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T1609 Three Short Treatises by Vasubandhu, Sengzhao, and Zongmi

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III. The Direct Revelation of the True Source

Treatise on the Origin of Humanity

The above four teachings are shown in sequence according to their relationship to each other. The earlier teachings are shallower and the later ones are more profound. If one studies one [teaching] and realizes that it is incomplete, it will be understood as being a more shallow [teaching]; if, however, one grasps it as complete, then one is said to be biased. The practitioners of these teachings are said to be biased and shallow.

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of the True Source

(This is the fully explained meaning and the true teaching of the Buddha.) (5) The teaching of the One Vehicle (ekayāna) reveals the true nature; it asserts that all sentient beings are universally endowed with originally enlightened true mind. From the beginningless past up to the present, the mind has always abided in purity, clear and unobscured, always possessing full awareness. This is also known as buddha-nature; it is also called the matrix of the Tathāgata (tathāgatagarbha). Blinded by false thoughts from the beginningless past, it is unaware of itself and cognizes only ordinary substances. It is sunk in attachment, creates binding karma, and undergoes the suffering of birth and death. The Great Enlightened One (the Buddha) pitied human beings and taught that all is empty. He also revealed to them the pure, numinous, and enlightened true mind, which is absolutely identical with that of the buddhas. The Flower Ornament Sutrathus says:

O sons [and daughters] of the Buddha, there is not even a single sentient being who does not possess the wisdom of the Tathāgata. It is only due to clinging to false thoughts that they are unable to realize this. If you free yourself from false thoughts, then all-inclusive wisdom, inborn wisdom, and unimpeded wisdom will emerge immediately. 18

The sutra then gives the simile of a particle of dust containing a thousand volumes of scripture.

"Particle of dust" is a metaphor for sentient beings; "volumes of scripture" is a metaphor for the Buddha's wisdom. Once again, it says: At the time, the Tathāgata universally observed all the sentient beings in the realm of existence and said,

"Strange! Strange! Why are the sentient

beings who possess the wisdom of the Tathāgata yet blinded by delusion? I shall teach them the noble path, causing them to become forever free from false thoughts and to discover the vast and great wisdom of the Tathāgata within their own selves, which is no different from that of the Buddha.

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IV. The Merging of the Roots and Branches

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Nota Bene:We have passed through many kalpas without having yet encountered the true principle and did not know how to return to our original state. We grasp only unreal characteristics and willingly accept the condition of the follies of mundane awareness, whether human being or animal. Now, if we seek the according to this perfect teaching we will realize that we are originally buddhas. We shall, therefore, act in accordance with the practices of the buddhas and identify our minds with the mind of the buddhas; return to the root and go back to the origin, and thus eliminate our habits as ordinary people.

"One does less and less until there is nothing left to do. "20 One will

be able to respond spontaneously to innumerable situations as numerous as grains of sand in the Ganges River, and thus be called a buddha. You should know that delusion and enlightenment are the same true mind. How great is this wonderful gate! The search for the origin of humanity ends here. (Even though the Buddha has discoursed on all of these aforementioned five teachings, some of them are gradual and some are sudden. Those who possess medium or lesserfaculties should begin with the shallower and then proceed to the deeper [teachings]. You should gradually lead them along the way. First instruct them in the initial teaching so as to cause them to abandon the unwholesome and abide in the wholesome. Then instruct them with the second and third teachings, in order to cause them to abandon defilement and abide in purity. Finally, instruct them in the fourth and fifth teachings in order to refute characteristics and reveal the nature, harmonize with the expedient and return to the real, relying on the real to practice until the culmination of buddhahood. As for those who possess the wisdom of the best of the highest faculties, they should begin with the root and then extend to the branches. This means to start with the fifth teaching, which directly points to the essence of the one true mind. When the essence of the one true mind is revealed, one will naturally realize that all phenomena are unreal, originally empty, and quiescent. Phenomenal characteristics arise only due to delusion and in dependence on the real. They must use the wisdom of awakening to reality to cut off the unwholesome and cultivate the wholesome; cultivating the wholesome, they stop falsity and return to the real. When falsity is exhausted, the real is completed. This is called the Dharma-body buddha.) 164

IV. The Merging of the

Roots and Branches

(This merges what has been rejected previously, bringing all [the teachings] into one source and causing them all to become correct doctrines.) Although the true nature is the root of the person, its arising and development all have causes; the bodily marks cannot come into existence suddenly without causes. It is only because the above-proposed teachings were incomplete in their explanations that they were rejected point by point. Now the root and the branches will be fully merged and assimilated, including even Confucianism and Daoism. (At first, only the fifth teaching, that of [buddha-] nature, will be discussed; subsequent segments will discuss other teachings according to their respective attainments. This will be explained in the notes.) This is to say that at first there is only a single sapient nature that neither arises nor ceases, increases nor decreases, transforms nor shifts. Sentient beings have been slumbering in delusion from the beginningless past and they cannot awaken by themselves. As the nature is covered over, it is called the matrix of the Tathāgata. Depending on the matrix of the Tathāgata, the mental characteristics of arising and cessation arise. (Hereafter the discussion refers to the fourth teaching, which also refutes the apparent characteristics of arising and ceasing.)

This refers to the true mind that neither arises nor ceases and that merges with the false perceptions of arising and ceasing. They are neither the same nor different. This is called the store consciousness. This consciousnesshas two aspects: enlightened and unenlightened. (The following discussion refers to the third teaching of dharma characteristics, which is the same as the doctrine discussed above.) In dependence on the unenlightened aspect false thoughts begin to arise, which is called the mark of karma. Furthermore, if one does not realize that these thoughts are originally nonexistent, they are transformed into the consciousness of subjective viewer and viewed object. One then does not know that the object is a false projection of his or her own mind, and they hold to the object as definitely existing. This is called clinging to dharmas.

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(The following refers to the second teaching. The teaching of the Hinayana school is similar to this doctrine.) Because of attachment to phenomena, one sees differences between oneself and others and thus clings to the self. Because of their clinging to the characteristics of self, people cherish and seek out agreeable objects, wanting them to enrich the self, and they despise disagreeable objects, fearing that they will harm the self. These deluded feelings grow and develop. (The following refers to the first teaching; the teaching for humans and gods also has a similar doctrine.) Henceforth, carried by the evil karma the spirit (xinshen), permeated by killing, stealing, etc., is reborn in the [three lower] realms of hells, hungry ghosts, and animals. Furthermore, there are those who are fearful of suffering or who by their good nature practice almsgiving and morality. Carried by this good karma, their spirits are brought to the intermediary state and enter into a human womb (The following refers to the two teachings of Confucianism and Daoism, which give the same explanation.), thus receiving material force elements and individual characteristics. (This agrees with the teachings that take the material force as the basis of the human being.) The material force suddenly possesses the four gross elements, which gradually form the sense organs; the mind suddenly possesses four aggregates, which gradually form consciousness. After ten months a living being is born, called a human being. Thus the present self is this body and mind. From this we know that both body and mind have their origins: a human being comes into existence only when these two combine. The gods and asuras follow a process that is generally the same as this. Although one's present body is received according to directive karma, it is furthermore based on the particular karma with which one is endowed with the various qualities of life: [being born into a] noble or humble [family], being poor or wealthy, long-lived or short-lived, healthy or ill, prospering or declining, [experiencing] suffering or happiness. This means that humility or arrogance in one's previous life is the cause and this bears the [karmic] fruit of one's higher or lower status in the present life. This extends to various individual retributions, including benevolence, which leads to longevity or malevolence, [which leads] to unnatural death; generosity brings wealth, while greediness results in poverty, etc. All [possible actions and their karmic results] cannot be fully listed here. There are also cases in which misfortune befalls one who has not acted in an evil way, or those who do no good receive 166

IV. The Merging of the Roots and Branches

good fortune; longevity may be enjoyed by those who are not humane, or premature death may come to those who are not malevolent. All of this is predetermined by the particularizing karma of the previous life, which differs from the deeds one does in their present life. This is naturally the case. Adherents of non-Buddhist teachings do not know of previous existences and merely depend on what their eyes can see, and they hold to this exclusively as the way things are. (This agrees with their doctrine that the [apprehension of a]self is the root.) There are also those who cultivated good deeds in their youth in a previous life but did evil in their later years, or they did evil when they were young but became good when they got older. This is why some people are wealthy, of noble birth, and happy when they are young in this life but later become poor, of humble means, and sorrowful when they are old, or vice versa. Adherents of non-Buddhist teachings do not know this, believing that failure and success are [solely] due to fate at any given moment. (This agrees with [Confucian and Daoist]teachings of the Mandate of Heaven.) However, if the endowment of the material force is examined all the way back to the origin, it is the primordial material force of the primal unity; if the mind that is arisen is examined all the way back to its source, then it is the sapient mind of true oneness.

In truth, there is no other dharma apart from the mind. Even the primordial material force is transformed from the mind and belongs to the projected objects of the evolving consciousness, as discussed previously, including the objectified characteristics from the store consciousness. 22 From the first

stirring of thought, the mark of karma bifurcates into mind and object. Mental activity then descends from subtle to coarse, manifesting false discrimination and creating karma.

23 (This has been discussed above.) The objects also go from obscure to apparent; they develop and change until they produce Heaven and Earth. (They call this that which began from the Great Change and arrived at the Supreme Polarity through the fivefold evolution. The Supreme Polarity produces the two primary forces [of yin and yang], which they consider to be the great and spontaneous Dao, and which we call here the true nature. It is actually the subjective aspect of the mind. What they call the primordial material force is what we call the first arising of thought. It is actually the marks of the objective world.)

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Once karma ripens, one receives the two kinds of material force from one's father and mother, which unite with the activity consciousness, thus forming a human being. According to this doctrine, the mental consciousness and the objective world that is transformed from the mind bifurcate into two: one part unites with mind and consciousness, thus becoming a human being; the other part does not join with the mind and consciousness but becomes Heaven and Earth, mountains and rivers, countries and towns. Among the three powers, human beings are the most sapient because their minds and spirits are united within. This is why the Buddha has said that the four great internal elements differ from the four great external elements. This is right. Alas! Those miserable scholars who cling to their confusions! I would like to present this treatise to students who have entered the stream of the path (srota-āpanna) and who wish to become buddhas. They should thoroughly understand what is coarse and what is refined, [and distinguish] the branch from the root. They should then abandon the branches and return to the root in order to reflect upon the luminous source of mind. When coarse and refined [false thoughts] are completely eliminated, one's sapient nature will manifest. No dharma will be left uninvestigated. This is known as the Dharma body (dharmakāya) or the reward body (saṃbhogakāya). Responding to the needs of sentient beings without limit, it is called the transformationbody (nirmāṇakāya) buddha. End of the Treatise on the Origin of Humanity

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Notes

1 Hans Haas,

491-532.

"Tsung-mi's Yuen-zan-lun, " Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft12 (1909): 2 Kaiten Nukariya,

"Origin of Man,

" in The Religion of the Samurai: A Study of Zen Philosophy and Discipline in China and Japan(1913) (London: Luzac & Co., Ltd., 1973, reprint), pp. 219-253. 3 Yoshito S. Haketa, trans., "On the Original Nature of Man, " in Wm. Theodore de

Bary, ed., The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan (New York: Vintage Books, 1969; reprint, 1975), pp. 179-196. 4 Peter N. Gregory,

"Tsung-mi's Inquiry into the Origin of Man: A Study of Chinese Buddhist Hermeneutics,

" Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1981. A section of the dissertation was published in Peter N. Gregory and Robert M. Gimello, eds., Studies in Ch'

an and Hua-Yen, The Kuroda Institute, Studies in East Asian Buddhism No. 1(Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1983). Gregory subsequently published a fully annotated translation of the text, Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity(Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005). 5 Shigeo Kamata, Genninron(Tokyo: Meitoku shuppansha, 1973), 6 Zongmi, Hua Yan Yuanren Lun (Hua Yan '

s Treatise on the Origin of Humanity), in Jun Shi, et al., eds., Zhongguo fojiao sixiang ziliao xuanbian (Anthology on Chinese Buddhist Thought), Vol. II, Part 2 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1983). 7 King Jie of the Xia and King Zhou of the Yin were both evil rulers who lost themselves completely in the enjoyment of luxury. They have been known for posterity as examples of corrupt and evil kingship. 8 Yan Tong and Ran Geng were two disciples of Confucius who were famous for their moral integrity.

9 Bo Yi and Shi Qi were the sons of King Guzhu Jun of the Yin dynasty. 10 A lakṣais an ancient Indian numerical amount, equivalent to one hundred thousand. 11 Dao de jing,chapter 42. 12 Dao de jing,chapter 42. 13 T.1564.30:33b13-14.

14 T.1666.32:576a9-10.

15 T.235.8:749a24.

16 T.270.9:296b9.

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17 This citation is found throughout commentarial literature in the Chinese canon but I have not been able to locate the actual line in the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Mahā prajñā pāramitā-sūtra). 18 T.279.10:272c4-7.

19 T.279.10:272c27-29.

20 Dao de jing, chapter 48.

21 What Zongmi describes in this paragraph as the "dharma characteristic" teaching is actually not the model of consciousness propounded in the Faxiang school of Xuanzang and Kuiji but is from the Awakening of Mahayana Faith (T. 1666). 22 This is the teaching of the Faxiang (Yogācāra) school. 23 The prior two sentences represent the teaching of the Awakening of Mahayana Faith. Faxiang's presentation of the function of mind and the production of karma is quite different from that of the Faxiang school, but here Zongmi presents the two in the form of a single system.

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Glossary

aggregate that remains until the end of transmigration (āsaṃsārika-skandha): In Mahīśāsaka texts, the aggregate (skandha) of consciousness that remains throughout all lifetimes.

appropriating consciousness (ādāna-vijñāna): The storehouse consciousness that appropriates the body upon transmigration. See also eight kinds of consciousness. arhat: Literally,

"worthy of offerings,

" an enlightened saint; the ideal of the highest level

of attainment in the Hinayana, in contrast with the Mahayana ideal of the bodhisattva. An arhat has eliminated all afflictions and reached the stage of no more training. See alsoHinayana.

asura: Originally meaning a spirit, titan, or god, the term generally indicates titanic demons who are enemies of the gods (devas), especially Indra, with whom they wage constant war. One of the ten kinds of beings in different states of existence and one of the eight supernatural beings that protect Buddhism. bodily action (kāya-karman): According to Vasubandhu, the volitional action of moving the body to perform a physical action.

body (kāya): The combination or aggregate of physical elements endowed with sensation. Book of Historical Documents (Shujing; also known as Shangshu): The oldest extant work of history in China, covering the period from the Zhou dynasty (1050-256 B.C.E.) to the Warring States period (480-221 B.C.E.). Because it contains much instruction from ancient sage kings, it is counted as one of the Thirteen Classics. Book of Music(Yuejing): Said to be one of the Six Classics, it was lost after the burning of the books in 212 B.C.E., during the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.). The lack of concrete information about this text has led some scholars to think that it is a reference to the Book of Songs. See also Book of Songs.

Book of Rites(Liji;"Records Concerning Ritual"): One of the Five Classics, often cited by Confucius; the original locus of the Daxue(Great Learning) and the Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean). It deals with the rituals connected with the Zhou government. The compilation of this text is attributed to Dai Sheng of the Former Han period (second century B.C.E.) but its rich philosophical contents are much older. Book of Songs(Shijing): One of the Five Classics, a collection of poems written during the five hundred year-period between the beginning of the Zhou dynasty to the 171

Glossary

middle of the Spring and Autumn period (722- 481 B.C.E.). It is believed that Confucius selected three hundred and five from more than three thousand pieces and edited them into this book to be used for education. Also called Book of Odes. branching consciousness (bhavāṅga-vijñāna): In Tāmraparṇīya texts, the consciousness that branches from one lifetime to another. Vasubandhu sees it as a synonym for the storehouse consciounsess.

cause for maturation (vipākahetu): That which causes actions to mature or "ripen" and attain their results.

change of position (deśāntara-saṃkrānti): In the Vātsīputrīya and Sāṁmitīya schools, movement that constitutes a communicative bodily action.

communicative act/action (vijñapti-karman): An action that communicates or informs others of inner intent.

concentration of cessation/extinction: The meditative attainment of cessation (Skt. nirodha-samāpatti), an extremely deep state of meditative concentration in which sensory and discriminative mental functions are completely extinguished; one of the six states of mental inactivity. When this concentration is attained the thinking consciousness is also extinguished, which enables the practitioner to be reborn into the highest heaven. See also eight kinds of consciousnesses. Confucianism: The system of morality and self-cultivation centered around the teachings of Confucius and Mencius and their disciples, which generally deals with the cultivation of human character through awareness of important values, such as humaneness, justice, filial piety, trustworthiness, loyalty, and so forth. Along with Buddhism and Daoism, considered one of the "three teachings" of traditional East Asian thought.

consciousness as result (phala-vijñāna): Consciousness as the result of permeations due to former actions.

Daoism: A native Chinese philosophical/religious system primarily based on the teachings of the Chinese philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi, which emphasized naturalness and unattached activity in personal behavior. The tradition also features a strong critique of the ontological status of language, not so different from that seen in Buddhism. Over the centuries Daoism influenced a broad range of areas other than philosophy, and informed alchemical practices aimed at attaining longevity and immortality.

dependent arising (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda): The fundamental Buddhist concept that everything arises from conditions, there is nothing that arises out of nothing, nothing arises of itself, and things do not come into existence through the power of an external creator; thus, there is nothing that is self-contained, independent, or which has its own separate and independent nature. The condition of relationship to something else, resulting in the arising or production of all phenomena. 172

Glossary

Dharma: The term has a wide range of meanings in Buddhism but the primary meaning is the teaching delivered by the Buddha, which is fully accordant with reality; thus it means truth, reality, true principle, law. The term connotes Buddhism as the perfect religion, and as a common noun (dharma) it is also used in the sense of "all things" small or great, visible or invisible, real or unreal; affairs, truth, principle, method, concrete things, abstract ideas, etc.

Dharma body. Seethree bodies.

directive karma and particularizing karma: Directive karma is produced from ignorance and draws one into the overarching conditions of the species of which one is a member; also called the "karma of general reward" or "generic retribution. " It is contrasted

with particularizing karma, which is produced from desire and grasping and refers to relatively quickly actualized karma that generates more detailed differences between beings, such as the distinction of being born into wealth or poverty, as beautiful or ugly, etc.

eight kinds of concentration: Eight degrees of meditative concentration (dhyāna), consisting of the four dhyānas of the realm of form (rūpadhātu) and the four formless concentrations of the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). See alsothree realms. eight kinds of consciousness: As taught in the Yogācāra school, the doctrine that the minds of sentient beings are comprised of eight distinguishable regions of consciousness, which can be broken down into four general types: (1) the first five consciousnesses correspond to the sense perceptions generated from the five senses of the eyes, ears, nose, body, and mind; (2) the sixth, mano,or "thinking consciousness, "

plays many roles, including gathering sensory perceptions, generating value judgments, calculation, emotion, and intention; (3) the seventh, manas,also referred to connotatively as "defiled mental consciousness" (kliṣṭa-mano-vijñāna), hypothesized as the origin of the sense of self, which develops based on the perception of the apparent continuity of sameness exhibited by the base consciousness; and (4) the eighth, ālayavijñāna,

"storehouse consciousness,

" understood as the fundamental

or base consciousness that functions as the repository of all the impressions from one's experiences. See alsostorehouse consciousness; Yogācāra. five consciousnesses. Seeeight kinds of consciousness.

five constant virtues: In Confucianism, the five constants in human relationships, comsisting of humaneness (ren), justice (yi), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and trustworthiness (xin). See also humaneness; justice; propriety; trustworthiness; wisdom. Flower Ornament Sutra (Skt. Avataṃsaka-sūtra; Ch. Huayan jing): One of the most influential sutras in East Asian Buddhism, of which three Chinese translations, all entitled Dafangguang fo huayan jing,were made. The text describes a cosmos of infinite realms that mutually interpenetrate and contain one another. The vision expressed in this work was the foundation for the creation of the Huayan school of Buddhism, characterized by a philosophy of interpenetration. 173

Glossary

foundational consciousness (mūla-vijñāna): In Mahāsāṁgika texts, the basic consciousness, seen by Vasubandhu as a synonym for the storehouse consciousness. See alsoeight kinds of consciousness; storehouse consciousness.

four gross elements (Skt. mahābhūta): The four material elements of which all physical substances are composed: (1) earth (prthivī), which has the basic quality of hardness and the function of protection; (2) water (āpas), which has the function of gathering and storing wetness; (3) fire (tejas), which is the nature of heat and has the function of warming; and (4) wind (vāyu), which has the function of giving motion to all living things.

four kinds of meditation: The four progressively subtle stages of meditation that lead one out of the desire realm (kāmadhātu) into rebirth in the four meditation heavens (Skt. catur-dhyāna;Pāli cattāri jhānāni). See also three realms. Four Noble Truths: The fundamental teaching of the Buddhist path, which is the truth of suffering, Śākyamuni's realization that existence as we normally perceive it is dissatisfactory; the truth of the origination of suffering; the truth of the cessation of suffering, the principle espoused by Śākyamuni that all suffering eventually ceases; and the truth of the eightfold path that leads to the extinction of afflictions and to liberation from suffering.

god (Skt. deva): Related to the Latin deus,literally "radiant ones, " heavenly or celestial

beings who inhabit the heavens of sensual pleasure. There are many classes of heavenly beings, and as a rule they are invisible to humans. The term is also a general designation of the gods of Brahmanism and of all the inhabitants of devalokas (devaworlds) who are subject to suffering in cyclic existence (samsara), just as do all human and other living beings.

golden treasury cloud (Skt. kāñcana-garbhā meghāh): The first cloud that arises when a new world is completed; it appears in the Ābhāsvara Heaven and brings the first rain.

hell (Skt. naraka): Literally, a prison in the bowels of the earth where prisoners are subject to all kinds of torture as retribution for extensive evil activities in their prior lives (such as violating the precepts). Considered one of the three evil destinies. Buddhist scriptures have extensive categories and lists of the various hells. See also three evil destinies.

Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): In general, the term refers to Buddhist practices centered on individual salvation, or which are not based upon the true experience of emptiness, in contrast to the ideal of the Mahayana (Great Vehicle), and its usage by Mahayanists implies a derogatory sense. In a historical sense, the term is applied to the early Indian groups typified by Theravādins and Sarvāstivādins, who held to a monastically centered approach to Buddhist practice. There are four stages of attainment in the Hinayana path: stream-enterer (srota-āpanna), once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin), nonreturner (anāgāmin), and arhat. Mahayana texts refer to Hinayana practices of the 174

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śrāvakas (direct disciples) and pratyekabuddhas (self-enlightened buddhas) as lacking the elements of a penetrating view of emptiness as well as universally functioning compassion, both of which are considered to be the hallmarks of the Mahayana bodhisattva path. See alsoarhat; bodhisattva; Mahayana; non-returner. humaneness (ren): One of the five constant virtues of Confucianism; consideration for others, a sense of altruism, goodness, kindness, compassion, or benevolence. In the thought of Confucius and Mencius, renis the basic quality of unselfishness present to one degree or another in the minds of all human beings, and which is the basis for the appearance of all proper forms of human interaction, such as justice, filial piety, trustworthiness, propriety, and so forth. See alsoConfucianism. imperishable (avipraṇāśa): In the Sāṃmitīya school, the special morally neutral principle of transmigration, unassociated with mind, through which actions mature their results.

increase (upacaya): In the Mahāsaṁgika school, the special morally neutral principle unassociated with mind, through which actions mature their results. Jñānaprabha: A disciple of Śīlabhadra. SeeŚīlabhadra.

justice (yi): One of the five constant virtues of Confucianism; the quality of justice, fairness, appropriateness, giving each thing its due; the appropriate conduct of the Noble Person. See alsoConfucianism.

kalpa:An eon or world period; the longest period of time in Indian cosmology; an age, such as the period of time between the creation, destruction, and subsequent re-creation of a world or universe. The Treatise on the Origin of Humanityreferences several kalpas, including the abiding kalpa(Skt. vivarta siddha), an existing or persisting kalpaand the period of human existence, second of the four kalpas. In this eon the sun and moon rise, gender is differentiated, heroes arise, the four castes are formed, and social life evolves. The kalpaof annihilation (saṃvarta-sthāyī-kalpa) is a period of nothingness during which nothing whatsoever exists. The kalpaof destruction (saṃvarta) is a period of decay during which the world of sentient beings first decomposes followed by the dissolution of the natural world; this eon is subdivided into twenty lesser kalpas. The kalpaof formation, one of the four kalpas, consists of twenty small kalpas during which worlds and the beings in them are formed. karman (action): According to Vasubandhu, any deed or act performed with an intention by an agent.

Mahaprajñāpāramitā-sūtra(Great Perfection of Wisdom): A collection of sixteen sutras of varying length that articulate the central Mahayana doctrine of prajñāpāramitā, the "perfection of wisdom.

" Translated by Xuanzang from 660-663 C.E., this massive

work includes such well-known texts as the Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra), and is one of the most complete collections in the Prajñāpāramitā corpus. See alsoMahayana; Xuanzang.

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Mahayana ("Great Vehicle"): The name of a late Indian sectarian movement that became the main form of Buddhism in East Asia. The term was created along with and in opposition to the disparaging term Hinayana, used by the former to distinguish the two. In the polemical sense, the concept of a "great vehicle" refers to the fact that the Mahayana doctrines were considered to be more open and universal, that enlightenment was attainable by all sentient beings, including lay followers and householders, rather than only to monastics. This movement produced a large body of new sutras, in which the new model practitioner of the Mahayana, the bodhisattva, preached the doctrine of the emptiness of all things. See alsobodhisattva; Hinayana. maturation (vipāka): The ripening of actions within consciousness, through which they attain their results.

mental action (manas-karman): The volitional act of activating the will, causing it to bring forth various kinds of actions.

mental continuity (saṃtāna): The moment-to-moment flow of consciousness, whereby the mind instantaneously arises and perishes.

mind that accumulates (ācaya-citta): The storehouse consciousness that accumulates seeds of actions. See alsoeight kinds of consciousness; storehouse consciousness. Nāgārjuna (second-third centuries C.E.): One of the most esteemed figures in Buddhist history, considered by many Mahayanists as second in insight and importance only to the Buddha himself. Nāgārjuna was a master of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics as well as a skilled debater and critical thinker, and his masterwork, the Mūla madhya maka-kārikā(Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way), sharply critiqued in elegant, sophisticated verse many treasured concepts and theories held by Buddhists and non-Buddhists, from causality and time to karma and nirvana. Based on the title of this text, the school based on Nāgārjuna's thought was called Madhyamaka. nescience (Skt. avidyā): Ignorance, delusion, folly; the fundamental misunderstanding of reality that underlies all the suffering of unenlightened people; the first of the twelve links of dependent arising. More than a lack of factual knowledge, it is a fundamental error in our mode of perception that prevents us from seeing things as they really are; for example, being unaware of the fact that all things are ultimately impermanent, or that there is in reality no such thing as an inherent, permanently existing self. See alsodependent arising; no-self.

noncommunicative action (avijñapti-karman): An action that is not manifested outwardly and so does not communicate to others.

non-returner (anāgāmin): A saint who will not be reborn again into transmigration; one of the stages of the Hinayana path. See alsoHinayana.

no-self (anātman): The basic notion that there is no permanent, abiding self. One Vehicle (ekayāna): A Mahayana doctrine that holds that the earlier Buddhist teaching of the three vehicles for śrāvakas (disciples), pratyekabuddhas (self-enlightened 176

Glossary

buddhas), and bodhisattvas was merely an expedient teaching to attract beings to the single buddha vehicle, i.e., the bodhisattva path of the Mahayana. The One Vehicle doctrine is a key theme in such important and influential Mahayana scriptures as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra (Great Perfection of Wisdom), the Avataṃsakasūtra (Flower Ornament Sutra), and the Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-sūtra(Sutra of the Lion

s Roar of Queen Śrīmālā), but it is most forcefully articulated in the Lotus Sutra. See also Flower Ornament Sutra;Mahayana; Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra. outflows (āśrava): The defiled "leakages" of actions within consciousness. perfuming or permeation (Skt. vāsanā): The "perfuming" of consciousness by the performance of actions. The literal meaning of the term vāsanā is of being permeated with an odor, used as a metaphor to describe how karma works in the form of various undefiled and defiled phenomena, created by our activities which unfailingly leave impressions on our consciousness and alter it. Just as clothing or fabric that has been exposed to an odiferous substance, such as perfume, gradually takes on the aroma of that substance, our own actions of body, speech, and mind (thought) influence our mental state and consciousness. The idea of perfuming is a distinctive Buddhist explanation of how karmic influence is transmitted through the consciousnesses of living beings. physical shape (saṃsthānarūpa): In the Sarvāstivāda and Vaibhāṣika schools, the visible configurations that constitute communicative bodily actions. polymorphous mind (nānā-citta): The mind characterized by the many activities of sensing, perceiving, and thinking in all their variations.

propriety (li): One of the five constant virtues of Confucianism, ceremony, ritual, etiquette, propriety, respect. In Confucian thought, lican be understood as referring to all outward correct action that serves to reveal one's innate humaneness (ren). See also humaneness; Confucianism.

realm of space (Skt. ākāśa-dhātu): One of the six realms of earth, water, fire, wind, space, and knowledge.

seeds (bījas): The inner force of actions deposited in consciousness and resulting in the fruits of those actions. See also eight kinds of consciousness; seminal consciousness. seminal consciousness (bīja-vijñāna): Consciousness as the seed-cause for future results. See alsoeight kinds of consciousness; seeds.

seventh consciousness. Seeeight kinds of consciousnesses.

shared karma (Skt. sādhāraṇa-karman): Karmic results of actions experienced by oneself and others who have engaged in the same activities, which are held in common by all those in the group. For example, people experience their environment and the things of the natural world in the same way when they have shared the same flow of activity. In contrast, the karmic results of individual activity are not necessarily shared with or experienced by others.

177

Glossary

Śīlabhadra (529-645 C.E.): A renowned Indian master of the Yogācāra school. Originally from Magadha, he taught at Nālandā, the great Buddhist monastery and university in northern India, where he met Xuanzang who came to study with him in 636 C.E. See alsoXuanzang; Yogācāra.

six consciousnesses (ṣad-vijñāna): The five sense consciousnesses of the eyes, ears, nose, and body, and the thinking consciousness of mind. See also eight kinds of consciousness. six heavens: According to Buddhist cosmology, above Mount Sumeru, the central axis of Jambudvīpa (one of the four continents or quarters, which forms our world) are six heavens, each higher than the last, stretching up toward the realm of form (rūpa dhātu). They are (1) the heaven of the four devakings who guard the four quarters of the world; (2) Trāyastriṃśa, the heaven of the thirty-three gods; (3) Yāma, where the god Yāma resides; (4) Tuṣita, the heaven of contentment where Maitreya Bodhisattva is said to be preparing to be reborn in the world as the buddha of the next kalpa;(5) Nirmāṇarati, the heaven where one's desires are magically fulfilled at will; and (6) Paranirmitavaśavartin, the heaven where one can partake of the pleasures of others, and also where Pāpīyāṃs, the king of the māras, resides. See also three realms. six realms of transmigration: Six samsaric destinies into which sentient beings are reborn in accordance with the good or evil actions they carried out in previous lifetimes, including the realms of (1) hell (Skt. naraka-gati), (2) hungry ghosts (preta-gati), (3) animals (tiryagyoni-gati), (4) asuras (asura-gati), (5) human beings (manuṣyagati), and (6) gods (deva-gati). See also asura;god; three evil destinies. special evolution (pariṇāma-viśeṣa): In Vasubandhu's Sautrantika theory, the process of maturation caused by volition and leading to future results.

special volition (cetanā-viśeṣa): In Vasubandhu's Sautrantika theory, volition as an act of the will is itself action, the cause that permeates the mental continuity, thereby leading to further activity and the maturation of the results of that activity. storehouse consciousness (ālayavijñāna): The underlying consciousness, containing all the seeds of former actions, which forms the linkage of mental continuity from one lifetime to another, and from entrance into and emergence from such states as the concentration of cessation. See alsoeight kinds of consciousness. subtle mind (sūkṣma-citta): An alternate description of the storehouse consciousness, present during the concentration of cessation. See alsostorehouse consciousness. summit of being (bhavāgra): The highest sphere of meditative attainment within the triple world. See alsothree realms.

Supreme Polarity (taiji): An early Chinese conception of the great tension between yin and yangenergies that existed before actual differentiation into Heaven and Earth; a term for the origin of myriad phenomena. See also Daoism; yin and yang. 178

Glossary

teaching of humans and gods: The first in Zongmi's fivefold taxonomy of the teaching, consisting of the basic teaching of karmic retribution, through which beings are able to gain a favorable rebirth either as a human being or a god. ten unwholesome activities (Skt. daśākuśala-karma-pathā): The ten unwholesome activities carried out through the three modes of action of body, speech, and mind (thought): killing, stealing, engaging in debauchery, lying, flattery, insult, treachery, covetousness, anger, and holding false views.

thin earth cakes (Skt. pṛthivī-parpaṭaka): Thin cakes that grow spontaneously on the surface of the earth at the beginning of an eon (kalpa). Human beings initially require only mental nourishment at the onset of an eon, but they must eventually turn to material food in the form of these thin cakes for sustenance, and later consume the vegetation found in forests.

thinking consciousness. Seeeight kinds of conciousnesses.

thoughtless concentration: One of the six states of inactivity of mind, the state of concentration that is the cause of being born into the Heaven of No-thought in which all mental actions and the functions of the first six consciousnesses cease. This concentration, which is also practiced by non-Buddhists, is called a good but tainted concentration, because within it the seventh manoconsciousness is still producing self-view. See alsoeight kinds of consciousnesses.

three bodies (Skt. trikāya): The principle of the three bodies or modes of manifestation of buddhas: (1) the transformation body (Skt. nirmāṇakāya), the temporal, physical body of a buddha in the form of a sentient being, such as the buddha of the present era, Śākyamuni, in order to teach and save them. A transformation-body buddha utilizes superknowledges to appropriately discern and respond to the various capacities of sentient beings in order to lead them to liberation. (2) The reward body (saṃbhogakāya), also called the body of bliss or body of recompense, is the ideal body of a buddha produced upon entering buddhahood as the result of vows undertaken during their practice in the bodhisattva path. In this body a buddha enjoys the blissful reward of enlightenment. (3) The Dharma body (dharmakāya) is a term for the absolute, the manifestation of all existences; the true body of reality, or of the Buddha as eternal principle; a pure body of essence that possesses no marks of distinction and is equated with emptiness. three evil destinies: The three lowest of the six realms of transmigration, the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals, into which sentient beings are reborn according to the karmic results of actions carried out in previous lifetimes. See alsosix realms of transmigration.

three realms: The three realms of samsaric existence into which beings are reborn: the desire realm (Skt. kāmadhātu), in which one's consciousness is subject to physical desires; the realm of form (rūpadhātu), in which beings take physical form but are 179

Glossary

no longer subject to craving; and the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu), in which beings no longer have physical form. Also referred to as the triple world. trichiliocosm (Skt. trisāhasra-mahāsāhasra-lokadhātu): The worlds that constitute the domain of the Buddha. A single world consists of the realm of desire (kāmadhātu) and the first heaven of the realm of form (rūpadhātu). In ancient Indian cosmology, the term is used to describe the vastness and interconnectedness of the universe. See alsothree realms.

trustworthiness (xin): One of the five constant virtues of Confucianism, a cardinal value in the system of human relationships. The presence of this quality is the defining factor of friendship. See alsoConfucianism.

two vehicles: The two Hinayana vehicles or paths of practice of śrāvakas ("hearers, "

direct disciples) and pratyekabuddhas (self-enlightened ones). These two kinds of practitioners are regularly introduced in Mahayana literature where they are generally cast in a negative light as representatives of the so-called Hinayana, in contradistinction to the Mahayana ideal of bodhisattva. They are understood to be engaged in a view toward practice and enlightenment that will permit them to attain the realization of an arhat but not buddhahood. See also arhat; Hinayana; Mahayana. underlying meaning: The hidden or implicit intent of a scripture preached by the Buddha. verbal action (vākkarman): The volitional action of enunciating speech. vital force (jīvitendriya): In the Vaibhāṣika school, the reality of the life force apart from mind and matter, which accounts for the perdurance of the person. volition to deliberate, to decide, and to put into effect: Acts of the will to consider a course of action, determine a course of action, and carry out a determined course of action.

wind (vāyu-dhātu): Literally, the wind element, which in the Sauryodayika and Dāṛṣṭāntika schools constitutes a communicative bodily action.

wisdom (zhi): Intelligence, the function of the intellect; one of the five constant virtues of Confucianism. Understood by Confucius and Mencius to be one of the fundamental good qualities of the mind; the ability to discern right from wrong. See alsoConfucianism. Xuanzang (602-664 C.E.): A famous Chinese monk-scholar who traveled to India to collect teachings and texts; one of the most important figures in the history of scholastic Chinese Buddhism. The precise date of his journey to India is uncertain (possibly 629 or 627), but the year of his arrival in India is given as 633. While in India he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning in Nālandā. On his return to China in 645 he was received with honor and given support to carry out the largest and most sophisticated translation project at that time in the history of Buddhism. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was the study of Yogācāra, and his own extensive studies, translations, 180

Glossary

and commentaries on the texts of the tradition stimulated the development of the Faxiang school in East Asia. His closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (632-682), recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. yinand yang:The two fundamental cosmic opposites in Chinese Daoist onto-cosmology, which manifest in the world as the polarities of female/male, negative/positive, dark/light, cold/hot, etc. See alsoDaoism.

181

Bibliography

A Mahayana Demonstration

on the Theme of Action

Anacker, Stefan.

"A Discussion for the Demonstration of Action (Karma-Siddhi-Prakaraṇa), " in Seven Works of Vasubandhu, the Buddhist Psychological Doctor, pp. 83-156. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984. Lamotte, Étienne.

"Le Traite de l'Acte de Vasubandhu (Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa), "

Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques4 (1935 -1936): 151-282. English translation by Leo M. Pruden, Karmasiddhi Prakaraṇa: The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1988. Muroji, Gijun. Jōgōron: Chibetto yaku kōteihon. The Tibetan Text of the Karma-Siddhi-Prakaraṇa of Vasubandhu with Reference to the Abhidharma-Kośa-Bhāṣya and the Pratītya-Samutpāda-Vyākhyā. Critically Edited from the Cone, Derge, Narthang, and Peking Editions of the Tibetan Tanjur.Kyoto: Self-published, 1985. Schmithausen, Lambert. Ālayavijñāna: On the Origin and the Early Development of a Central Concept of Yogācāra Philosophy, Part I: Text, Part II: Notes, Bibliography, and Indices. Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series Iva-b. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1987. Yamaguchi, Susumu. Seishin no Jōgōron: Zenkeikai no chūshaku ni yoru gententeki kaimei (Vasubandhu

s Karmasiddhi-prakaraṇa: An Elucidation of the Original Text According to Sumatiśila

s Commentary). Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 1951.

Essays of Sengzhao

Canonical Texts

Bodhisattva

s Diadem (Pusa yingluo jing,T. 656). Traditionally considered to have been translated by Zhu Fonian (fl. 365 C.E.to early fifth century C.E.), the text traces the career of the Buddha-to-be.

Complete Realization(Chengju guangming dingyi jing,T. 630). Traditionally regarded as a translation by Zhi Yao (fl. late second century C.E.), this text is more likely a native Chinese composition of the mid-fourth century. The Buddha describes a concentration that allows one to "completely realize" a set of virtuous qualities. 183

Bibliography

Dao Practice (Daoxing bore jing,T. 224). Lokakṣema's translation, dated 179 C.E., of theAṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra.The title of the sutra is borrowed from the title of the first chapter, which centers on the topic of the "practice, " or progress

on the Dao, as the path of a bodhisattva.

Dhyāna Canon (Zuochan sanmei jing,T. 586). A compilation by Kumārajīva (402 C.E.) of teachings on dhyānafrom various Mainstream and Mahayana sources. Fortunate Eon (Xianjie jing,T. 425). Translation of the Bhadrakalpika-sūtraby Dharma rakṣa (late third century C.E.). The title refers to the notion that the present eon is a "fortunate" one, inhabited by a thousand worthies.

Lotus Sutra(Skt. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra). There are two Chinese translations: the Zhengfahua jing(T. 263), translated by Dharmarakṣa in 286 C.E., and the Miaofa lianhua jing (T. 262), translated by Kumārajīva in 406 C.E.One of the most influential sutras in East Asian Buddhism, it is known for its parables as well as for the doctrines of the One Vehicle and skillful means.

Mahayana Treatise (Moheyan lun), alternative title of the Dazhidu lun (T. 1509). An extensive commentary on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra traditionally attributed to Nāgārjuna (though this attribution is questionable) and produced under Kumārajīva in 402-405 C.E.

Middle Way Treatise (Zhong lun,T. 1564). Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka-kārikāwith commentary by Piṅgala (Ch. Qingmu), translated by Kumārajīva, 409 C.E.A fundamental text of the Three Treatises (Sanlun) "school" of Chinese Buddhism. Radiance(Fangguang bore boluomi jing, T. 221).

*Mokṣala's translation of the "large"

Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra,dated 291 C.E.The title's literal meaning, "Emission of Light

Perfection of Wisdom Sutra,

" refers to the scripture's opening scene in which the

Buddha magically emits light from the pores of his body and his tongue, and this radiance penetrates countless world systems, teaching the Dharma to their inhabitants. Supreme Brightness(Chaoriming sanmei jing,T. 638). Translation credited to Nie Chengyuan (fl. late third to early fourth centuries C.E.), a lay collaborator of Dharma rakṣa. The eponymous "supreme brightness" or, more precisely,

"brightness greater than that of

the sun,

" is the name of the concentration (samādhi) described in this sutra. Teaching of Vimalakīrti (Skt. Vimalakīrtinirdeśa). Two Chinese translations are of relevance to the Zhaolun:the Weimojie jing(T. 474), translated by Zhi Qian from 222-229 C.E., and the Weimojie suoshuo jing(T. 475), translated by Kumārajīva in 406 C.E.In this text Vimalakīrti, an advanced bodhisattva from the Abhirati buddha world, has manifested in our world as a lay bodhisattva in order to teach sentient beings the truths of nonduality and emptiness.

Viśeṣacinti(Siyi fantian suowen jing,T. 586). Kumārajīva's translation (402 C.E.) of the Brahma-viśeṣacinti-paripṛcchā-sūtra,in which Viśeṣacinti, among others, receives teachings on the doctrine of emptiness from the Buddha.

184

Bibliography

Secondary Sources

Demiéville, Paul. Review of Tsukamoto Zenryū, ed.,Jōron kenkyū,T' oung-pao45/1-3 (1957): 220-235. Liebenthal, Walter. Chao Lun: The Treatises of Seng-Chao. A Translation with Introduction, Notes and Appendices.Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1968, second ed. Liu, Ming-wood. Madhyamaka Thought in China.Leiden: Brill, 1994. Robinson, Richard H. Early Mādhyamika in India and China,pp. 123-155, 212-232. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967. Tsukamoto, Zenryū, ed. Jōron kenkyū.Kyōto: Hōzōkan, 1955. Tang, Yongtong. Han Wei Liangjin Nanbeichao fojiao shi,vol. I, pp. 328-339. Shanghai: Shangwu, 1938.

Treatise on the Origin

of Humanity

Gregory, Peter N. Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i —

Press, 2005.

"Tsung-mi's Inquiry into the Origin of Man: A Study of Chinese Buddhist Hermeneutics, " Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1981. Gregory, Peter N., and Robert M. Gimello, eds. Studies in Ch' an and Hua-Yen, The

Kuroda Institute, Studies in East Asian Buddhism No. 1.Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1983.

Haas, Hans.

491-532.

"Tsung-mi's Yuen-zan-lun,

" Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft 12 (1909): Haketa, Yoshito S., trans. "On the Original Nature of Man, " in Wm. Theodore de Bary, ed., The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan, pp. 179-196. New York: Vintage Books, 1969; reprint, 1975. Jun Shi, et al., eds. Hua Yan Yuanren Lun (Hua Yan '

s Treatise on the Origin of Humanity) in Zhongguo Fojiao sixiang ziliao xuanbian (Anthology on Chinese Buddhist Thought), Vol. II, Part 2. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1983. Nukariya, Kaiten.

"Origin of Man,

" in The Religion of the Samurai: A Study of Zen Philosophy and Discipline in China and Japan(1913), pp. 219-253. London: Luzac & Co., Ltd., 1973, reprint. Shigeo, Kamata. Genninron.Tokyo: Meitoku shuppansha, 1973. 185

Index

action(s), 5-6, 11, 35, 41-45, 51, 79, 84, 119, 120, 127n66, 166 of the Buddha/Sage/Tathāgata, 57, 86, 107, 108, 109

maturation, 5-6, 23 nature of, 5, 6, 11, 41 path(s) of, 42-43

ten, 41

See also karma; three acts of body, speech, and mind/three kinds of actions

"A Discussion for the Demonstration of Action (Karma-Siddhi-Prakaraṇa)" (Anacker), 7, 46n5

affliction(s), 63, 64, 105, 106, 111, 112, 113, 117, 118, 131n123, 132n147, 158

aggregate(s), 26, 35, 36, 118, 158, 166 appropriating, 36, 37 five, 82, 105, 107, 121 of conceptualization/mental, 32, 158 of consciousness, 36, 37, 158 of feeling/sensation, 32, 158 of formation, 26, 32, 37, 158 of perception, 158

ālayavijñāna. See consciousness(es), store/storehouse

Ālayavijñāna: On the Origin and the Early Development of a Central Concept of Yogācāra Philosophy, Part I: Text, Part II: Notes, Bibliography, and Indices(Schmithausen), 46n1 alchemical practices/alchemy, 54, 150 all-knowledge, 78, 131n125 See also sarvajñatā Amitābha, 127n72

Anacker, Stefan, 7, 46n5 anāgāmin. See non-returner annihilationist(s), 63, 74 See alsoeternalist(s); nihilism/nihilist arhat, 25, 133n164, 133-134n166, 134n166

arhatship, 158

Aṣṭasāhasrikā,133-134n165 asuras, 166

Avataṃsaka-sūtra. See Flower Ornament Sutra; Huayan jing

awakening, 57, 66, 105, 135n189, 164 perfect, 79, 88, 98 seven members of, 105, 131n120 See alsobodhi;enlightenment Awakening of Mahayana Faith,161, 170nn21, 23

Bailun,57

Bamboo Grove, 91, 128n81 See alsoSeven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove Bary, Wm. Theodore de, 144, 169n3 Bhagavat, 11, 23, 31, 35, 37 See alsoBuddha

Bianzong lun, 134n173 See also Treasure Trove Treatise 187

187

Index

Big Dipper, 69

bodhi,73, 109, 121, 122 See alsoawakening; enlightenment bodhisattva(s), 114, 120, 126n54, 130n107, 133n160, 133-134n165, 134n166, 169

resolve/vow, 105, 131n122, 134n166 wisdom, 117, 133n165, 134n166; 160 Bodhisattva, 67, 109, 118 See alsoBuddha

Bodhisattva

s Diadem,74

body, 5, 11, 15, 19, 20, 21, 30, 35, 41, 42, 43, 67, 86, 104, 106, 109, 113, 131n130, 132n150, 147, 154, 155, 157-158, 159, 166

of the Bodhisattva/Perfected Person/ Sage, 106, 109, 110, 118, 121 and speech, two acts of, 12, 23, 26, 27, 41, 155

See alsothree acts of body, speech, and mind/three kinds of actions Book of Historical Documents,151 Book of Rites, 151 Book of Songs,151

Bo Yi, 149, 169n9

Brahmā, realm of, 156, 157 brahmacārin,68, 122 buddha(s), 109, 131nn114, 124; 133n157, 133-134n165, 134n166, 161, 163, 164, 168

eye, 131n114

Buddha, 19, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 45, 79, 86, 92, 106, 108, 109, 114, 119, 120, 122, 123n9, 125nn25, 40; 132nn134, 135; 133n156, 134nn166, 169, 171; 147, 153, 163, 164, 168 See alsoPerfected Person; Sage; Śākyamuni; Tathāgata Buddhabhadra, 128n83, 129n85, 130n103 buddha bodies:

Dharma body, 105, 110, 118, 164, 168 188

reward body, 168

transformation body, 168 buddhahood, 127-128n74, 133n160, 164 buddha field, 113, 125n25 buddha-nature, 160, 163, 165 See alsoTathāgata, matrix of Buddhayaśas, 129n86 Buddhism, 54-55, 56, 141, 148, 153 Chinese, 58, 141, 143 Lesser Vehicle, 157 See alsoHinayana; Mahayana; Mainstream; three teachings Buddhist, 51, 54, 55, 57, 58, 124n18, 127n72, 131n120, 133n160, 141, 142, 143, 147, 154 cosmology, 55, 130n110 doctrine(s)/teaching(s), 54, 55, 57, 130n106, 141, 147, 148, 153, 157 five grades of, 153 sources/texts, 52, 58, 142, 143, 144, 147, 154, 157

Buddhist schools:

Chan/Zen, 58, 141, 144 Ox-head lineage, 59 Dārṣṭāntika, 18

Huayan, 141

Faxiang, 170nn21, 22, 23 Madhyamaka, 51, 58 Mahāsāṃgika, 36

Mahīśāsaka, 36

Pure Land, 127n72

Sāṃmitīya, 14, 26

Sanlun ("Three Treatises"), 58 Sarvāstivāda, 11, 20, 23, 29, 129-130n84 Sauryodayika, 18

Sautrāntika, 5, 6, 7, 27, 41 Sutrāprāmāṇika, 34 Tāmraparṇīya, 36

Vaibhāṣika, 11, 12, 13, 20, 23, 29, 36 Vātsīputrīyas, 14

Yogācāra, 5, 6, 7, 160, 170n22

Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan, The(Bary), 144, 169n3 C

cakravartin("wheel-turning king"), 55 Caotang Temple, 145

cessation, 31, 32, 33, 34, 64, 95, 103, 104, 108, 109, 122, 128n77, 165 See alsoconcentration, of cessation; nirvana

Chang ahan jing,58

Chang'an, 55, 58, 59, 61, 91, 125nn38, 39; 127nn71, 74; 128-129n76, 129nn85, 86; 141

Chanzang (Collection of Chan Buddhist Writings), 142

Chengguan, 141

China, 51, 53, 54, 141, 143, 153 Chinese, 51, 54, 58, 124nn18, 20; 141, 142, 153

Buddhism, 58, 141, 143 language/text(s), 5, 6, 7, 46nn2, 3; 59, 130n103, 133n157, 144, 170n17 Classic of Music,151

Commentary to the Teaching of Vimalakīrti,57 See also Teaching of Vimalakīrti communicative act, 5, 44 as movement, 14-18

as shape, 11-14

as wind, 18-21

compassion, 105, 119, 130n107, 141 Complete Realization,67, 76, 86 concentration(s), 6, 26, 29, 31, 32, 33, 89, 93, 94, 129n89, 129-130n98 bereft of mind/mindless/thoughtless/ without conceptualization, 6, 30, 32, 159

of cessation, 6, 26, 29-33, 34, 36, 159 eight kinds of, 153

four formless, 131n118 Index

nine progressive, 33