T1645 The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, and The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines

Notes

1 The measurements in this passage follow these linear measurements: Seven near-emptinesses = one particle, paramå√u. "Near-emptiness" is

often used as an old translation for paramå√u. Seven paramå√u = one atom, a√u.

Seven a√u = one loharajas, gold atom.

Seven loharajas = one abrajas, water atom.

Seven abrajas = one ΩaΩarajas, (width of the tip of a) hare's hair. Seven ΩaΩarajas = one avirajas, sheep's hair. Seven avirajas = one gorajas, bullock's hair. Seven gorajas = one chidra, (dust mote seen in ray of sunlight through a) fissure (in a wall), i.e., våtåyanacchidrarajas. Seven chidra = one lik≈å, nit.

Seven lik≈å = one y¥ka, louse.

Seven y¥ka = one yava, barleycorn.

Seven yava = one açguliparvan, finger joint, i.e., the distance between two joints of a finger.

Three parvan = one açguli, inch, i.e., the width of a finger. Twenty-four açguli= one hasta, cubit.

Four hasta = one dhanus, arc, i.e., bow-length. Five hundred dhanus = one kroΩa, the distance of a cow's bellowing. Eight kroΩa = one yojana, the distance an ox yoked to a cart could pull. 2 The picture is as follows: the wind circle is at the bottom; the water circle is formed on its surface. Above it is a golden-earth layer, which sustains Mount Sumeru in the middle. There are seven concentric golden mountains, from Yugaµdhara to Nimiµdhara; the outer mountain is Mount Cakravå∂a, which is made of iron. Between every two mountains is an ocean. The seventh, last ocean, surrounded by Mount Cakravå∂a, is salty and the four great continents rest on it. To the south is the continent of Jambudv∆pa, roughly triangular in shape, with two smaller continents at its tip, Cåmara and Aparacåmara. To the east is the continent of Videha, shaped like a half-moon, with Deha and Videha as secondary continents. To the north is the continent of Kuru, which is square, with Kurava and Kaurava as secondary continents. To the west is Godån∆ya, which is round, with ¸å†hå and Uttaramantri√a as secondary continents. 3 One lak≈a = one hundred thousand.

67

Notes

4 The eight qualities of water mentioned here and below in the text are: 1) cool (Ω∆tala), 2) clear (accha), 3) light (laghu), 4) savory (svådu), 5) soft (m®du), 6) fragrant (ni≈p¥tigandhika), 7) does not hurt the throat (ka√†ha), and 8) does not hurt the belly (kuk≈i). 5 Kailåsa?

6 Lake Manasa, Månasarovar? 7 The ¸∆tå River: the Tarim or Yarkand River, resurfacing as the Yellow River in China, as Xuanzang says. 8 Tibetan: Brag gSer-gyi (golden,suvar√a) bya-skyibs (a rock where birds take shelter, prågbhåra). Chinese: ta, as in tåla, surface (of a rock)? 9 The Upper Swat Valley in Pakistan. 10 Siµhaladv∆pa: Sri Lanka; Suvar√adv∆pa: the name of this continent continues for the island of Sumatra; Candradv∆pa: the Buckergunge District in East Bangladesh? See Constance Hoog, Prince Jiç-gim's Textbook of Tibetan Buddhism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1983), p. 84, note 17. 11 12 This agrees with the Tibetan version; see Hoog, p. 20. The eight hot hells are: Saµj∆va, "reviving"; Kålas¥tra,

"black thread";

Saµghåta,

"ground down"; Raurava, "cries"; Mahåraurava,

"great

cries"; Tåpana,

"burning"; Pratåpana,

"great burning"; Av∆ci, "immediate.

"

13 The term "intermediate kalpa" is used to distinguish an antarakalpa, the original,

"small" kalpa or eon, from a great kalpa (mahåkalpa) of eighty kalpas. A kalpa is traditionally measured using various meta phors, for example, the time needed to wear away a great rock by wiping it with a piece of soft cotton from KåΩ∆ once every hundred years. See Akira Sadakata, Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins (Tokyo: Køsei Publishing Co., 1997), p. 96. 14 The four supplementary hells (utsada) are: 1) Kukkula or Kuk¥la, "heated by burning cha›"; 2) Ku√apa, "excrement"; 3) K≈uradhårå, "sharp blades,

" which is further threefold—K≈uramårga, "razor road,

"

Asipattravana,

"forest of sword-leaves, " and Aya˙Ωålmal∆vana,

"forest

with iron thorns"; and 4) K≈årodakå Nad∆, "ardent river,

" called

Vaitara√∆,

"without ford.

"

15 The eight cold hells are: 1) Arbuda, "blisters"; 2) Nirarbuda, "abscesscracks"; 3), 4), and 5) are onomatopoeic terms: A†a†a, Apapa, and Huhuva; 6) Bursting Open Like an Utpala (blue lotus) Flower; 7) Bursting Open Like a Red Lotus (padma); 8) Bursting Open Like a Very Red (or crimson) Lotus (mahåpadma). 16 This is added in Nianchang's text, Fozulidaitongzai (Annals of Buddha and the Patriarchs through the Successive Dynasties), p. 487a7. 68

Notes

17 This passage should be added. See the Tibetan version, Hoog, p. 29; Nianchang, p. 487b5; and KoΩa III, pp. 170-171.

18 Nianchang, p. 487c17.

19 Nianchang, p. 488a6.

20 Can be found in the Mahåyånas¥trålaµkåra. See Hoog, p. 85, note 40. Chinese text in Taishø Vol. 31, No. 1604.

21 22 See pages 18-19 of this volume, 227c15-228a15 in the Taishø edition. Twelve måsas = one saµvatsara (year); thirty ahoråtras (night-andday) = one måsa (month); thirty muh¥rtas = one ahoråtra (twenty-four hours); thirty lavas = one muh¥rta (forty-eight minutes); sixty tatk≈a√as = one lava; one hundred and twenty k≈a√as = one tatk≈a√a. 23 I.e., the Southern dynasty, Nanzhao, in Yunnan (937-1253 C.E.), vanquished by Qubilai. 24 In present-day Ningxia, Northern Shaanxi, part of Gansu and Qinghai. Xixia, the country of ¸es-rab dpal, was a dynasty of the Tanguts from 1038 to 1227, when it was vanquished by Činggis.

25 557-649 or 650 C.E.

26 742-804 C.E.

27 The three kinds of vows of a monk, which are to keep 1) the pråtimok≈a saµvara, the code of discipline, 2) the bodhisattva precepts, and 3) the esoteric precepts.

28 1229-1243 C.E.

29 Reigned from 1260-1294 C.E.

30 1243-1286, Qubilai's eldest son and heir-apparent in 1273. 31 Sarvåstivådins here means Vaibhå≈ikas, for example, Saµghabhadra. Vasubandhu is a Sautråntika. See KoΩa III, p. 66, note 5. 32 These two paragraphs outline the categorization of the four truths: in progressive dependent origination, the truths of origination (samudaya) and of su›ering (du˙kha) are distinguished. In retrogressive dependent origination, the truths of the path (mårga) and of cessation (nirodha) are distinguished.

33 A variant list of the good generally permeating factors (kuΩala mahå bh¥mika) adds absence of delusion (amoha). 34 A variant list of the defiled generally permeating factors (kleΩa mahå bh¥mika) has the six less lethargy, but adding wrong attention (ayoniΩo manas kåra), wrong resolve (mithyådhimok≈a), incorrect knowledge (asaµprajanya), forgetfulness (mu≈itasm®titå), and distraction (vik≈epa), for a total of ten.

69

Notes

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 The Vaibhå≈ikas (Sarvåstivådins in the text here) say that the dissociated factors (viprayukta) are di›erent from matter (r¥pa), awareness (citta), and accompanying mental factors (caitasika). Sautråntikas say that these three are not di›erent from the dissociated factors. The formation aggregate (saµskåraskandha) consists of: 1) the fortysix accompanying mental factors (caitasika) minus the first two of the generally permeating mental factors (mahåbh¥mika), feeling (vedanå), and identification (saµjñå); 2) the fourteen dissociated factors (vipra yukta). The ten elements (dhåtu) of the material factors are the five sense faculties (indriya) of eye, ear, nose tongue, body, and mind and their five respective objects. The seven elements of the factor of awareness are the six consciousnesses and the mind faculty. These seven elements are the åyatana mind, manas. The accompanying mental factors (caitasika), the dissociated factors (viprayukta), the unconditioned factors (asaµsk®ta), and unmanifest matter (avijñaptir¥pa) are collectively called the element factors (dharmadhåtu), also the base factors (dharmåyatana).

I.e., gotra. For the relation of spiritual family with the six kinds of arhats, see KoΩa VI, p. 252-3; see especially p. 252, note 4. I.e., the path of accumulation, saµbhåramårga. The four establishments of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna), are mentioned: 1) mindfulness of the body (kåyasm®tyupasthåna), 2) mindfulness of feeling (vedanåsm®tyupasthåna), 3) mindfulness of awareness (cittasm®tyupa sthåna), and 4) mindfulness of the factors (dharmasm®tyupasthåna).

I.e., prayogamårga. In the path of preparatory application one follows the four wholesome roots, aids to penetration (nirvedhabhåg∆ya kuΩalam¥la): 1) heat (u≈magata) and the four right exertions or abandonments (samyakpradhåna or samyak prahå√a); 2) summit (m¥rdhan) and the four bases of supernatural power (®ddhipåda): concentration of interest in good factors (chanda-samådhi), concentration of the e›ort to rejoice in the good (v∆rya-samådhi), concentration of attention to good awareness (citta-samådhi), and concentration of investigation into the good (m∆måµsa-samådhi); 3) patient acceptance (k≈ånti) and the five faculties: faith (Ωraddhå), energy (v∆rya), mindfulness (sm®ti), concentration (samådhi), and wisdom (prajñå); and 4) the highest worldly factor (laukikågradharma) with the five powers (bala), i.e., faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. The noble eightfold path, the teaching of the fourth noble truth: 1) right view (d®≈†i), 2) right thought (saµkalpa), 3) right speech (våc), 4) right action (karmånta), 5) right livelihood (åj∆va), 6) right e›ort (vyåyåma), 7) right mindfulness (sm®ti), and 8) right concentration (samådhi). The following passages give an explanation of the ninety-eight defile-70

Notes

ments and how they are abandoned in each of the four truths. There are ten fundamental defilements: 1) attachment (råga), 2) repugnance (pratigha), 3) pride (måna), 4) ignorance (avidyå), 5) perplexity (vici kitså), 6) belief in a self (satkåyad®≈†i), 7) extreme view (antagråha d®≈†i), 8) attachment to moral precepts and vows (Ω∆lavrataparåmarΩa), 9) adherence to particular views (d®≈†iparåmarΩa), and 10) false view (mithyåd®≈†i).

To be abandoned through the vision of the four noble truths (darΩanaheya):

In the realm of desire (kåmadhåtu):

truth of su›ering (du˙kha) = ten defilements truth of origination (samudaya) = seven (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of cessation (nirodha) = seven (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of the path (mårga) = eight (less two: belief in a self and extreme view)

—these add up to thirty-two;

In the realm of form (r¥padhåtu):

truth of su›ering = nine (less repugnance; no repugnance in the realm of form)

truth of origination = six (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of cessation = six (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of the path = seven (less two: belief in a self and extreme view) —These add up to twenty-eight;

In the realm of non-form (år¥pyadhåtu)

truth of su›ering = nine (less repugnance; no repugnance in the realm of non-form)

truth of origination = six (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of cessation = six (less three: belief in a self, extreme view, and attachment to moral precepts and vows) truth of the path = seven (less two: belief in a self and extreme view) —These add up to twenty-eight;

Thirty-two + twenty-eight + twenty-eight = eighty-eight. To be abandoned through the spiritual path (bhåvanåmårga): in the realm of desire = four, i.e., attachment, repugnance, pride, and ignorance

in the realm of form = three, i.e., the above four less repugnance in the realm of non-form = three, the above four less repugnance —These add up to ten, for a total of ninety-eight. 71

Notes

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 In addition, each defilement is ninefold: weak-weak, medium-weak, strong-weak; weak-medium, medium-medium, strong-medium; weakstrong, medium-strong, strong-strong. So, thirty-six (the ninefold four defilements) + twenty-seven (the ninefold three defilements) in each of the four trances (dhyåna) = one hundred and eight + twenty-seven (the ninefold three defilements) in each of the four attainments (samåpatti) = one hundred and eight = two hundred and fifty-two.

In the spiritual path (bhåvanåmårga) one practices the seven factors of enlightenment (saµbodhyaçga): 1) mindfulness (sm®ti), 2) wisdom (prajñå), investigation of factors (dharmapravicaya), 3) energy (v∆rya), 4) joy (pr∆ti), 5) tranquility (praΩrabdhi), 6) equanimity (upek≈å), and 7) concentration (samådhi).

Should be pride (måna), not delusion (moha), which is synonymous with ignorance (avidyå). See Hoog, p. 64.

The text mistakenly has "one hundred and fifty-two" here, which has been corrected. See note 42 and Hoog, p. 64.

After the previous paths, commonly known as the path of the learner, (Ωaik≈amårga), follows the path of the adept (aΩaik≈amårga). The adept (aΩaik≈a) realizes ten factors: the noble eightfold path, from right view (samyagd®≈†i) to right concentration (samyaksamådhi), plus right liberation (samyagvimukti) and knowledge of right liberation (samyag vimukti jñåna). See KoΩa VI, p. 295. The thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipåk≈ikadharma) are: the four establishments of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna), the four right exertions (samyakpradhåna), the four bases of supernatural power (®ddhipåda), the five faculties (indriya), the five powers (bala), the noble eightfold path (åryamårga), and the seven factors of enlightenment (saµbodhyaçga). The four establishments of mindfulness, which contribute to liberation (mok≈abhåg∆ya) in the path of accumulation (saµbhåramårga), and the four wholesome roots, which contribute to intellectual penetration (nirvedhabhåg∆ya) in the path of preparatory application (prayoga mårga). See also notes 39 and 40. The four fruitions of the path of the Ωrama√a are: 1) fruition of the stream-enterer (srotaåpattiphala), 2) fruition of the once-returner (sak®dågåmiphala), 3) fruition of the non-returner (anågåmiphala), and 4) fruition of arhatship (arhattvaphala).

Here the path of vision (darΩanamårga) of the four truths is explained. One successively realizes the four truths in their four aspects (åkåra). For the knowledges (jñåna) associated with these, see notes 52, 53, 54, 55, and 56.

72

Notes

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 The sixteen aspects, i.e., the fourfold aspects of the four truths, are as follows. Su›ering: impermanent (anitya), painful (du˙kha), empty (Ω¥nya), and selfless (anåtmaka). Origination: cause (hetu), origination (samudaya), source (prabhava), and condition (pratyaya). Cessation: cessation (nirodha), appeasement (Ωånta), excellent (pra√∆ta), and escape (ni˙sara√a). Path: path (mårga), right (nyåya), mode (pratipatti), and leading to liberation (nairyå√ika). The sixteenth moment is the beginning of the spiritual path (bhåvanåmårga).

See KoΩa VII, p. 78, for the three su›erings (du˙khatås), i.e., the su›ering (du˙kha) du˙khatå, the formation (saµskåra) du˙khatå, and the transformation (pari√åma) du˙khatå.

Of the four knowledges, two are in the realm of desire: 1) patient acceptance (of the knowledge) of the dharma concerning su›ering (du˙khe dharma [jñåna] k≈ånti), and 2) knowledge of the dharma concerning su›ering (du˙khe dharmajñåna). In the two higher realms of form and non-form are the other two: 3) subsequent patient acceptance (of the knowledge) concerning su›ering (anvaya [jñåna] k≈ånti), and 4) subsequent knowledge concerning su›ering (anvayajñåna). This follows the same scheme as in note 52 above, with two in the realm of desire: 1) patient acceptance of the dharma concerning origination (samudaye dharmak≈ånti) and 2) knowledge of the dharma concerning origination (samudaye dharmajñåna); and two in the higher realms: 3) subsequent patient acceptance concerning origination (samu daye'nvaya k≈ånti), and 4) subseqent knowledge concerning origination (samudaye'nvayajñåna).

Again, following the same scheme as in notes 52 and 53: 1) patient acceptance of the dharma concerning cessation (nirodhe dharmak≈ånti); 2) knowledge of the dharma concerning cessation (nirodhe dharmajñåna); 3) subsequent patient acceptance concerning cessation (ni rodhe'nva ya k≈ånti); and 4) subseqent knowledge concerning cessation (nirodhe'nvayajñåna).

See notes 52, 53, and 54 above.The fourth knowledge, subsequent knowledge concerning the path (marge'nvayajñåna) is no longer in the path of vision (darΩanamårga) but in the spiritual path (bhåvanåmårga). I.e., subsequent knowledge concerning the path (marge'nvayajñåna). I.e., bhavågra, the fourth and final stage in the realm of non-form, also called the base of neither identification nor nonidentification (naiva saµ jñånå saµjñåyatana). The Prajñåpåramitå (Perfection of Wisdom) literature, for example Kumåraj∆va's PañcaviµΩatisåhasrikåprajñåpåramitå-s¥tra, Taishø Vol. 8, Number 223.

73

Notes

59 The eight stages (bh¥mi) are: 1) of bright vision (ΩuklavidarΩana), 2) of the spiritual family (gotra), 3) of the eighth person (a≈†amaka), 4) of vision (darΩana), 5) of attenuation (tanu), 6) of nonattachment (v∆ ta råga), 7) of skill (k®tåvi)—attainment of this stage means arhatship for the disciple (Ωråvaka), and 8) of the solitary enlightened one (pratyekabuddha), of which there are two types—like a unicorn, (kha∂gavi≈åna) and living with a group (vargacårin). 60 Should be "once.

" See Hoog, p. 69.

61 See note 47.

62 The six perfections (påramitås): 1) giving (dåna), 2) patience (kΩånti), 3) morality (Ω∆la), 4) energy (v∆rya), 5) concentration (samådhi), and 6) wisdom (prajñå).

63 64 65 The vehicle of the disciples (Ωråvakayåna), i.e., the Hinayana. There is a giver, a recipient, and the act of giving. The ten bodhisattva stages (bh¥mi): 1) of joy (pramuditå-bh¥mi), 2) of purity (vimalå-bh¥mi), 3) of radiance (prabhåkar∆-bh¥mi), 4) blazing (arci≈mat∆-bh¥mi), 5) di‡cult to conquer (sudurjayå-bh¥mi), 6) in view of wisdom (abhimukh∆-bh¥mi), 7) far-reaching (d¥raµ gamå-bh¥mi), 8) immovable (acalå-bh¥mi), 9) of good thoughts (sådhumat∆-bh¥mi), and 10) of the Dharma cloud (dharmameghå-bh¥mi).

66 The four wisdoms of a Buddha: 1) great perfect mirrorlike wisdom (ådarΩa-jñåna), 2) equality wisdom (samatå-jñåna), 3) discriminating wisdom (pratyavek≈a√å-jñåna), and 4) duty-fulfillment wisdom (k®tyånu≈†håna-jñåna).

67 See note 46.

68 I.e., the ten fundamental defilements (kleΩa), see note 42; and the sixteen secondary defilements (upakleΩa). See KoΩa V, pp. 90-1. 69 I.e., the summit of existence (bhavågra). See note 57. 70 I.e., the four trances (dhyåna), the four immaterial attainments (år¥pya), and the attainment of cessation (nirodhasamåpatti). 71 72 73 See KoΩa VIII, p. 210.

All four aspects (åkåra) of the truth of cessation. See note 50. See KoΩa VIII, p. 185. The ten signs (nimitta) are the five external bases (åyatana), the objects of the sense faculties, e.g., matter, etc.; the male and female marks; and the three characteristics of the conditioned: birth, duration, and death.

74 The remaining ten aspects (åkåra) referred to here are: of su›ering, the two aspects of impermanent (anitya) and painful (du˙kha); of cause, i.e., origination, all four: cause (hetu), origination (samudaya), source (prabhava), and condition (pratyaya); and of the path, all four: path 74

Notes

75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 (mårga), right (nyåya), mode (pratipatti), and leading to liberation (nairyå√ika).

KoΩa VIII, p. 186, note 3: tadatikramåbhimukhatvåt. All these qualities (gu√a) belong to the: 1) twice-liberated (ubhayato vimukta, i.e., through the power of wisdom and concentration) arhat; 2) pratyekabuddha, and 3) Tathågata. See KoΩa VIII, pp. 69-71.

See KoΩa VII, p. 75.

See KoΩa VII, p. 76.

I.e., arak≈ya. Because the Tathågata's conduct is pure, he does not need to guard his actions of body, speech, and mind. The eighteen unique factors (åve√ikadharma) of a Tathågata are explained in the KoΩa VII, but the three points that do not need to be guarded (arak≈ya) belong to the Mahayana. See KoΩa II, pp. 279 et seq.

The year Renyin is 1302, but Wuyin, 1278, is meant. See Hoog, p. 82. 'Phags-pa died in 1280. Zhenjin died in 1285. 75

Bibliography

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Bareja-Starzynska, Agata.

"The Essentials of Buddhism in the Čiqula kereglegči: A Sixteenth-century Mongolian Buddhist Treatise, " in Studia

Indologiczne, Vol. IV, 1997, pp. 1-30. Franke, Herbert.

"Sha-lo-pa (1259-1314), A Tangut Buddhist Monk in Yüan China,

" in Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien, Festschrift für Hans Steininger. Gert Naundorf, Karl-Heinz Pohl, and Hans-Hermann Schmidt, eds. Würzburg, Germany: Köningshausen und Neumann, 1985, pp. 201-22.

Hoog, Constance. Prince Jiç-gim's Textbook of Tibetan Buddhism. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1983. Religious Texts and Translations Series: Nisaba Vol. 13.

La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. L'AbhidharmakoΩa de Vasubandhu. Six volumes. Brussels: Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques, Vol. XVI, 1971. Sadakata, Akira. Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins. Tokyo: Køsei Publishing Co., 1997.

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Indian Journal of Buddhist Studies, Vol. X, 1-2, 1998, pp. 82-94. 77

THE CYCLE OF THE FORMATION OF THE SCHISMATIC DOCTRINES

Contents

The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Translator's Introduction TSUKAMOTO Keishø 83 The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Chapter I. Introductory Verse 91 Chapter II. Origin and Distribution of the Buddhist Schools 93 Chapter III. Doctrines of the Four Schools of the Mahåsåµghikas 97

Chapter IV. The Later Di›erentiated Doctrines of the Four Schools of the Mahåsåµghikas Chapter V. Doctrines of the BahuΩrut∆yas Chapter VI. Doctrines of the Prajñaptivådins 103 105

107

Chapter VII. Doctrines of the Three Schools of the Andhra Mahåsåµghikas 109 Chapter VIII. Doctrines of the Sarvåstivådins Chapter IX. Doctrines of the Haimavatas 111 117

Chapter X. Doctrines of the Våts∆putr∆yas and Their Four Schools 119

Chapter XI. Doctrines of the Mah∆Ωåsakas 123 Chapter XII. The Later Di›erentiated Doctrines of the Mah∆Ωåsakas 127

Chapter XIII. Doctrines of the Dharma gup takas Chapter XIV. Doctrines of the KåΩyap∆yas Chapter XV. Doctrines of the Sautråntikas 129 131

133

Chapter XVI. Concluding Verse 135 Bibliography 137

81

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

The text translated here with the title Cycle of the Formation of Schismatic Doctrines (Samayabhedoparacanacakra) is number 2031 in volume 49 of the Taishø Shinsh¥ Daizøkyø. Though brief, this text is of considerable interest to Buddhists and scholars of the history of Buddhism during its early centuries. The Cycle of the Formation of Schismatic Doctrines is an essay by the scholar-monk Vasumitra, concerning the unorthodox and schismatic doctrines within the Buddhist sangha (community of monks) that began to arise soon after the parinirvå√a of the Buddha, and which led to the formation of a number of di›erent schools. Vasumitra was looking back on this situation some four hundred years after the Buddha's passing. Thus, the text is an account, or record, of the proliferation of schools and the di›ering points of doctrines that separated them. It is both a history of early Buddhism and a lament for what had become of the Buddha's teaching.

Why did ¸åkyamuni's followers splinter into many contentious and wrangling groups? In some cases, certain monks remembered certain teachings of the Buddha di›erently than the versions preserved in the memories of other monks. This is not surprising given the fact that the teachings were passed down via oral tradition. The Dharma was not committed to written form until several hundred years after the Buddha's time. Consequently, there was variation in the memorized and orally transmitted material. Also, some parties within the sangha wanted a relaxation of some of the monastic rules, a move opposed by others. Other doctrines arose through the process of change in the conception of what constitutes a Buddha. As the view of the historical Buddha began to evolve and assume a more cosmic, universal nature, old doctrines had to give way to teachings 83

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines that conformed to this new conception. These and other factors led to the development of new doctrines, and new schools arose out of this situation. This was the situation that Vasu mitra refers to as a "disaster" in the Cycle of the Formation of Schis matic Doctrines. This unsalutary state of a›airs began, the author tells us, when a large number of monks began to promulgate doctrines that were abhorrent to the more conservative faction of the sangha. Each faction insisted that its version of the teaching was the correct one and no agreement was possible. Tradition has it that a council was called by King AΩoka (r. 268-232 B.C.E.) to settle the dispute but no reconciliation occurred, and the doctrinal schism became the basis for an actual schism in the sangha itself. The more conservative side, who were in the minority, began to call themselves the Sthaviras ("Elders"), while the larger group became known as the Mahå såµ ghikas ("Majority Party"). Thus, the Buddha-Dharma was divided into two, a division that has endured into modern times.

Many scholars interested in the history of Buddhism believe that the Mahåsåµghika school may have been one of the primary sources for the ideas that were developed more fully in the later Mahayana tradition, which was to become the form of Buddhism prevalent in North and East Asia. Comparing the Mahåsåµghika teachings listed by Vasumitra with the teachings of the Sthaviras, it is possible to detect a fundamentally di›erent attitude toward such matters as the nature of a Buddha. Was ¸åkyamuni simply a human teacher, subject to the same law of impermanence as all living beings, or is a Buddha by nature a being of radically di›erent order—if not completely divine, then very nearly so? Mahåsåµghika teachings show the beginning of a process of elevating the historical Buddha to a much more exalted status.

The numerous sects that grew out of the original schism survived for awhile, taught their doctrines, and subsequently vanished. Almost none survived to today. Some had a strong e›ect on developments in later Buddhism, such as the possible roots of the Mahayana in Mahå såµ ghika doctrine. The Sarvåstivådins became famous for a type of literature called Abhidharma, which made careful definitions of terms 84

Translator's Introduction

found in the sutras, lists of relationships among the terms, and so on. The school itself did not survive, but the compendious Abhidharma koΩa authored by the fourth-century scholar-monk Vasubandhu remained important for many Buddhists of later times. The school also left us their monastic regulations (Vinaya), important for comparative study. The Sthaviras migrated to Sri Lanka where they became known as the Theras ("Elders"). Their version of the Dharma spread to Southeast Asia, where it remains very influential in the modern-day cultures and societies of the region, including those of Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam. The Thera vadin school, as it is now known, claims to teach the true, undistorted doctrines of ¸åkyamuni and rejects the teachings of the Maha yana traditions that perhaps got their start with the Mahåsåµghikas centuries ago. The reader will find here a number of doctrines that were very controversial in their day. The Våts∆putr∆yas taught the real existence of the pudgala,

"person" or "self.

" This is remarkable because all

other sects of the time agreed that a fundamental teaching of the Buddha is that no inherently existing person, self, or being exists, and all modern forms of Buddhism likewise agree that no such entity exists. Yet, as we can see from this text, at one time this teaching was pro›ered by the Våts∆putr∆yas in great seriousness. Other doctrines of a metaphysical nature indicate the great amount of speculation taking place in the Buddhist community after the parinirvå√a of the Buddha. The number of these doctrines as well as their variety bear witness to Vasumitra's lament concerning the proliferation of novel doctrines and new schools.

Author of the Text

The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines is attributed to a certain Vasu mitra. The name Vasumitra recurs in many di›erent traditions, standing among others for eight Sarvåstivådins, three bodhisattvas, three authors of the Avadåna literature, and so on. However, since these traditions were not independent from each other, the Vasumitras they refer to might have all been the same person. 85

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Kuiji (632-682), author of a commentary on the Chinese translation of this treatise by Xuanzang (600-664), identifies the author of the Samayabhedoparacanacakra with the Vasu mitra who lived about four hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvå√a. Because this figure is said to have been one of the compilers of the Abhi dharma mahå vibhå≈å, we can conclude that he must have been a follower of the Sarvåstivådin school.

Texts and Translations

While the original Sanskrit text of the Samayabhedoparacanacakra has been lost, there are extant three Chinese translations and one Tibetan translation:

1. Shibabulun, Taishø Vol. 49, No. 2032, compiled by Kumåraj∆va in 401-413.

2. Buzhiyilun, Taishø Vol. 49, No. 2033, translated by Paramårtha in 548-569.

3. Yibuzonglunlun, Taishø Vol. 49, No. 2031, translated by Xuanzang in 662. 4. Gshuç lugs kyi bye brag bkod pa˙i ˙khor lo, Øtani No. 5639, Tøhoku No. 4138, translated by Dharmåkara and Bzaç-skyoç in the ninth century.

In addition, there are extant three versions of commentaries on the text:

1. Bushiyilunsu, by Paramårtha. Although the original text of this commentary has been lost, scattered fragments are found quoted in the Sanrongengikeny¥sh¥, Taishø Vol. 70, No. 2300, written by Chøzen in 1208.

2. Yibuzonglunlunshuji, written by Kuiji in 662 (Dainipponzokuzø, Vol. 3, fascicle 3). 3. Ibush¥rinronjukkimokuron (Subcommentary on the Yibuzong lun lunshuji) by Eiten, 1791 (Nippondaizøkyø, part 3, Ronjobu, Shø chin chidosh¥rinronshøsho). 4. Ibush¥rinronjukkihotsujin (Subcommentary on the Yibuzong lun lunshuji) by Oyama Kenei, Kyoto 1891. 86

Translator's Introduction

This English translation of the Samayabhedoparacanacakra is based on the seventh-century version by Xuanzang, the Yibuzong lun lun (Ibush¥rinron). The contents and structure of this text does not di›er substantially from those of the other two Chinese versions by Kumåraj∆va and Paramårtha. In this translation I have omitted minor variants, while significantly di›erent readings from the other two Chinese versions are provided in parentheses. Glosses, simple definitions, and the Sanskrit terms for certain words or phrases are also given in parentheses, while brackets indicate interpolated material to clarify meanings. I wish to thank my student Dr. Paul Hoornaert, lecturer at Kanazawa University, with whom I read the Yibuzonglunlun in the seminar on Buddhist history at Tøhoku University during the academic years 1981-4, for his help in the preparation of this English translation.

87

THE CYCLE OF THE FORMATION OF THE SCHISMATIC DOCTRINES by

Bodhisattva Vasumitra Translated into Chinese by Xuanzang

Chapter I

Introductory Verse

When a hundred-odd years had elapsed After the parinirvå√a of the Buddha, There arose [two] di›erent schools of the sacred teaching. This was the beginning of disaster. As the clinging to divergent views kept on growing, There accordingly arose many more [subsidiary] schools. On the basis of their respective scriptures (Ågamas), Each school asserted views that inspired the disgust [of other schools].

The great bodhisattva Vasumitra, Endowed with eminent knowledge, intellect, and insight, A great sage and Buddhist mendicant, Looked back to those times and examined them critically. Examining exhaustively all the various worldly views That were whirling round and round, And splitting apart the words of the Muni ("Sage, " i.e.,

the Buddha),

He decided to expound all those teachings [in this work]. One should closely examine the teaching of the Buddha, And, basing oneself on the teaching of the holy truths, One should pick up the truth As if gathering gold from heaps of sand. 91

15a6

Chapter II

Origin and Distribution of the Buddhist

Schools

This is the tradition that was handed down to me from mouth to mouth: A hundred-odd years had passed since the Venerable Buddha entered parinirvå√a. It was a far from saintly time, as if the sun had been setting for a long time.

At Kusumapura in the kingdom of Magadha, King AΩoka ruled over Jambudv∆pa (India) under a white umbrella (i.e., a symbol of his sovereignty), his rule extending to gods and humans. During his reign the great Buddhist sangha was split for the first time. In fact, because the four communities disagreed on their interpretation of the Five Propositions of Mahådeva, the Buddhist sangha divided into two schools: the Mahåsåµghikas and the Sthaviras. The four communities were: 1) the Någa community, 2) the barbarian community of the border region (Pratyantikas), 3) the community of the learned (BahuΩrut∆yas), and 4) the community of the venerables (Sthaviras). The Five Propositions are explained in the following verse: [Arhats] are tempted by others. [They still have] ignorance. They still doubt. They are made aware of their enlightenment by others (i.e., their teachers). The [holy] path is produced through the vocal expression [of su›ering].

This is the true teaching of the Buddha.

Later, during the second century [after the Buddha's pari nirvå√a], three schools issued from the Mahåsåµghikas: 1) the Ekavyåvahårikas, 2) the Lokottaravådins, and 3) the Kukku†ikas (Paramårtha: Kauk¥likas).

93

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Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Subsequently, during the second century, still another school called the BahuΩrut∆yas issued from the Mahåsåµghikas. And again during the second century, another school called the Prajñaptivådins issued from the Mahåsåµghikas. At the close of the second century, there was a heretic mendicant who abandoned the heretical doctrine and converted to the Right Dharma. His name was also Mahådeva. He joined the Mahå såµghika order and received his final ordination (upasaµpadå) in that same order. He was learned (bahuΩruta) and diligent (v∆rya). He dwelled on the Mountain of the Caitya (stupa), where he again discussed the Five Propositions in detail with the monks of his school. As a result of the ensuing controversy, the Mahå såµghika school split into three: 1) the CaityaΩailas, 2) the AparaΩailas, and 3) the Uttara Ωailas.

Thus there were four or five schisms in the Mahåsåµghika school. The original school and its o›shoots add up to the following nine schools: 1) the Mahåsåµghikas, 2) the Ekavyåvahårikas, 3) the Lokottaravådins, 4) the Kukku†ikas, 5) the BahuΩrut∆yas, 6) the Prajñaptivådins, 7) the CaityaΩailas, 8) the AparaΩailas, and 9) the UttaraΩailas.

The sangha of the Sthaviras maintained unity and perfect harmony for many years. At the beginning of the third century a minor controversy set in, as a result of which the sangha was divided into two schools: 1) the Sarvåstivådins, also called the Hetu vådins, and 2) the P¥rvasthaviras, who later changed their name to the Haimavatas.

Later, during the third century [after the Buddha's pari nirvå√a], a school called the Våts∆putr∆yas issued from the Sar våsti vådins. And again during the third century, four schools issued from the Våts∆putr∆yas: 1) the Dharmottar∆yas, 2) the Bhadrayå√∆yas, 3) the Saµmat∆yas, and 4) the ˛å√∂agirikas (Kumåraj∆va: ˛a√√å garikas). Thereafter, during the third century, a school called the Mah∆Ωåsakas issued from the Sarvåstivådins.

94

Chapter II

Later, during the third century, a school called the Dharma guptakas issued from the Mah∆Ωåsakas. The founder [Dharma gupta] held himself to be the successor of the master Maudgal yå yana. At the end of the third century, a school called the KåΩyap∆yas, or Suvar≈akas, issued from the Sarvåstivådins.

At the beginning of the fourth century still another school, called the Sautråntikas, or Saµkråntikas, issued from the Sarvåsti vådins. Its founder claimed that Ånanda had been his teacher. Thus there were seven or eight schisms in the Sthavira school. The original schools and their o›shoots total eleven schools: 1) the Sar våstivådins, 2) the Haimavatas, 3) the Våts∆putr∆yas, 4) the Dharmottar∆yas, 5) the Bhadrayå√∆yas, 6) the Saµmat∆yas, 7) the ˛å√∂agirikas, 8) the Mah∆Ωåsakas, 9) the Dharmaguptakas, 10)the KåΩyap∆yas, and 11) the Sautråntikas.

Of all the schools mentioned above I shall now explain the teachings originally held in common and the teachings developed later on which there was disagreement.

95

Chapter III

Doctrines of the Four Schools

of the Mahåsåµghikas

The propositions on which the Mahåsåµghikas, Ekavyåvahårikas, Lokottaravådins, and Kukku†ikas originally agreed are these: 1. All honorable Buddhas are beyond this world (lokottara). 2. All the Tathågatas have no defiling (såsrava) elements. 3. All words spoken by the Tathågatas cause the wheel of the Dharma (dharmacakra) to turn.

4. The Buddha teaches all dharmas (Kumåraj∆va: all dharmas and all characteristics) in a single sound. 5. In what the World-honored One (Bhagavat) has preached, there is nothing untrue (ayathårtha).

6. The material body (r¥pakåya) of the Tathågata is truly limitless (ananta). 7. His supernatural powers (prabhåva) are also unlimited. 8. The lifespan (åyus) of the Buddha is also beyond measure (apramå√a).

9. The Buddha's [compassionate] heart never tires of awakening pure faith (Ωraddhå) in living beings in order to convert them. 10. The Buddha never sleeps nor dreams.

11. The Tathågata answers questions [straightforwardly] without relying on reflection. 12. The Buddha never utters words, phrases, and so on, because he is always dwelling in contemplation (samådhi). But living beings rejoice, believing that the Buddha [really] utters words, phrases, and so on.

13. One instant of [the Buddha's] mind (ekak≈a√ikacitta) contains distinct knowledge of all dharmas. 97

15c

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines 14. [His] wisdom (prajñå), arising in unison with one instant of mind, understands all dharmas.

15. In the venerable Buddhas, the knowledge of cessation [of present passions] (k≈ayajñåna) and the knowledge of no more birth [of future passions] (anutpådajñåna) operate uninterruptedly until they enter final nirvana.

16. When entering their mother's womb, bodhisattvas never pass through the embryonic stages of kalala (the embryo shortly after conception), arbuda (the fetus in the second half of the first month), peΩ∆ ("a lump of flesh"), or ghana (solid body). (Paramårtha adds: Ωåkhå, paråΩåkhå [another limb of the body], keΩa roma nakha [hair on the head and body and the nails].) 17. When entering their mother's womb, all bodhisattvas assume the form of a white elephant.

18. All bodhisattvas leave their mother's womb from the right side.

19. No bodhisattva produces thoughts of desire (kåmasaµjñå), anger (vyåpåda), or violence (vihiµså).

20. For the welfare of living beings, the bodhisattva is born in lower destinies (durgati) by the power of his vows (pra√idhåna) and is reborn there at will.

21. Through the knowledge following upon (antikajñåna) instantaneous clear comprehension (abhisamaya), one exhaustively comprehends all of the di›erent aspects (åkåra) of the four truths. 22. The fivefold group of consciousnesses (pañcavijñånakåya), eye-consciousness, and so on, is accompanied by passion (råga) and is free of passion (viråga).

23. The sixfold group of consciousnesses exists in the realm of form (r¥padhåtu) as well as in the realm of non-form (år¥pya dhåtu). 24. The five material (r¥pin) faculties (indriya) are [merely] lumps of flesh. The eye does not see forms; the ear does not hear sounds; the nose does not smell odors; the tongue does not taste flavors; the body does not feel tactile objects. 25. In the state of concentration (samåhitåvasthåna) one can 98

Chapter III

utter words. In it the mind is sometimes disciplined, and sometimes inclined toward resistance.

26. One who has accomplished what is to be accomplished (k®taµ kara√∆yaµ) is free from clinging to dharmas. (Kumåraj∆va and Paramårtha: has no more sthåna [i.e., a place to stand or occur].) 27. The mind (citta) and mental activities (caitasika dharma) of the stream-enterer (srota-åpanna) are conscious of their ownnature (svabhåva). 28. Arhats also can be tempted by others (paropah®ta). They still have ignorance (ajñåna). They still doubt (kåçk≈å). They are made aware of their enlightenment by others (paravit∆r√a). The path (mårga) is produced by the vocal expression [of su›ering]. 29. Su›ering (du˙kha) can lead one to the path. 30. To say "Oh, su›ering!" can be of help [in the production of the path].

31. Wisdom (prajñå) is a means toward the cessation of su›ering and the obtainment of happiness (sukha). 32. Su›ering is also a food (åhåra).

33. In the eighth stage (a≈†amakabh¥mi, the course of the srota- åpanna: the path of vision), one can also stay for a long time. From [the first aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta)] onward to (yåvat) the final stage of the impure path (gotrabh¥midharma), there remains the possibility of retrogression [from each stage]. 34. A stream-enterer is still liable to retrogression, but an arhat is not.

35. There is neither mundane right view (samyagd®≈†i) nor mundane faculty of faith (Ωraddhendriya).

36. No morally indeterminate (avyåk®ta) dharma exists. 37. One who has established himself in perfect conduct (sam yak tvaniyåma) may be said to have eradicated bonds (saµ yojana). 38. Stream-enterers are liable to commit all sins, except the [five] grave sins (ånantarya).

39. All sutras preached by the Buddha are of explicit meaning (n∆tårtha).

40. There are nine unconditioned (asaµsk®ta) dharmas: 99

16a

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines 1) Cessation obtained through discriminative cognition (prati saµ khyånirodha). 2) Cesation due to absence of a productive cause (aprati saµ khyå nirodha). 3) Space (åkåΩa).

4) The sphere of unlimited space (åkåΩånantyåyatana). 5) The sphere of unlimited consciousness (vijñånå nan tyåyatana). 6) The sphere of emptiness (åkiñcanyåyatana). 7) The sphere of neither identification nor nonidentification (naiva saµjñånåsaµjñåyatana).

8) The own-nature of the members of dependent origination (prat∆tyasamutpådåçgasvabhåva).

9) The own-nature of the members of the holy path (årya mårgåçgasvabhåva). 41. The own-nature of the mind (cittasvabhåva) is originally pure (m¥laviΩuddha). But when it becomes stained by the adventitious dust of defilements (ågantukopakleΩa), it is said to be impure. 42. The latent states of defilements (anuΩaya, dormant passions) are neither mind nor mental activities, and they have no object (anålambana).

43. The latent states of defilements di›er from manifest defile ments (paryavasthåna) and vice versa, because the former do not arise in unity with mind, whereas the latter do. 44. Past and future have no substantial existence (dravya). 45. All dharmas (dharmåyatana) are not known by [mundane] knowledge (jñeya) nor apprehended by [a defiled (såsrava)] consciousness (vijñeya). They can be directly realized [only by the arhat who has entered the path of vision (darΩanamårga)]. 46. There is absolutely no intermediate state of existence 100

Chapter III

(antaråbhava).

47. Stream-enterers also attain states of meditation (dhyåna). Such are the teachings [originally] held in common [by the four schools of the Mahåsåµghikas]. 101

Chapter IV

The Later Di›erentiated Doctrines

of the Four Schools of the

Mahåsåµghikas

The propositions that were developed later, on which the four schools did not agree, are:

1. To each separate aspect (åkåra) of the four truths there corresponds a separate comprehension (abhisamaya). 2. Some dharmas are self-made (svayaµk®ta) (Paramårtha: su›ering), some are made by others (parak®ta), some are made by both [self and others], and some are born in dependence on conditions (prat∆tya samutpanna). 3 Two [di›erent] consciousnesses can arise simultaneously. 4. The [dharmas of the] path (mårga) and defilements (kleΩa) arise together.

5. Actions (karman) and their retribution (vipåka) exist simultaneously. 6. The seed (b∆ja) itself continues to exist in the sprout (açkura). 7. The great material constituents (mahåbh¥ta) of the sense organs (r¥pendriya) change (pari√åma). The mind and mental activities do not.

8. The mind pervades the body (kåya) and, in accordance with its [sense organ] support (åΩraya) and object (vi≈aya), it contracts and expands.

These later doctrines underwent further development. New distinctions were made, resulting in an endless variety of doctrines. 103

Chapter V

Doctrines of the BahuΩrut∆yas

The teachings on which the BahuΩrut∆yas originally agreed are: 1. The following five utterances (svara) of the Buddha constitute his supramundane teaching (lokottaraΩåsana), because they lead to the path of liberation (nairyå√ikamårga): 1) impermanence (anityatå), 2) su›ering (du˙kha), 3) emptiness (Ω¥nyatå), 4) no-self (anåtman), and 5) nirvana is peace (nirvå√aΩånta). All other utterances of the Tathågata are his mundane teaching. 2. Arhats too can be tempted by others. They still have ignorance. They still doubt. They are made aware of their enlightenment by others. The path is produced through the vocal expression [of su›ering].

Most of their other doctrines [of this school] are the same as those of the Sarvåstivådins.

105

Chapter VI

Doctrines of the Prajñaptivådins

The propositions upon which the Prajñaptivådins originally agreed are:

1. Su›ering does not consist of the [five impure (såsrava)] aggregates (skandhas). 2. The twelve sense fields (åyatana) do not really exist. 3. The cooperative formations (saµskåra), which develop interdependently and form a harmonious continuum, are conventionally called "su›ering.

" There is no [other] subject (puru≈akart®) of su›ering.

4. Death is never untimely (akålamara√a). It is what one receives as a result of past actions (p¥rvakarman). 5. Actions keep on growing and [finally] become a cause from which the fruition of retribution (vipåkaphala) is born. 6. One enters the holy path (åryamårga, anåsrava) through the accumulation of merit (pu√ya). There is no need for the cultivation (bhåvanå) [of knowledge]. 7. The path, [once obtained,] cannot be lost. Most of the other teachings [of this school] are the same as those of the Mahåsåµghikas.

107

Chapter VII

Doctrines of the Three Schools

of the Andhra Mahåsåµghikas

The doctrines that the CaityaΩailas, AparaΩailas (omitted in Kumåraj∆va and Paramårtha), and UttaraΩailas originally held in common are:

1. Many bodhisattvas are not [yet] free from [rebirth in] evil destinies (durgati).

2. The act of venerating (p¥jåkara) a stupa does not procure great fruition (mahåphala).

3. There are arhats who are tempted by others, and so on. These propositions and most of the other teachings [of this school] are the same as those of the Mahåsåµghikas. 109

Chapter VIII

Doctrines of the Sarvåstivådins

The propositions originally held in common by the Sarvåstivådins are:

1. According to the Sarvåstivådins, all things that exist are comprised in two [categories]: 1) name (nåman) and 2) form (r¥pa). Past and future also have substantial existence. 2. All dharmas (dharmåyatana) are cognizable (jñeya), apprehendable (vijñeya), and comprehensible (abhijñeya). 3. The characteristics (lak≈a√a) of birth (jåti), old age (jarå), duration (sthiti), and impermanence are not associated with the mind (cittaviprayukta). They are included in the group of cooperative formations (saµskåraskandha). 4. There are three kinds of conditioned (saµsk®ta) and three kinds of unconditioned (asaµsk®ta) dharmas. The three characteristics of conditioned dharmas (saµsk®talak≈a√a), [birth, change, and destruction,] each exist substantially (dravya). Three [of the four] truths, [su›ering, its origination, and the path leading to its cessation,] are conditioned; one truth, [the cessation of su›ering,] is unconditioned.

5. The four noble truths are comprehended (abhisamaya) gradually (anup¥rva). 6. Based on the two meditations (samådhi) of emptiness and non-desire (apra√ihita), one can become established in righteous conduct (samyaktvaniyåma). Through meditating on desire, [the four aspects of the truth of su›ering] (Paramårtha: things associa ted with the realm of desire), one can become established in righteous conduct. One who has already become established in righteous conduct is called "oriented" (pratipanna), while staying in the first fifteen moments [of the path of vision] and "abiding in the fruition" 111

16b

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (phala sthita) in the sixteenth moment (i.e., the first stage of the path of cultivation, bhåvanåmårga).

7. The highest worldly dharma (laukikågradharma) is one [instant of] mind (ekak≈a√ikacitta). There are three kinds of highest worldly dharmas. (Kumåraj∆va and Paramårtha: There is retro gression from the other three members [i.e., the first three stages of the accumulation of good roots] of the preparatory path [prayoga mårga].) There is absolutely no retrogression (parihå√i) from the highest worldly dharma.

8. A stream-enterer does not retrogress [to a lower stage], but the arhat can retrogress [from arhatship].

9. Not all arhats attain the knowledge of no more birth [of future passions] (anutpådajñåna).

10. Even worldlings (p®thagjana) can abandon desire (kåma) and anger (vyåpåda).

11. Even heretics (t∆rthika) can obtain the five supernatural powers (abhijñå).

12. Some gods (devas) (those who dwell in the heaven of six desires) do observe chastity (brahmacaryå).

13. The [seven] factors of enlightenment can be obtained in the seven contemplations (samåpatti) (i.e., the four contemplations of the realm of form and the first three stages of the realm of nonform), but not in any other contemplation. All the meditations (dhyåna) are entirely comprised in the [four] abodes of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna). Without relying on [profound] meditation one can [not only] attain a steady abode in righteous conduct, [but] also attain arhatship (arhattvaphala).

14. As long as the body dwells in the realms of form (r¥pa dhåtu) and non-form (år¥pyadhåtu), one can attain a steady abode in righteous conduct but cannot attain arhatship. However, when the body resides in the realm of desire (kåmadhåtu), one can not only attain a steady abode in righteous conduct but also arhatship. 15. In the northern continent of Kuru no one is free from passion (viråga). No arhat is born there nor among the unconscious gods (asaµjñideva).

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16. The four fruitions of religious life (Ωråma√yaphala) are not necessarily attained gradually. One who has already attained a established abode in righteous conduct can, via the mundane path, obtain the state of once-returner (sak®dågåmin, the second stage of arhatship) and of non-returner (anågåmin, the third stage of arhatship).

17. The four abodes of mindfulness (sm®tyupasthåna) may be said to include all dharmas.

18. All latent states of defilements (anuΩaya) are mental activities (caitasika). They are associated with the mind and have an object (sålambana).

19. All the latent states of defilements are entirely comprised in the manifest defilements (paryavasthåna), but not vice versa. 20. The own-nature of the members of the chain of dependent origination (prat∆tyasamutpådåçgasvabhåva) is definitely conditioned (saµsk®ta). 21. Some members of the chain of dependent origination function also in the arhat. 22. There is growth (vardhana) of meritorious actions (pu√ya karman) in the arhat. 23. The intermediate state of existence (antaråbhava) exists only in the realm of desire and the realm of form. 24. The fivefold group of consciousnesses (pañcavijñånakåya), the eye-consciousness and so on, is [always] accompanied by passion (saråga) and [is never] free from passion (aviråga). These [five] apprehend only the particulars (svalak≈a√a) and do not conceive of the universals (såmånyalak≈a√a).

25. The mind and mental activities are substantially real (dravya). The mind and mental activities depend on objects (sålambana). No own-nature is born in unity with itself. The mind is not born in unity with the mind.

26. There is a mundane right view (samyagd®≈†i) and a mundane faculty of faith (Ωraddhendriya). 27. Morally indeterminate (avyåk®ta) dharmas exist. 113

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Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines 28. For arhats neither dharmas to be learned (Ωaik≈adharmas) nor dharmas not to be learned (aΩaik≈adharmas) exist. All arhats obtain states of meditation; they can produce them but cannot gain clear comprehension (abhisamaya) of them. Some arhats receive the retribution of past actions.

29. There are worldlings who die in a good state of mind (kuΩalacitta).

30. It is impossible that one's life ends while one's mind is in a state of concentration (samåhitåvasthåna).

31. The Buddha vehicle and the [other] two vehicles (i.e., that of the pratyekabuddha and that of the Ωråvaka) do not di›er as to the liberation (vimukti) [they lead to]. But the paths of the three vehicles [leading to liberation] do di›er from each other. The benevolence (maitr∆), compassion (karu√å), and so on of the Buddha do not have living beings as their object. One who clings to the existence (bhava) of [the self (åtman) in] living beings cannot obtain liberation.

32. It should be said that bodhisattvas are still worldlings, because their bonds (saµyojana) are not destroyed. If they have not yet become established in righteous conduct, they cannot be said to have surpassed (samatikrånta) the stage (bh¥mi) of worldlings.

33.

"Living being" (sattva) is nothing but a name (prajñaptimåtra), referring to the [physical and mental] continuum (santati) which is the object of attachment (upådåna).

34. It is said that all cooperative formations (saµskåra) perish instantly.

35. There is absolutely nothing that transmigrates from a previous existence to a later existence. The pudgala (person), which transmigrates according to worldly people, is nothing other than various formations (saµskåra) operative during a person's lifetime. At the time of nirvana without remainder (anupadhiΩe≈a nirodha), there are no more changing aggregates (skandhas). 36. There are supramundane meditations.

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37. Examination (vitarka) [of the object of meditation] can also be undefiled. Good [actions] can be causes of rebirth. 38. In the state of concentration (samåhitåvasthåna) no words are uttered.

39. The noble eightfold path is the true wheel of the Dharma. Not all words of the Tathågatas turn the wheel of the Dharma. 40. The Buddha cannot teach all dharmas in a single sound. Some sayings of the Bhagavat are not in conformity with truth (aya thårtha). Not all sutras preached by the Buddha are of explicit meaning (n∆tårtha). The Buddha himself has said that some sutras are not of explicit meaning.

These are the doctrines originally held in common by [all] Sarvåsti vådins. The doctrines developed later on which they were in disagreement are innumerable.

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Doctrines of the Haimavatas

The fundamental propositions on which all Haimavatas originally agreed are:

1. Bodhisattvas are still worldlings. 2. Bodhisattvas do not enter their [mother's] wombs (garbha) out of attachment (kåma) [to life]. 3. Heretics cannot obtain the five supernatural powers (®ddhi). 4. None of the gods (devas) (i.e., inhabitants of the heaven of six desires) observes chastity (brahmacaryå). 5. Some arhats are tempted by others. They still have ignorance. They still doubt. They are enlightened by others. The path is born by the vocal expression [of su›ering]. Most of the other teachings [of this school] are the same as those of the Sarvåsti vådins.

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Doctrines of the Våts∆putr∆yas

and Their Four Schools

The propositions that the Våts∆putr∆yas originally held in common are:

1. The pudgala (person) is neither identical to nor di›erent from the aggregates (skandhas).

"Pudgala" is a conventional designation (prajñapti) referring to the [five] aggregates, the [twelve] sense fields (åya tana), and the [eighteen] elements (dhåtu). (Para mårtha adds: There are three kinds of prajñapti: 1] what comprises everything, 2] what comprises a part, and 3] what comprises liberation through cessation.) 2. Some formations (saµskåra) endure for a while, and others perish instantly.

3. Apart from the pudgala, no dharmas transmigrate from a previous existence to the next one. The truth is that they transmigrate in dependence on the pudgala [with the pudgala as substrate]. 4. Even heretics can obtain the five supernatural powers. 5. The five consciousnesses are neither accompanied by passion nor free from passion.

6. He who has destroyed the bonds (saµyojana) of the realm of desire that are to be destroyed by [the path of] cultivation (bhå va nå mårga) is really free from attachment (viråga). However, one who has [only] destroyed the bonds that to be destroyed by [the path of] vision (darΩanamårga) [is not really free from attachment]. 7. It is said that establishment in righteous conduct can be obtained through [the stages of] patience (k≈ånti), names (nåman), 119

Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines aspects (åkåra), and the highest worldly dharma (laukikågra dharma). One who is already established in righteous conduct is called "oriented" (pratipanna) while staying in the first twelve moments of the path of vision and "abiding in the fruition" (phalasthita) while staying in the thirteenth moment. (Paramårtha adds: 1] All living beings commit two kinds of mistakes: mistakes of the intellect [manas] and mistakes of fact [vastu?, i.e., natural, spontaneous mistakes?]; 2] the two main causes of samsara are defilements [kleΩa] and actions [karman]; 3] two dharmas are supreme causes of liberation: meditative insight [vipaΩyanå] and mental tranquility [Ωamatha]; 4] one who has sinned against the Right Dharma [saddharma] without his own-nature being the predominant condition [adhipatipratyaya] [of that sin] cannot be held responsible [for that sin]; 5] two things constantly operative in all living beings are the roots of defile ments: wrong knowledge [avidyå] and the thirst for existence [bhavat®≈√å]; 6] there are seven pure abodes; 7] The Buddha's knowledge is dissociated [viprayukta] from the objects of moral conduct [Ω∆la], and so on; 8] based on what has been clearly discerned, a comprehensive knowledge of all dharmas can be attained; 9] when cessation [nirodha] is included, there are altogether six; 10] in the realms of form and non-form no one attains establishment in righteous conduct; 11] bodhisattvas are always born in the middle; 12] one who has gained the knowledge of cessation [of present passions] [k≈ayajñåna] and knowledge of no more birth [of future passions] [anutpådajñåna] may be called a Buddha; 13] the sutras preached by the Tathågata have a threefold purpose: to show the demerits of samsara; to show the merits of liberation [vimukti], and not to show anything. Such are the major propositions [of the Våts∆putr∆yas]). When disagreement arose on the interpretation of a [certain] verse (Ωloka), [the Våts∆putr∆yas] were divided into the following four schools: the Dharmottar∆yas, the Bhadrayå√∆yas, the Saµma t∆yas, and the ˛å√∂agirikas. The verse in question is as follows: 120

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Already delivered, one retrogresses again. Retrogression is caused by desire. One can return and reach the abode of calm and joy again. According to desire one obtains supreme happiness. 121