a fortress called A†akåvat∆, the dwelling of the heavenly king VaiΩrava√a and his multitude of yak≈as. In the same way, to the east there is a fortress called Excellent,where the great heavenly 28

Fascicle One

king Dh®tarå≈†ra and his multitude of gandharvas live. To the west there is a fortress called Various Forms, where the great heavenly king Vir¥påk≈a and his multitude of någa spirits live. To the south there is a fortress called Vir¥∂haka, where the great heavenly king Vir¥∂haka and his multitude of yamåntakas (kumbhå√∂as) live. For the rest, on the four terraces, the Seven Golden Mountains, the sun, moon, and stars, Mount Cakravå∂a, in the mountains of the Jambu[dv∆pa] continent, in the tåla trees, a multitude belonging to the group of the Four [Great Heavenly] Kings also dwell in [these] places. They all form the company of the Four [Great Heavenly] Kings. They are namely one group. As for their lifespan, fifty human years are one night and day. In this way their lifetime measures five hundred years. As for the size of their bodies, it is one-fourth of a kroΩa.

On top of Mount Sumeru with the thirty-three gods dwells Lord ¸akra, lord of the gods, in the place Vaijayanta, together with his asura lady called ¸ac∆, and also with many goddesses (apsaras). They tirelessly enjoy their desires. There is also the royal elephant that [¸akra] rides into battle, called Suprati≈†hita. The royal elephant he rides in his park for amusement is called Airåva√a ("O›spring Possessing the Earth"). These two elephants each have a girth of seven yojanas, and each lives with a group of eight thousand smaller elephants. There also is a royal horse called Balåhaka, which dwells with eight thousand horses. Because the number of the assisting o‡cials of the lord of the gods is thirtytwo, 19 they are [collectively] called the thirty-three gods. All heavenly sons indulge in the five desires. When they are heedless, there is a big celestial drum (mahåbheri) and the tones that come from the drum arouse the gods. They say, "All formations

are impermanent, impure, and all are painful. All factors are egoless. Their allayment means happiness.

"20 When they fight with the

asura armies, it brings tones that dispel su›ering, arousing them with the words,

"The gods wish to obtain a victory, and they wish for the defeat of the asuras.

" The palace, the fortress, the tree, the

meeting places, the stone [slab], and so on are as discussed earlier. 21

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As for the lifespan of the gods, a hundred human years are one night and day. Calculated in this way, their lifetime is a thousand years. Their celestial bodies measure half a yojana. The Yåma gods: the thirty-three gods fight with the asuras, but because [the Yåma gods] are free from strife, they are called gods who are free from strife (Yåma). As for the lifespan of these gods, two hundred years are one night and day. Calculated in this way their lifetime is two thousand years. Their celestial bodies measure two yojanas.

The Tu≈ita gods: there is the venerable Maitreya who will succeed to the throne of the Dharma King, both mundane and supramundane. Experiencing the happiness of the great doctrine, they are called Tu≈ita. This means "all happy.

" Four hundred years

among humans are one night and day of those gods. Their lifetime is four thousand years and their bodies measure four yojanas. The Nirmå√arati gods: enjoying their own magical creations, they are called Nirmå√arati. Eight hundred years among humans are one night and day of those gods. Their lifetime is eight thousand years and their bodies measure eight yojanas. The ParanirmitavaΩavartin gods: enjoying the magical creations of others, they are called ParanirmitavaΩavartin. The celestial king among them, their awesome sovereign, is Lord Måra. One thousand six hundred years among humans are one night and day of those gods. Their lifetime measures sixteen thousand years and their bodies measure sixteen yojanas.

From the Av∆ci [hell] down below to the [heaven of the] ParanirmitavaΩavartin gods, one calls this the realm of desire. It is thus called because [the beings of this realm] indulge in desire and because their food is in lumps.

The seventeen gods of the realm of form are comprised in the four trances (dhyåna). [There are] three gods in the first trance: Brahma kåyika, Brahma purohita, and Mahåbrahma. As for the lifespan of those gods, half a kalpa for the Brahma kåyikas, one kalpa for the Brahmapurohitas, and one and a half kalpas for the 30

Fascicle One

Mahåbrahmas. The bodies of those gods measure half a yojana, one yojana, and one and a half yojanas respectively. [There are] three gods in the second trance: Parittåbha, Apra må√ åbha, and Åbhåsvara. As for the lifespan of those gods, two kalpas for the Parittåbhas—for the four gods mentioned earlier forty intermediate kalpas are one great kalpa, and for the gods who will be mentioned later eighty intermediate kalpas are one great kalpa—four kalpas for the Apramå√åbhas, and eight kalpas for the Åbhåsvaras. The bodies of those gods measure two yojanas for the Parittåbhas, four yojanas for the Apramå√åbhas, and eight yojanas for the Åbhåsvaras.

[There are] three gods in the third trance: ParittaΩubha, Apra må√aΩubha, and ¸ubhak®tsna. As for the lifespan of these gods, sixteen kalpas for the ParittaΩubhas, thirty-two kalpas for the Apramå√aΩubhas, and sixty-four kalpas for the ¸ubha k®tsnas. The bodies of those gods measure sixteen yojanas for the Paritta -Ωubhas, thirty-two yojanas for the Apramå√aΩubhas, and sixtyfour yojanas for the ¸ubhak®tsnas. [There are] eight gods in the fourth trance: Anabhraka, Pu√ya prasava, and B®hatphala—these three are dwellings for the common; Av®ha, Atapa, Sud®Ωa, SudarΩana, and Akani≈†ha—these five are dwellings for the noble, called the five pure abodes. As for the lifespan of these gods, it is one hundred and twenty-five kalpas for the Anabhrakas, two hundred and fifty kalpas for the Pu√ya prasavas, five hundred kalpas for the B®hatphalas, one thousand kalpas for the Av®has, two thousand kalpas for the Atapas, four thousand kalpas for the Sud®Ωas, eight thousand kalpas for the SudarΩanas, and sixteen thousand kalpas for the Akani≈†has. The bodies of these gods measure one hundred and twenty-five yojanas for the Anabhrakas, two hundred and fifty yojanas for the Pu√ya prasavas, five hundred yojanas for the B®hatphalas, one thousand yojanas for the Av®has, two thousand yojanas for the Atapas, four thousand yojanas for the Sud®Ωas, eight thousand yojanas for the SudarΩanas and sixteen thousand yojanas for the Akani≈†has. 31

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From Brahmakåyika to Akani≈†ha, this is all said to be of the realm of form, because [the beings of this realm] are free from desire but not free from matter. So they are said to be of the realm of form.

The four gods of the realm of non-form do not have corporeal form, nor do they have an abode. Because of meditative attainment one distinguishes four: ÅkåΩånantyåyatana ("Sphere of Unlimited Space"), Vijñånånantyåyatana ("Sphere of Unlimited Consciousness"), Åkiµcanyåyatana ("Sphere of Nothingness"), and Nai vasa µjñånåsaµjñåyatana ("Sphere of Neither Identi fication nor Non iden ti fication"). As for the lifespan of these gods, twenty thousand great kalpas is the lifespan of ÅkåΩånantyå ya tana, forty thousand great kalpas for Vijñånå nan tyå yatana, sixty thousand great kalpas for Åkiµcanyåyatana, and eighty thousand great kalpas for Naivasaµjñånåsaµjñåyatana. Those four spheres are said to be the realm of non-form. They are not without certain matter but they are without any coarse matter. So they have no name-andform (nåmar¥pa). For the duration of their lifetime one uses the periods year and kalpa.

What about their duration? The shortest duration is called k≈a√a (instant). One hundred and twenty k≈a√as are one tatk≈a√a (second). Sixty tatk≈a√as are one lava (minute). Thirty lavas are one muh¥rta—this is called "a while"; thirty muh¥rtas are one night-and-day. Thirty night-and-days are one month. Twelve months are one year.

22 There are six kinds of kalpas: 1) an intermediate kalpa (antarakalpa), which may also be called a separate kalpa, 2) an origination kalpa (vivartakalpa), 3) a continuance kalpa (sthitikalpa), 4) a destruction kalpa (saµvartakalpa), 5) an empty kalpa (Ω¥nyakalpa), and 6) a great kalpa (mahåkalpa). First, an intermediate kalpa: when the [lifespan of] people in Jambu[dv∆pa] gradually decreases in time from immeasurable years to eighty thousand years, this comprises an origination kalpa. When [their lifespan] decreases from eighty thousand years to ten years, it is called the initial intermediate kalpa. When it increases again to eighty thousand years and decreases to ten years, it is 32

Fascicle One

one "round.

" When such [rounds of] decrease and increase happen eighteen times, they are eighteen intermediate kalpas. But when it reaches for the last time from ten years to eighty thousand years, it is the final end of the intermediate kalpas. The beginning, the end, and the eighteen rounds in between are twenty intermediate kalpas.

Second, an origination kalpa: starting from the circle of wind till a sentient being is reborn in the Av∆ci hell. The inanimate world is completed in an intermediate kalpa, as explained earlier. As for the animate world, after the destruction by fire of this trichiliocosm, it originates [again].

When the life of a celestial being from the Åbhåsvara gods had ended, he was reborn in the place of Mahåbrahma. All alone and weary, he cried out,

"Why couldn't someone with the same fate be

reborn in this world?" Such were his thoughts. Although it was not through the power of his thinking, people's lives from the Åbhå svara heaven ended and they were immediately reborn in that place. The one who was first reborn made this consideration in his mind: "They are reborn because of my longing.

" And so all in the world

call their ancestor Mahåbrahma. Then they were successively reborn among the Brahmapurohitas, the Brahmakåyikas, the ParanirmitavaΩavartins, and so forth until the Four [Great Heavenly] Kings. They were successively reborn in the continent Kuru to the north, the continent Godån∆ya to the west, the continent Videha to the east, and the continent Jambu[dv∆pa] to the south. The people of the continent Jambu[dv∆pa] then lived for innumerable years. They lived on bliss and were complete with form and mind. Their bodies were luminous and they could freely ascend into the sky. Just like the gods of the realm of form, such was their kind. Earth-essence was gradually produced. Its taste was sweet and its color white, just like honey. Its aroma was fragrant. Then there was a person who was by nature addicted to its flavor. When he smelled its fragrance, desire arose. He tried it and ate it, and he also informed others, who subsequently imitated him and took the food. Because they had eaten the food [that was] in lumps, the 231a

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luminosity of their bodies disappeared. Through the influence of the actions of the crowd the sun and moon came out, shining in the four [great] continents. Then, when the earth-essence had vanished, there further appeared earth-cakes. Their taste was sweet and their color red, like honey. The [people] were striving to eat [this food]. When the earth-cakes had disappeared too, there then appeared wild creepers. Because they were striving to eat [this food], the wild creepers disappeared too. There appeared natural wild rice for which they had not ploughed or sown. The people all took this food, but because this food was coarse the impurities left over were all secreted through the organs. They all ate from time to time then, choosing the fragrant rice to eat. Later, there were people who were lazy by nature. They constantly took the fragrant rice and hoarded it as their food. The others also imitated this and the fragrant wild rice disappeared. So they all divided the fields, taking precautions not to use up [the food] in the future. They were parsimonious and protective of their own fields [while being] fond and covetous of others' fields. So they started fighting. Then they all agreed on a virtuous one and appointed him as lord of the fields. Because he was approved by all, he was called King Mahåsaµmata ("Approved by All"). The king had many sons, who successively succeeded to the throne. The eldest was called Roca. His son was Emperor Kalyå√a. His son was Varakalyå√a. His son was Upo≈adha. These are namely the five kings of the origination kalpa. The son of King Upo≈adha was called M¥rdhåta. His son was Emperor Cåru. His son was Upacåru. His son was Cårumat, whose son was Cårumanta. These are namely the five universal monarchs. The son of King Cårumanta was called Emperor Muci. His son was Mucilinda. His son was ¸akuni. His son was KuΩi. His son was SudarΩana. His son was Mahå sudarΩana. His son was Våmaka. His son was Suvar√a. His son was Bhavya. His son was Bh®gu. His son was Meru. His son was Nyaçku. His son was Pra√åda. His son was Mahåpra√åda. His son was ¸açkara. His son was DiΩaµpati. His son was Sure√u. His son was Bharata. His son was Mahådeva. 34

Fascicle One

The lineage of this king had five thousand inheritors. The last son of these had seven thousand inheritors, called AΩmaka kings. The last son had eight thousand inheritors, called Kaurava kings. The last son of these was called King Kapåla. There were nine thousand kings [after him], and the last son was called Geya. There were ten thousand kings [after him] and the last son was Tåmralipta. The last son of fifteen thousand was called Gautama. Here then was the posterity of Ik≈våku. That son was the inheritor, and the lineage of King Ik≈våku numbered one thousand and one hundred. The last son of these, a king in the lineage of Ik≈våku, was called Vir¥∂haka (an Aik≈våka king). The king had four sons. The first was called Ulkåmukha. The second was called Kara kar√aka. The third was called Hastiniyaµsa, and the fourth was called N¥pura. They are called the ¸åkyas.

N¥pura had a son called N¥purapada. His son was Vasi≈†ha. His son was Go≈†ha. His son was King Siµhahanu, who had four sons. One was called ¸uddhodana. The second was called ¸uklodana. The third was called Dro√odana, and the fourth was called Am®todana. The son of King ¸uddhodana was the Bhagavat. The second one was called Nanda.

King ¸uklodana had two sons. One was called Ti≈yadatta and the other was called Nandika. King Dro√odana had two sons. One was called Aniruddha and the other was called Bhadrika. King Am®todana had two sons. One was called Ånanda, and the other was called Devadatta. The son of the Bhagavat was called Råhula. The ¸åkya lineage ends here, but kings of other families relied on the doctrine and promoted the teaching.

Two hundred years after the parinirvå√a of the Tathågata there was a king in the country of Central India, called AΩoka. He was a Dharma King in Jambudv∆pa, ruling over its greater part. He was the patron at the time of the middle (second) [Buddhist] council, and he promoted the Buddha's teaching. Three hundred years later, in the northwest of Jambudv∆pa, there was a king called Kani≈ka. He was the patron at the time of the third [Buddhist] council and he widely promoted the Buddha's teaching. All the 35

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Dharma Kings of the land of Brahmanical India, the land of KaΩm∆ra, the land of Khotan, Kučå (pronounced qiuci), the land of Nepal, the land of China, the land of Dali, 23 the land of Xixia,

24

and so on, each promoted the Buddha's doctrine in their land. More than a thousand years after the Tathågata's parinirvå√a, in the land of Tibet there first was a king called gÑa' -khri btsanpo. After twenty-six generations there was a king called lHa-thotho-ri sñan-btsan. At that time the Buddha's teaching first arrived. Five generations later there was a king called Sroç-btsan sgampo. 25 A pa√∂ita called Ånanda and a translator called Thon-mi Saµbho†a translated the teaching then. He constructed pure abodes in places such as Lhasa, and spread the teaching. Five generations later there was a king called Khri-sroç lde-btsan. 26This king invited

the great teacher ¸åntarak≈ita, the superior master Padma saµ bhava, the pa√∂ita KamalaΩ∆la, and a multitude of siddhas. They translated the teaching together with the seven men Vairocanarak≈ita, Någendrarak≈ita, and so on. Other pa√∂itas extensively translated the teaching together with the translators (lotsåvas), and the three kinds of restraint27 spread in the land. Three generations later there was a king called Khri Ral-pacan. This king's realm was wide. Then there were the pa√∂itas Jina mitra and ¸∆lendrabodhi, and others. Together with MañjuΩr∆ varman, Någadhvaja from Cog-ro, and so on, they revised the earlier translations and translated what was not yet translated, spreading the teaching far and wide. The lineage of Tibetan kings still exists now. The pa√∂itas, translators and chief translators, and the multitude of virtuous friends are quite numerous. That is why the teaching flourishes.

In the land of Northern Mongolia, as the fruition of his previous merits had ripened, a king called Činggis was born. At first Činggis began from the neighboring regions and ruled over many countries of di›erent languages, just as an iron-wheel king. His son was called Ögödäi,

28who then was named Qagan. He succeeded

him to the imperial throne. His realm became more extensive than 36

Fascicle One

before. He had a son called Güyük, who succeeded him to the imperial throne. Emperor Činggis's younger son was called Tolui. Tolui's eldest son was called Möngkä, who also succeeded to the royal throne. The king's younger brother was called Qubilai. 29 He succeeded to

the imperial throne, subdued various territories, and his realm was very wide. He took refuge in the Buddha's teaching, and converted his people, relying on the doctrine. The Buddha's teaching became twice as great as before and its light was plentiful. The emperor had three sons. His eldest son was Jiç-gim, 30 as

wealthy as heaven and adorned with the precious Dharma. His second son was Maçgala, and his third son was Nomogan. Each had his own virtues, and the same applies to their posterity. Thus it was, beginning from the royal lineage of the ¸åkyas up to the present royal lineage.

End of the Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, Fascicle One

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