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Analysis of the Middle and Extremes The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena

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Notes

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

Middle Way that is free from extremes in the beginning and end, which is why it is called an analysis of the middle and extremes. What this treatise analyzes is of profound meaning, since it is not within the limits of speculations. This is of substantial meaning, since it destroys other analyses and is not refuted by them. This is of grand meaning, since it analyzes matters related to benefit and joy for oneself and others. This is of all-encompassing meaning, since this universally determines the Dharma (teachings) of the three vehicles in a conclusive manner. Also, it eliminates various misfortunes, since it permanently eliminates afflictive and cognitive obstacles.

May the merit from having produced this treatise be completely held and universally given to sentient beings, ensuring their attainment of superior birth, increase of merit and wisdom, and quick realization of great, perfect awakening.

End of Part III of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya

Notes

1 The most recent and comprehensive analysis of Xuanzang's chronology was done by Yoshimura Makoto, "Genjō no nenji mondai ni tsuite 玄奘の年次問題について," Komazawa Daigaku Bukkyōgakubu ronshū 駒沢大学仏教学部論集 46 (2015): 183-205. For a recent critical discussion of the sources used to reconstruct Xuanzang's life, see Jeffrey Kotyk, "Chinese State and Buddhist Historical Sources on Xuanzang: Historicity and the Daci'en si sanzang fashi zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳," T'oung Pao 105 (2019): 513-544.

2 Gadjin Nagao, Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya: A Buddhist Philosophical Treatise Edited for the First Time from a Sanskrit Manuscript (Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964), p. xi.

3 The corresponding Sanskrit reads śūnyatā vidyate tv atra, tasyām api sa vidyate. Gadjin Nagao, "From Mādhyamika to Yogācāra, an Analysis of MMK XXIV. 18 and MV. 1.1-2," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 2/1 (1979): 36, translates this as follows: "Emptiness, however, exists in it, and also the former exists in the latter."

4 Although these statements appear contradictory, as is explained below there exists the undeniable appearance of phenomena (in particular, the subject-object dichotomy of "grasped" and "grasper"), but these have no substantial existence and dissolve via analysis of their emptiness, demonstrating that they are, in reality, imaginary in nature. Subjectivity and perceived objects, in effect, arise due to false discrimination of what is essentially empty.

5 Xuanzang curiously translates artha as both yi 義 and jing 境 here. See Nagao, Madhyānta vibhāga-bhāṣya, p. 18. I interpret both instances as referring to objects. 6 Liao 了 ("cognition") is a translation of vijñapti; Nagao, Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, p. 18. Mario D'Amato, Maitreya's Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes: Ma dhyāntavibhāga Along with Vasubandhu's Commentary: Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, A Study and Annotated Translation (New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2012), translates the Sanskrit as "representations." Kuiji explains that the cognitions of the former two consciousnesses, in this case the ālaya (store) and manas, are fine, whereas the cognitions of the six consciousnesses are coarse, since they are neither the root of conscious activity nor are they continuous (T.1835:3c4-8). 7 The Chinese here is ambiguous. Ru wu-xiang fangbian xiang 入無相方便相 (literally, "characteristic of the means [by which] one enters into the characteristic of nonexistence") is derived from asallakṣaṇānupraveśopāyalakṣaṇa; Nagao, Madhyāntavi bhāga-bhāṣya, p. 209. Compare with D'Amato, Maitreya's Distinguishing the Middle 87

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

from the Extremes, p. 121: "[U]nreal imagination's definition as a means of realizing its aspect of nonexistence." Kuiji explains that these means are carried out in relation to false discrimination, since the means for entry into the absence of characteristics require discrimination for contemplating the mind, while the means themselves also constitute an object (T.1835:4b27-c1).

8 In other words, perception of objects (that which is grasped) halts when consciousness only (the grasper) is perceived, which subsequently leads to the cessation of consciousness, since there is nothing left to be grasped (i.e., the duality of grasped and grasper ceases).

9 This section of the text is terse. Kuiji explains, "The 'two nonexistents' refer to the principles of the two forms of selflessness (anātman). There are these two principles, hence it is said 'not-nonexistent.' This is different from a definite existence on the basis of the other-dependent, so far as conventional truth is concerned. It also differs from absolute nonexistence to which one becomes attached" (T.1835:6c14-16). In other words, epistemological principles are identified and discussed here. Neither the text nor Kuiji posit ontological categories.

10 11 Reading quan 全 as jin 金.

Kuiji explains this as follows: "The earlier treatise (Paramārtha's translation) calls this the emptiness of nonabandonment. One contemplates emptiness in order to ensure that virtuous dharmas are not abandoned. Here 'dispersal' means abandonment. One specifically contemplates emptiness for virtue, or one contemplates virtue as empty; either of these constitute the emptiness of nonabandonment. It is termed as a tatpuruṣa compound. Virtuous roots are extinguished when the two vehicles enter nirvana. This is not so with the bodhisattva. They contemplate [virtue] as empty. . . . Contemplation of emptiness is called the emptiness of nonabandonment" (T.1835:8c15-23). 12 Kuiji explains this ambiguous part as follows: "The emptiness revealed by these two [categories of] nonexistence refers to the principle of thusness. It is not the substance (ziti 自體) of nonexistence. This emptiness has nonduality for its substance. Hence the substance is established and [this] is called the emptiness of the intrinsic nature of nonexistence" (T.1835:9a23-26). The emptiness of nonexistence is explained in order to prevent attachment to negation through emptiness, which is explained in the following lines.

13 "Etc." here refers to pratyekabuddhas, awakened beings who achieve liberation by themselves but do not teach the Dharma to others. They belong to the latter of the two spiritual lineages (along with śrāvakas) mentioned here.

14 That is to say, the force of self-conceit prevents it from being abandoned, even during meditative contemplation.

15 16 Reading yin 因 as si 四.

Kuiji writes: "This is discerning analysis. It is included among wisdom obtained after [enlightenment], since it is attained after transcendental fundamental wisdom. It is called ascertainment because one ascertains the earlier realized Four Noble Truths and sixteen states of mind" (T.1835:25a18-21).

Notes

17 18 19 20 21 This appears to refer to the state of excellence, the seventh state of eighteen listed in the next chapter.

Kuiji explains that this state enables the bodhisattva to inexhaustibly transmute things such as gold and silver to bestow unto beings, like a sky treasury (i.e., wealth as infinite as the sky) (T.1835:29c2-9).

Kuiji cites the Abhidharma-samuccaya, which defines a "disturbance in relation to signs" as "feigning cultivation of virtues in order to gain the faith of others" (T.1605:665b11-12). D'Amato's translation of the Sanskrit, Maitreya's Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes, p. 178, reads: "Being directed toward what arises [in the mind] is distraction through signs—which is due to becoming engaged with signs"; see Nagao, Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, pp. 65, 189. Xuanzang, however, translates abhisandhi as jiaoshi 矯示, "deception" or "dissimulate."

Kuiji notes that this is in reference to eight things that are not posited in the Middle Way as taught by the Buddha in the Ratnakūṭa-sūtra (T.310:299c18-21), the first of which is a self, the eighth of which is māṇava (T.1835:39c27-40a3). Kuiji translates the latter as "youngster." He refers the reader to fascicle eighty-three of the Yogācāra bhūmi (see T.1579:764b12-20). The meaning of this line is unclear.

Glossary

Xuanzang's translation in some cases simply transliterates Sanskrit words. In some instances, I have reproduced this convention. Elsewhere I use Sanskrit equivalents for semantic Chinese translations of Indian terms for the sake of clarity and readability, especially when such terms are widely used in modern English translations of Buddhist literature. A list of critical terms appears below. bodhisattva: A being who has dedicated themselves to the Mahayana path, i.e., the attainment of full buddhahood for the benefit of all beings, contrasted against the so-called Hinayana path, which leads to becoming an arhat.

manas: Mind, intellect, perception.

prajñā: Wisdom.

pratyekabuddha: One who attains liberation from samsara by themselves during an age when no buddha is present to teach the Dharma.

samādhi: A state of sustained meditative concentration or absorption. śamatha: The meditative state of quietude, in which one cultivates a state of mind free from obtrusive thoughts and impulses.

śrāvaka: "Hearer," a disciple who hears the uddha-Dharma and subsequently aims to achieve nirvana and become an arhat, thereby gaining permanent liberation from samsara, in contrast to the bodhisattva who remains engaged in the world lifetime after lifetime.

śrāvakayāna: Equivalent to Hinayana, the vehicle or path leading to one becoming an arhat, against which the Mahayana contrasts itself.

Sugata (shan shi 善逝): "Well-gone," an epithet for the Buddha. vipaśyanā: The practice of examination or contemplation within a meditative framework. Critical Terms

The following list is limited to critical terms. For a full list of Chinese-Sanskrit correspondences, see Gadjin Nagao, Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya: A Buddhist Philosophical Treatise Edited for the First Time from a Sanskrit Manuscript (Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964), pp. 183-231.

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes action (karma): ye 業.

affliction (kleśa): fannao 煩惱. aggregate (skandha): yun 蘊. antidote (pratipakṣa): duizhi 對治. causal state (hetv-avasthā): yinwei 因位. cessation (nirodha): mie 滅. characteristic (lakṣaṇa): xiang 相. cognitive distortion (viparīta, viparyāsa): diandao 顚倒. collective characteristic (saṃgraha-lakṣaṇa): she xiang 攝相. conceptualized (parikalpita): bianji suozhi 遍計所執. conditioned (saṃskṛta): youwei 有爲. consciousness (vijñāna): shi 識. contaminated (sāsrava): youlou 有漏. conventional truth (saṃvṛti, saṃvṛtisatyatva): shisu di 世俗諦. conviction (adhimukti): xinjie 信解. defilement (kliṣṭa, saṃkliṣṭa): ran 染. dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda): yuanqi 緣起. dharma body (dharmakāya): fa shen 法身. effect (phala): guo 果.

effort (vīrya): jingjin 精進. emanation body (nirmāṇakāya): bianhua shen 變化身. emptiness (śūnyatā): kongxing 空性. empty space (ākāśa, vyoma): xukong 虛空. enjoyment body (saṃbhogakāya): shouyong shen 受用身. factors of awakening (bodhipakṣya): juefen 覺分. false discrimination (abhūtaparikalpa): xuwang fenbie 虛妄分別. feeling (vedanā): shou 受.

form (rūpa): se 色.

grasped (perceived object) (grāhya, ādāna): suoqu 所取. grasper (perceiving subject) (grāhaka): nengqu 能取. habituated energies (vāsanā): xiqi 習氣. liberation (mukta, mukti, mokṣa): jietuo 解脫. meditative concentration (dhyāna): ding 定. Middle Way (madhyamā-pratipat): zhongdao 中道. mode of appearance (ākāra): xingxiang 行相. morality (śīla): jie 戒.

negative karma (akuśala): e ye 惡業. 92

Glossary

noble (ārya): sheng 聖.

obstacle (āvarṇa, āvṛti, vipakṣa): zhang 障. other-dependent (paratantra): yita qi 依他起. path of seeing (darśana-mārga): jian dao 見道. perfectly accomplished (pariniṣpanna): yuancheng shi 圓成實. perfuming (vāsanā, bhāvita): xiongxi 熏習. positive karma (kuśala): shan ye 善業. reality (tattva): zhenshi 真實. root (mūla): genben 根本.

self (ātman): wo 我.

sentient being (pudgala, sattva): youqing 有情. six sense bases (ṣaḍ-āyatana): liu chu 六處. store consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna): zangshi 藏識. suffering (duḥkha): ku 苦.

synonym (paryāya): yimen 異門. thought (manas): yi 意.

transmundane phenomena (lokōttara-dharma): chushi jian fa 出世間法. ultimate (niṣpatti, samāpti): jiujing 究竟. ultimate truth (paramārtha, paramārthasatya): sheng yi di 勝義諦. unconditioned (asaṃskṛta): wuwei 無爲. view (darśana): jian 見.

volition (cintā): si 思.

wisdom (prajñā): hui 慧.

Bibliography

Anacker, Stefan. Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Ltd., 1986, reprint 2005. D'Amato, Mario. Maitreya's Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes: Madhyāntavibhāga Along with Vasubandhu's Commentary: Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, A Study and Annotated Translation. New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2012.

Kotyk, Jeffrey. "Chinese State and Buddhist Historical Sources on Xuanzang: Historicity and the Daci'en si sanzang fashi zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳," T'oung Pao 105 (2019): 513-544.

Kuwayama Shōshin 桑山正進 and Hakamaya Noriaki 袴谷憲照. Jinbutsu Chūgoku Bukkyō: Genjō 人物·中国仏教: 玄奘. Tokyo: Daizō Shuppa, 1981.

Muller, A. Charles. "The Yogācāra two Hindrances and their Reinterpretations in East Asia," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 27/1 (2004): 207-235.

Nagao, Gadjin. "From Mādhyamika to Yogācāra, an Analysis of MMK XXIV. 18 and MV. 1.1-2," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 2/1 (1979): 29-43.

—. Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya: A Buddhist Philosophical Treatise Edited for the First Time from a Sanskrit Manuscript. Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964. —. "'What Remains' in Śūnyatā: A Yogācāra Interpretation of Emptiness," in Minoru Kiyota, ed., Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice, pp. 66-82. Hono lulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1978. Stanley, Richard. "A Study of the Madhāntavibhāga-bhāṣya-ṭikā," Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1988.

Wei Dedong 魏德東. Bian zhongbian lun 辯中邊論. Gaoxiong: Foguang, 1997. Yoshimura Makoto 吉村誠. "Genjō no nenji mondai ni tsuite 玄奘の年次問題について," Komazawa Daigaku Bukkyōgakubu ronshū 駒沢大学仏教学部論集 46 (2015): 183-205. 95

Index

Abhidharma-samuccaya, 89n19 affliction(s), 9, 12, 22, 29, 31, 38, 42, 51, 58, 66, 80

aggregate(s), 12, 30, 39, 45-46, 51 five, 10, 12

ālaya-vijñāna. See consciousness(es), store

Analysis of the Middle and the Extremes, 5, 12, 15, 17-51, 53-63, 65-86 See also Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya antidote(s), 7, 8, 11, 17, 26, 45, 49, 53-54, 57, 59-60, 61, 77, 79, 80 Asaṅga, 6

"A Study of the Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya-ṭikā" (Stanley), 5 ātman. See self

attachment, 21, 26, 30, 31, 42, 88n12 attainment(s), 7, 8, 11, 17, 25, 29, 32, 33, 36, 38, 43, 48, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 86 of buddhahood, 7, 11, 62 awakening, 31, 33, 57, 60, 63, 85 factors/limbs of, 11, 34, 38, 53 seven, 35, 48, 57

mind of, 10, 31, 33-34, 61, 62, 65, 85 great/perfect/unexcelled, 31, 33, 34, 35, 48, 68, 69, 86

bhūmi. See ground(s)

Bian zhongbian lun (Wei), 5 See also Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya Bian zhongbian lun shuji, 7 birth(s), 21, 22, 35, 48, 80 superior, 69, 86

THE SCRIPTURE ON THE MONK NĀGASENA

Contents Translator's Introduction 109 The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena 113 Notes 213 Bibliography 231 Index 237 107

Translator’s Introduction

As an act of Dhammadāna, Bhikkhu Anālayo has waived payment for the translation of The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena.

Translator's Introduction

The text translated here is one of the two extant Chinese counterparts to the Milindapañha, the "Questions of Milinda," a debate on central themes of Buddhist doctrine between a Greek king and a monk. These two Chinese counterparts appear to go back to a single original; they differ due to a loss of text in the shorter of the two and because both seemingly underwent subsequent editorial interventions. The version translated here, found in the Taishō edition as entry T. 1670B, is the longer and thus more complete one of the two. Information is no longer available on the actual circumstances of the translation into Chinese of T. 1670B, as a result of which the identity of the translator(s) and the time when the work was carried out remain uncertain. The archaic translation terminology employed, however, makes it fair to conclude that the original translation is probably best placed at some point in the second or third century of the present era.1

In addition to these two Chinese parallels, extracts of the debate between the monk Nāgasena and the king Milinda are available. One of these takes the form of an Avadāna account extant in Chinese translation. This provides an additional perspective on the first dilemma with which King Milinda succeeded in silencing another Buddhist monk, whom he had met before his encounter with Nāgasena. Having ascertained that lay practitioners can reach the final goal, Milinda concluded that it is pointless to become a monk. In the Pāli Milindapañha and its Chinese parallels, Milinda employed this dilemma only with the Buddhist monk whom he met before his encounter with Nāgasena. According to the Avadāna account, however, Milinda posed the same question again to Nāgasena, who was not short of a reply. The Avadāna version reports that Nāgasena got Milinda to acknowledge the difference in reaching a destination between a young and strong man traveling on horseback with provisions, and an old man who rides an old horse and has no provisions.2 The young and strong traveler represents one who has gone forth; the old traveler represents a practitioner who remains at home. In other words, although both are able to reach the goal, the former does so more easily and swiftly. 109

The Avadāna account covers several exchanges between the two. One of these is a question about the nature of the self. In his reply, Nāgasena compares such a query to wanting to know the taste of mango fruits on nonexisting trees. A version of this particular exchange is also found as a quotation in the Abhi dharmakośabhāṣya,3 but not known in the Milindapañha and its two Chinese parallels. In this way, the Avadāna account and the quotation in the Abhidharma kośabhāṣya show that versions of the debate between Nāgasena and Milinda were in circulation in the past that differed from the well-known Milindapañha and its two Chinese parallels.4

Knowledge of the existence of Chinese parallels to the Milindapañha became available to readers in the West with the publication in 1883 of A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka by Bunyiu Nanjio.5 This aroused the interest of Sylvain Lèvi, who in turn invited Edouard Specht to translate extracts from the Chinese, which were published in 1893. The plan of these two scholars to translate the whole work was never realized and it was not until 1924 that a full translation of both versions into French, combined with a detailed study, was published by Paul Demièville. In 1964 Thich Minh Chau complemented Demièville's groundbreaking and exemplary work by publishing a comparative study of the Chinese versions with the corresponding parts of the Pāli Milindapañha. In 2007 a free translation of the Chinese text was published by Guang Xing.

Compared to the Chinese versions, the Pāli Milindapañha is substantially longer. This appears to be due to a process of expansion, evident in the fact that the Pāli text corresponding to the material covered in the Chinese versions concludes with the remark "here ends the answering of the problems of the questions of Milinda."6 Most of what appears to be the historically earlier part of the Milindapañha is found in the Chinese versions; their main point of divergence concerns the introductory portion, where the Pāli and Chinese versions clearly developed their own respective hagiographical accounts of Nāgasena's and Milinda's former lives. The actual encounter between Nāgasena and Milinda stands in the tradition of ancient Indian debate, where the point at stake is not primarily to refute an argument with sound proofs. Instead, the task is to counter a challenge with success in order to win the debate and convert the opponent. This is where a quick reply or a dexterous simile have their place, whatever the accuracy of the logic involved. A similar setting can be found in the Pāyāsi-sutta, which features a 110

Translator's Introduction

Buddhist monk debating the doctrine of rebirth with a materialist king who asserts that nothing survives the death of the body.7 The popularity of such types of debate in the ancient Indian setting finds its reflection in the fact that, in addition to the Buddhist discourse, a record of this discussion is also found in the Śvetāmbara canon of the Jains.8

The two debates involving King Pāyāsi and King Milinda respectively share the rich use of metaphors and similes, together with the display of quick wit when debating a topic of continuing interest. This topic is how to reconcile the Buddhist doctrine of not-self with the idea of karma and rebirth.9 Other topics taken up in the Milindapañha and its Chinese parallels concern aspects of mental cultivation and the analysis of experience in Buddhist soteriology, as well as the nature of the Buddha and the extent of his knowledge. The discussion reported in the Milindapañha and its Chinese parallels gradually evolves from its starting point as a debate to becoming more of an exchange between teacher and pupil. The continuing relevance of the topics raised in this way, together with the entertaining manner of their presentation, must have contributed to the appeal of the record of Nāgasena's replies to King Milinda's inquiries from ancient to modern times.10 An additional appeal of the text emerges nowadays with Buddhism's recent spread to the West.11 The encounter of the Buddhist monk Nāgasena with Milinda, apparently corresponding to the Bactrian Greek King Menander who reigned around one hundred and fifty years before the present era, covers ground that is remarkably fresh in relevance. This is particularly the case for the topics taken up in the probably historically earlier part of the much better known Milindapañha, which has a parallel in the Chinese parallel translated in the following pages.

111

The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena

[Introductory Narration: Events

at the Time of the Buddha]

The Buddha was staying at Sāvatthī in Jeta's Grove, the Park of Anāthapiṇḍika. At that time the community of monks, nuns, male lay disciples, and female lay disciples, the devas, kings, great ministers, [eminent] householders, [general] people, and those engaged in the ninety-six type of paths,12 more than ten thousand people, came daily to listen to discourses in front of the Buddha. The Buddha thought to himself that with the congregation of people increasing daily he did not obtain physical ease. The Buddha had the wish in his mind to leave the congregation of people and depart toward a solitary place to sit in mindful recollection of the path. Leaving the congregation of people and departing, the Buddha entered a mountain and arrived at a Sāla grove.13 The Buddha sat in mindful reflection on the path of purification under a tree [inhabited by] spirits.

Not far from the grove there was a herd of over five hundred elephants. The elephant king among them was virtuous and skilled; similar to humans, he understood matters that are good and that are bad. Among the congregation of many elephants that surrounded the king elephant there were males and females, those with long teeth, medium teeth, and small teeth. When the king elephant was thirsty and wanted to go and drink water, all the small elephants would run ahead of him and enter the water to drink. Having drunk, they would run around and play in the water, agitating and dredging up the water, which made it become muddy and disgusting. The king elephant was unable to get clean water to drink.

[When] the king elephant was hungry and wanted to go and eat grass, all the small elephants again would run ahead of him and eat the tasty grass. They would run around and play, trampling on it. The king elephant was unable to get clean grass to eat.

The king elephant thought to himself, "I am much troubled by my numerous herd. All the elephants and the small elephants agitate the water, they 115

704a

make it muddy, and they make the grass unclean. In turn I always drink muddy water and eat grass that has been trampled on."

The king elephant thought to himself, "I wish to abandon all these elephants. Would it not be enjoyable to depart toward some sheltered place?" Then the king elephant abandoned the herd and departed. He went to enter a mountain and in turn arrived at the Sāla grove.

Seeing the Buddha, the Buddha being seated under a tree, the king elephant's mind was greatly delighted. He went in front of the Buddha, knelt down to bow and pay respect to the Buddha, and retreated to stand to one side. The Buddha thought to himself, "I have abandoned the crowd of people to come here and the king elephant has also abandoned the crowd of elephants and has come to this grove. Our purposes are exactly the same."14 The Buddha taught the elephant from the discourses, saying, "A Buddha is most respected among men and a king elephant is also respected among all elephants."

The Buddha said, "My mental state and the mental state of the king elephant correspond to each other. The king elephant and I completely delight in being in this grove."

Hearing from the discourses [the Buddha had taught to him], the mental faculty of the elephant king opened up and he understood the Buddha's meaning. He in turn looked after the place where the Buddha was practicing walking meditation. With his trunk he fetched water to sprinkle the ground. Taking grass with his trunk, he swept the ground. With his feet he trampled the ground to make it properly even. The elephant king undertook such services daily in the morning and evening.

Then, after a long time, the Buddha in turn departed, taking the path of the unconditioned, nirvana. The elephant king did not know where the Buddha was. He went around searching for the Buddha but was not successful. Crying and in grief, he was joyless and did not dare to eat and drink. At that time in that region there was a Buddhist monastery on top of a mountain, called Kālavana.15 Five hundred recluses were residing in it together, all of whom had attained the awakening of arahants. On the six days of fasting in the month they regularly recited the discourses throughout the night.16 The elephant king was also staying close to the monastery on top of the mountain. The elephant king knew that there was recitation of the discourses on the six 116

days of fasting. On such days the elephant king would regularly come to enter the monastery and listen to the discourses.

The recluses knew that the elephant king delighted in hearing the discourses. When they wished to recite the discourses, they would wait for the elephant king to arrive and then recite the discourses. The elephant king would listen to the discourses until morning without sleeping, without lying down, and without moving, remaining motionless.

[Introductory Narration:

The Next Life]

Because the elephant king had frequently listened to the discourses and done services for the Buddha, when after a long time he also passed away and died in turn, the elephant king obtained becoming a human being. He was reborn as a child in a brahmin household, where he no longer heard Buddhist discourses and also did not see recluses. He abandoned the household in turn and entered a remote mountain to train on top of the mountain in the path of brahmins. Nearby there was another brahmin practicing the path. Being together on top of the mountain, they visited and became acquainted with each other. One of them thought to himself:

I am weary of governmental authority over the world. There is the sorrow and pain of old age, disease, and death, after which one will enter hell or be reborn as a hungry ghost, an animal, or among the needy. For this reason I shall shave off my hair and beard, wear monastic robes, and become a recluse to seek the world-transcending path to the unconditioned. The other of them thought to himself:

I aspire and seek to become the unimpeded king of the country; let all people in the world together be subject to me and follow my commands.17 The aspirations of the two were like this.

[Introductory Narration: The

Present Life of Nāgasena]

After a long time the two each passed away and again obtained becoming humans in the world. The one who in the former life had wished to become 117

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the king of the country was reborn as the crown prince in a country by the seaside. His parents in turn gave the child the name Milinda.18 The one who in the former life had wished for the world-transcending path to the unconditioned, nirvana, was reborn in India in the country of Kashmir. On being reborn, he was in turn born wearing a monastic robe, so his parents in turn gave him the [nick]name Tuolie.19 His aspiration in the former life was the reason why he was reborn with a monastic robe. On the same day an elephant king was born in that household. In India elephants are called nāga.20 Relying on this word for an elephant, the parents in turn gave their child the [proper] name Nāgasena.21

Nāgasena grew up and had become between fifteen and sixteen years [of age]. He had a maternal uncle called Rohaṇa.22 Rohaṇa, who had become a recluse, had superior abilities and was without match in the world. With his eyes he was able to see penetratingly, with his ears he was able to hear penetratingly, and he knew from where he had himself come to be reborn. Walking, he was able to fly; he was able to come out where there is no gap; he was able to enter where there is no hole. He could transform himself at will; there was nothing he did not do. Rohaṇa also had foreknowledge of all thoughts in the minds of people in heaven and on earth, even of the species of flying creatures and those that crawl [on the ground].

Nāgasena on his own went to his maternal uncle and in turn told about his own plans, "My intention is set on the Buddhist path.23 I wish to shave off my hair and beard, wear monastic robes, and become a recluse. Now I should [instead] become a disciple of my maternal uncle. Would you approve of and support me in becoming a recluse myself?"

Rohaṇa, who knew that Nāgasena had in former lives performed what is wholesome and that he was wise, deeply sympathized and therefore allowed him to become a recluse. Beginning by becoming a small novice, Nāgasena took the ten precepts. Daily he recited the discourses, trained in learning, and reflected on the precepts [found] in the scriptures. He attained the four absorptions and completely knew the discourses. He only had not yet received the precepts of a great recluse.

At that time, on a mountain in the region there was a Buddhist monastery called Pliable Meditation. In the monastery Pliable Meditation there were five hundred recluses who all had attained the awakening of arahants. The 118

foremost arahant among them was called Anpoyue.24 He was able to know about matters past, present, and future in heaven and on earth. Because Nāgasena had turned twenty years old, he received the precepts of a great recluse and became a great recluse. He in turn went to the monastery Pliable Meditation and approached Anpoyue inside. Just at that time it was the fifteenth day [of the month] and the five hundred arahants were to sit in the hall above to recite the precepts [found] in the scriptures for great recluses. The great recluses all entered and Nāgasena was also among them. All the recluses in the community sat down.

Anpoyue surveyed the minds of all the recluses that were seated inside. All were arahants, only Nāgasena had not yet attained the awakening of an arahant. Anpoyue in turn taught a parable from the discourses: It is just like receiving broken rice, and among the rice that is truly pure there is a black [grain] of rice: One removes the bad one. Now all among us seated here are pure, only Nāgasena is blackened by not yet having attained the awakening of an arahant.

Hearing Anpoyue teach from the discourses in this way, Nāgasena was greatly worried. He in turn got up and, having paid respect to the five hundred arahants, went outside. Nāgasena thought to himself:

It is not suitable for me to sit in this gathering. I have indeed not yet attained deliverance; all the other recluses have already been liberated. It is similar to a jackal being among a pride of lions.25 Now I am just like that. From now on, not having attained awakening, I will not enter to sit among the community again.

Anpoyue knew what was on Nāgasena's mind. He in turn called Nāgasena to come forward and with his hand caressed Nāgasena's head, [saying], "Soon you will become an arahant, do not worry!" Anpoyue in turn wanted Nāga sena to sit down and stay [for the recitation of the precepts found in the scriptures].

Nāgasena also had another teacher who was over eighty years old and had the name Jiaweiyue. In that county there was a lay disciple of great virtue and goodness who daily provided food for Jiaweiyue and his disciples. It was Nāgasena's turn to take the appropriate utensil and go to fetch food provisions 119

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on behalf of his teacher. The teacher made Nāgasena keep water in his mouth on going to the lay disciple's house to fetch food provisions.26 The lay disciple saw that Nāgasena was young and handsome, and that his comportment was unusual among people. For a long time having known that Nāgasena had wisdom, and previously having heard of his bright aspirations and of his reputation for being able to teach the discourses on the path, on seeing him enter the house the lay disciple rose up and in turn came forward to pay respect. With palms held together he said: For a long time I have fed the recluses and those who come have [never] taught me from the discourses.27 Now I request Nāgasena, out of compassion for my wish, to teach me from the discourses and relieve me from my ignorance.

Nāgasena thought to himself, "I received my teacher's instruction that I am to keep water in my mouth, not being allowed to speak. Spitting out the water now, I would violate my teacher's command. It being like this, what should I do?"

Nāgasena thought, "The lay disciple is of great ability and he also has an aspiration. Being taught from the discourses by me, I think he will attain the path."

Nāgasena in turn spat out the water and sat down to teach from the discourses: A person who makes offerings, does what is wholesome, and undertakes the precepts [found] in the scriptures is at ease in the present life and in the next life will in turn be reborn in heaven. Being reborn among humans [again], he will be intelligent and wealthy; he will no longer enter hell or be reborn among hungry ghosts or animals. A person who does not undertake the precepts [found] in the scriptures is afflicted in this life and in the next life falls again into the three bad destinies, which lack opportunities to get out.28

Hearing from the discourses, the mind of the lay disciple was delighted. Knowing that the lay disciple's mind was delighted, Nāgasena taught him again and from the profound discourses in turn, saying: 120

All things in the world, they will all pass away; none of them remains forever. All things pass away; they are all unsatisfactory. People in the world are themselves also like this. People in the world all say, "This body of mine will pass away; I accept it." [Yet] they all have not gained independence by awakening to nirvana. [Only] with the supreme joy of nirvana is one not reborn, does not age, does not get sick, does not die, does not worry, and does not grieve. Evil and hardships are all completely exterminated. Nāgasena having taught him from the discourses, the lay disciple attained stream-entry, the first [level of] awakening. Nāgasena himself also attained stream-entry, the [first level of] awakening.

The lay disciple was greatly delighted and in turn offered excellent food to Nāgasena. Nāgasena told the lay disciple to put provisions first into the bowl of the teacher. Having completed eating and rinsing his mouth, Nāgasena took the food provisions and returned to give them to his teacher. The teacher saw the food provisions and said, "Today you have come to bring food provisions, very good. [Yet], having violated the community's agreement, you should be expelled."29 Nāgasena was worried and unhappy. The teacher called a communal meeting of the monks of the community. The monks of the community being completely seated for the meeting, the teacher said, "Nāgasena has committed a violation of our community's agreement. We should jointly expel him; he should not be allowed to stay in our community."

Anpoyue taught a simile, saying:

He is like a person who has shot two targets with a single arrow. A type of person like this should not be expelled. By teaching, Nāgasena attained the path himself and also caused the lay disciple to attain the path. He should not be expelled.

Nāgasena's teacher Jiaeweiyue said:

Even if he had shot a hundred targets with a single arrow, we have met about the community's agreement. He should not be allowed to stay. Others are not all able to attain the path like Nāgasena. This should never happen again. If Nāgasena is not expelled, others will follow suit and there is no way to stop it later.

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All those seated in the community remained silent.

Following the teacher's injunction, Nāgasena was expelled. Nāgasena in turn paid respect with his head at the teacher's feet, got up and paid respect, circumambulating the community of monks. Having finished paying respect, he in turn left, entered a remote mountain, and sat under a tree in its midst. Day and night exerting himself mindfully in the path without negligence, he in turn accomplished the awakening of an arahant himself. He was also able to fly and with his eyes he also saw penetratingly, with his ears he heard penetratingly. He was also able to know the thoughts in the minds of others. He knew his own former lives and from where he had come to be reborn. Having become an arahant, he in turn came back to enter inside the monastery Pliable Meditation. He prostrated himself amidst the community of monks and confessed his transgression, seeking forgiveness from the community of monks at Pliable Meditation. The monks in the community accepted it. Having completed paying respects, Nāgasena in turn went out and left. Nāgasena went on a walking tour, entering the streets of prefectures and counties and the winding lanes of villages. He taught people the scriptures and precepts and instructed people in what is wholesome. Some among them took the five precepts, some attained the awakening of a stream-enterer, some attained the awakening of a once-returner, some attained the awakening of a nonreturner, and some became recluses and attained the awakening of an arahant. The Four Heavenly Kings from the first [heavenly realm], Sakka from the second [heavenly realm] of Tusita, and the heavenly king Brahmā from the seventh [heavenly realm] all came before Nāgasena, paid respect with their heads at his feet and sat back, [while] Nāgasena was teaching from the discourses to all people. His fame was heard in the heavens of the four [directions]. Wherever Nāgasena went, devas, humans, spirits, and nāgas were all without exception delighted to see Nāgasena and all of them gained merit. Nāgasena arrived on his tour in the country of Shejie (Sāgala) in India in turn,30 where he stayed in the monastery Xiedijia.

[Introductory Narration: The

Present Life of Milinda]

The one person who had been his former acquaintance in the past life had become the crown prince in a country by the sea; his name was Milinda. In 122

his youth, Milinda was fond of reading the discourses of heterodox practitioners and he knew all heterodox practices. Debating their discourses and regulations, none of the heterodox practitioners could overcome him. [When] Milinda's father, the king, had passed away, Milinda was crowned king of the country. Being the king, he asked his ministers, who were surrounding him to his left and right, "Who of the religious practitioners and people in the country is able to debate together with me on the discourses about the path?" The surrounding ministers said to the king:

There is a practitioner of the path of the Buddha; people call him a "recluse." That man is wise and erudite; he is able to debate together with the great king on the discourses about the path.

Now [Milinda had been dwelling] in a palace of ancient kings which was in the country called Shejie (Sāgala), to the north of the great Qin (Greek colonial) empire. 31 That country was at peace inside and outside, and its people were all skillful. The city was on all four sides surrounded by roads and all city gates were ornamented with sculptures and written engravings. Each of the women in the palace had her own room. The roads, markets, and neighborhoods were aligned in rows.

The main roads, which had shops aligned in rows, were large, flourishing with elephants, horses, chariots, and pedestrians, male and female. At pools, which had fords,32 religious practitioners, relatives, craftsmen, ordinary people and those from [other] small countries [gathered].33 They were all very wise. People's clothes were brilliant with the five colors. Women dressed in white and were all adorned with jewelry.

The territory of the country was high and dry, with many treasures. Traders from the four directions came for trading; they all used gold coins. The five grains were in abundance and the families had [surplus] provisions and domestic animals.34 Around the market sweet soups with rice were sold for the hungry to get food, and there was wine from mixed grapes for the thirsty to drink. It was so enjoyable that it can hardly be expressed. The king named Milinda was in that country and he was governing over this country by relying on proper laws. Milinda with his great intelligence and wisdom was versed in worldly discourses and methods, being capable of debating on matters of the past, the present, and the future. He had understanding 123

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of public affairs and warfare skills; there was nothing his cleverness did not penetrate.

At that time the king had gone out of town for a leisure walk, surrounded by a crowd of soldiers. That king took pride in himself, [thinking] in his mind, "I am the king and I am able to reply to adherents of the ninety-six types of discourses on the path. [Even] on being interrogated by innumerable people, I in turn know in advance what they are going to say, as soon as people are about to think it."

The king said to his attendant ministers:

It is still early to enter the city; there is also nothing to be done there. Could there be in this vicinity a religious practitioner or recluse who is versed in the discourses and able to debate with me together on the discourses that make declarations about the path? The king's attendant ministers were called Zhanmili and Wangqun. Zhanmili and Wangqun said to the king:

Indeed, there is a recluse called Yeheluo who has a great understanding of the discourses on the path.35 He will be able to debate together with the king on the discourses that teach about the path.

The king in turn ordered Zhanmili and Wangqun to approach him and invite him to come. Zhanmili and Wangqun went to invite Yeheluo, saying, "The Great King wishes to see the great teacher."

Yeheluo said, "It is very well that the king wishes to meet me. He should just come himself; I am not coming."

Zhanmili returned to tell the king that it was like this. Driving in a chariot, the king approached the monastery in the company of five hundred horsemen and went inside. On meeting, the king and Yeheluo first exchanged greetings and then sat down in turn; the five hundred horsemen followed suit by all sitting down as well.

The king asked Yeheluo:

Dear, for what reason have you left the household, abandoned wife and children, shaved off hair and beard, and put on monastic robes to become a recluse? Dear, in quest of what path are you?

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Yeheluo replied to the king:

We train in the path of the Buddha with upright practice,36 in order to gain merits in this life and also gain merits in the next life. For this reason I have removed hair and beard and become a recluse wearing monastic robes. The king asked Yeheluo:

Are there laypeople who have wife and children and who, being at home with their wife and children, with upright practice gain merits in this life and also gain merits in the next life?

Yeheluo said, "There are laypeople who, being at home with their wife and children, with upright practice gain merits in this life and also gain merits in the next life."

The king said:

Dear, [as] laypeople, who are at home with their wife and children, with upright practice similarly gain merits in this life and in the next life, it is in vain that you have abandoned wife and children, removed your hair and beard, and become a recluse wearing monastic robes.37 Yeheluo in turn remained silent, being unable to reply to the king. The attendant ministers said, "This recluse is of great strength of understanding and has wisdom. [Yet], on being pressed, he has nothing to say." The king's attendant ministers raised their hands, saying, "The king has gained victory, the king has gained victory!"

Yeheluo in turn was silent, accepting his defeat.

Looking at the lay disciples to the left and the right, the king saw that the faces of the lay disciples were not mortified [by Yeheluo's defeat]. The king thought, "The faces of these lay disciples indeed show no mortification.38 It can only be that there is another recluse strong in being versed in the discourses who is able to debate with me." The king said to Zhanmili, "Could there be another wise recluse able to debate together with me on the discourses that teach about the path?"

Immediately [Zhanmili thought of] Nāgasena, who was the master of all [Buddhist] recluses and who always traveled together with recluses, with all recluses getting him to expound from the discourses. At that time Nāgasena 125

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completely knew how to debate the essentials of the discourses. He was able to teach the twelve divisions of the discourses.39 When teaching from the discourses, he analyzed each matter, having separated its different sentences and definitely explained its phrases.

He knew the path to nirvana. There was no one able to refute him and no one able to gain victory over him. He was able to clear up all doubts and able to reason clearly; what he spoke with wisdom was like a river [flowing into] the ocean. He was able to overcome [adherents] of the ninety-six types of paths and was respected by the four assemblies of Buddhist disciples,40 being esteemed by all knowledgeable ones for regularly instructing people based on the discourses about the path. Nāgasena had arrived in the country of Shejie (Sāgala) with a following of disciples who were also all wise. Nāgasena was like a fierce lion.

Zhanmili said to the king:41

There is another recluse, his name is Nāgasena, who is wise and has a profound and good understanding of the essentials of the discourses. He is able to clear up all doubts and there is nothing that he does not penetrate. He is capable of debating together with the king on the discourses about the path. The king asked Zhanmili, "Will he indeed be able to debate with me together on the discourses about the path?"

Zhanmili replied:

He certainly will be able to debate together with the king on the discourses about the path. After all, he would be able to debate on the discourses about the path together with Brahmā of the seventh [heavenly realm], let alone with humans.

[The Debate]

The king ordered Zhanmili to go and invite Nāgasena in turn to come. Zhanmili went to Nāgasena and said, "The great king wishes to meet you." Followed by his disciples, Nāgasena approached the king.42 Although the king had never met Nāgasena, in the crowd of people Nāgasena's way of wearing the robes and mode of walking were unique and unlike those of the others. On seeing him from afar, the king divined that this was Nāgasena. The king said to himself, "I have seen one after the other 126

many great crowds of people and entered great meetings many times, [but] I never experienced fear myself [until] now that I see Nāgasena. Today Nāgasena is certainly going to win victory over me; I am certainly not going to be up to it. My heart is very agitated and not at ease." Zhanmili said to the king, "Nāgasena has come and is outside; Nāgasena has already arrived."

The king asked Zhanmili which one was Nāgasena. Zhanmili pointed him out to the king with a finger. The king was very happy, [thinking], "Exactly the one I had divined is in the end Nāgasena." The king watched Nāgasena's wearing of the robes and mode of walking, which were unique and unlike the crowd of people. Nāgasena came forward to exchange greetings and speak to the king, who was in turn greatly delighted. They carried on [conversing] together and sat down facing each other. Nāgasena said to the king:

In the discourses the Buddha says that the greatest profit for a person is to be at peace, knowing contentment is a person's greatest wealth, faith is a person's greatest largesse, and awakening to nirvana is the greatest happiness.43

[On the "Person"]

The king asked Nāgasena in turn, "Dear, what is your name?"44 Nāgasena said:

My parents gave me the name Nāgasena and in turn called me Nāgasena. At times my parents called me Weixian, at times my parents called me Shouluoxian, and at times my parents called me Weijiaxian. By reason of such usage, people all recognize me. People in the world all just have such names.

The king asked Nāgasena, "Who is Nāgasena?"

The king asked again, "Is the head Nāgasena?"

Nāgasena said, "The head is not Nāgasena."

The king asked again, "Are the eyes, ears, nose, or the mouth Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "The eyes, ears, nose or mouth are not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Are the neck, shoulders, arms, feet, or hands Nāgasena?"

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Nāgasena said, "They are not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Are the thighs or lower legs Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "They are not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Is the countenance Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Is [the experience of] pain and pleasure Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Is [the doing of what is] wholesome and evil Nāgasena?"

Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Is the body Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Are the liver, lung, heart, spleen, veins, intestines, or the stomach Nāgasena?"

Nāgasena said, "They are not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "The countenance, [the experience of] pain and pleasure, [the doing of what is] wholesome and evil, the body, and the mind— is the conjunction of these five things rather Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "They are not Nāgasena." The king asked again:

In case there is no countenance, [experience of] pain and pleasure, [doing of what is] wholesome and evil, body, and mind—is the absence of these five things rather Nāgasena?

Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "Is the sound of the respiration Nāgasena?" Nāgasena said, "It is not Nāgasena." The king asked again, "What is Nāgasena?"45 Nāgasena asked the king, "[You came in] what is called a 'chariot.'46 What is a chariot? Is the axle the chariot?" The king said, "The axle is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the rim the chariot?" The king said, "The rim is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Are the spokes the chariot?" The king said, "The spokes are not the chariot." 128

Nāgasena said, "Is the hub the chariot?"

The king said, "The hub is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the drawbar the chariot?" The king said, "The drawbar is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the yoke the chariot?" The king said, "The yoke is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the carriage's framework the chariot?" The king said, "The carriage's framework is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the pole [of the canopy] the chariot?" The king said, "The pole [of the canopy] is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the canopy the chariot?" The king said, "The canopy is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "Is the combined assembly of all these wooden parts, placed to one side, rather the chariot?"

The king said, "The combined assembly of all these wooden parts, placed to one side, is not the chariot."

Nāgasena said, "In case there is no combined assembly of all these wooden parts, is that rather the chariot?"

The king said, "The absence of the combined assembly of all these wooden parts is not the chariot."

Nāgasena said, "Is the sound [of driving] the chariot?" The king said, "The sound [of driving] is not the chariot." Nāgasena said, "What is the chariot?"

The king was silent in turn and had nothing to say. Nāgasena said:

It is taught in a Buddhist discourse:47 "Just as by means of the combined assembly of all these wooden parts one constructs a chariot and thereby gets a chariot, similarly it is for a person." It is the combined assembly of head, face, ears, nose, mouth, neck, shoulders, arms, bones, flesh, hands, feet, liver, lung, heart, spleen, kidneys, intestines, stomach, countenance, sound of breathing, [the experiencing of] pain and pleasure, [the doing of what is] wholesome and evil; such a combined assembly is called a person. The king said, "It is well, it is well."

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[Types of Discussions]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Are you able to debate together with me on the discourses about the path?"

Nāgasena said:

Provided the king sticks to wisdom in exchanging questions with me, we are able to debate with each other. [But if] the king sticks to his opinions out of pride of his rank, we are not able to debate with each other.48 The king asked Nāgasena, "Of what type is conversation by the wise?"49 Nāgasena said:

The wise fully discuss with each other, question each other's statements, comprehend each other's statements. They recognize on their own as factual or not factual which of each other's statements is superior and which statement is inferior, which [statement] is victorious or which [statement] is defeated, which statement is correct and which statement is incorrect, and who is the most wise. The wise have no need to become angry. The wise are like this.

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Of what type is conversation by kings?" Nāgasena said:

Kings speak arbitrarily and with presumption. There being opposition and disagreement with what the king said, the king will strongly punish or execute them. Kings converse like this.

The king said:

I wish to converse by way of the wise, not to converse by way of a king. Do no longer have the attitude of confronting a king when discussing with me. Discuss with me just as if you were discussing with a recluse, just as if you were discussing with a disciple, just as if you were discussing with a lay disciple, just as if you were discussing with an attendant of the community of recluses. Do not harbor fear. With a completely straight mental attitude, we should discuss openly with each other.

Nāgasena said, "It is very well."

The king said, "I wish to ask a question."50

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Nāgasena said to the king, "Do in turn ask it." The king said, "I have already asked it." Nāgasena said, "I have already answered it." The king said, "What was your answer to me?" Nāgasena also said to the king, "What did you ask me?" The king said, "I did not ask anything." Nāgasena said, "I gave no answer."

[Invitation for the Next Day]

The king thought to himself in private, "This recluse is very intelligent and wise. We have just started and I have many questions." The king thought to himself, "The sun is about to set and it is becoming dark. Should I invite Nāgasena for tomorrow? Having returned to the palace, we can have a good debate with each other."

The king told Zhanmili to tell Nāgasena that today the sun [is about to set] and darkness is approaching and to invite him for tomorrow when, having returned to the palace, they can have a good debate with each other and question each other. Zhanmili and Wangqun told Nāgasena, "The sun is about to set and it is becoming dark; the king should return to the palace. The king wishes to invite Nāgasena for tomorrow."

Nāgasena said, "Very well."

Riding on his horse, the king returned to the palace.51 Being on his horse, the king kept thinking about Nāgasena and, while thinking the name in his mind, he wanted to enunciate it, "Nāgasena, Nāgasena," thinking of him until the next day.

The next day Zhanmili, Wangqun, and the attendant ministers said to the king, "Should we indeed invite Nāgasena?" The king said, "You should invite him."

Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "On inviting him, with how many recluses together should we get him to come?"

The king said, "Let Nāgasena come with just as many recluses together as he likes."

The king had a treasurer called Stingy. Stingy said to the king, "Let Nāgasena come together with ten recluses; that will do." 706c

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[The king] said again, "I permit Nāgasena to come with just as many recluses together as he likes."

Stingy again said to the king, "Let Nāgasena come together with ten recluses; that will do."

The king said again, "I permit Nāgasena to come at his own wish with as many recluses together as he likes."

Stingy again said to the king, "Let Nāgasena come together with ten recluses; that will just do."

The king, on hearing Stingy say this so many times to his king, became angry in turn with Stingy, [saying]:

You are really stingy without equals. Your name is Stingy and you are hopeless. You are very stingy with the king's wealth; how about your own wealth? You do not realize that going against my intentions you could be punished or executed for being at fault.52

The king said, "Yet, let it be. I pardon your fault out of compassion. Now, being the king, am I not able to nourish recluses?" Stingy was ashamed and in turn did not dare to speak again.

Zhanmili and Wangqun approached Nāgasena, went forward to pay respect to him in turn and said, "The Great King invites Nāgasena." Nāgasena said, "With how many recluses will the king want me to come together?"

Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "Let Nāgasena at his own wish come together with as many recluses as he likes." Nāgasena in turn came together with eighty recluses, Yeheluo and others.53

Zhanmili and Wangqun went together with them at dawn. On the road and about to enter the town, Zhanmili and Wangqun conjointly asked Nāga sena, "Yesterday you said in your reply to the king what is not [Nāga sena], so in what way is there a Nāgasena?"

Nāgasena asked Zhanmili and Wangqun, "Dears, what do you think is Nāgasena?"

Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "We take it that the breath going in and out, being the life force, is Nāgasena."

Nāgasena asked Zhanmili and Wangqun, "[If] a person's breath, once it has gone out, does not return to enter them, will that person continue to live?" 132

Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "[If] the breath goes out and does not return, they will certainly die."

Nāgasena said:

Suppose a person blows a conch; once the breath has gone out, it does not return to enter them. Suppose a person blows on fire, holding a goldsmith's bellows; once the breath has gone out at that time, will it be able to return and enter them again?

Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "It will not return and enter them again." [Nāgasena said], "Suppose a person blows on the earth through a horn; once the breath has gone out, will it return and enter them again?" Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "It will not return and enter them again." Nāgasena said, "The same breath goes out and does not return to enter again. Why does the person not just die because of this?" Zhanmili and Wangqun said, "We are unable to understand what you asked about the breath; please explain it to us."

Nāgasena said:

Breathing and the breath are all matters in the body. If a person has a thought in the mind and speaks words with the tongue, this is a matter of the tongue. [If] they ponder and have in their mind thoughts of doubt, this is a matter of the mind. Each of these has its own domain. Examining them analytically, they are all empty. There is no Nāgasena [as such]. The minds of Zhanmili and Wangqun opened to understanding. They took the five precepts and became lay disciples in turn. Nāgasena in turn went forward and entered the palace to reach the king, who was in the upper hall. The king paid respect to Nāgasena and stepped back. Nāgasena sat down together with all the eighty recluses. The king had gotten very excellent food and drink prepared. With his own hands the king served first Nāgasena with food and then the community of recluses with food. The meal being completed and the hands washed, the king gave each recluse a double robe and each a pair of leather sandals.54 He gave to Nāgasena and Yeheluo each [a set of] three robes and each a pair of leather sandals. The king said to Nāgasena and Yeheluo, "Let ten people stay together with you and send away the other people, getting them to go." Nāgasena sent 133

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away the other people and got them to go, remaining to stay together with ten people.

The king gave the order:

The ladies from the inner courts and the women from the harem should all come to the upper hall and from behind a curtain listen to me debating together with Nāgasena on the discourses about the path. Then the ladies from the inner courts and the women from the harem all came out and went to the upper parts of the palace behind a curtain to hear Nāgasena speak about the discourses.55

[The Goal of the Holy Life]

Then the king took a seat and sat in front of Nāgasena. The king said, "What shall we discuss?"

Nāgasena said, "[If] the king wishes to hear important statements, we should discuss important statements."

The king said, "Dear, for you being on the path, what is most important, for what reason have you become recluses?"

Nāgasena said:

We wish to abandon dukkha in this life and we do not wish to experience further dukkha in a next life. For this reason we have become recluses; this is for us the most important good.

The king said, "Do all recluses wish not to experience further dukkha in the present life and the next life and for this reason become recluses?" Nāgasena said, "Not all become recluses for this reason. There are four types of recluses."

The king said, "What are the four?"

Nāgasena said:

Some among them are in debt and become recluses,56 some among them are afraid of the government and become recluses, some among them are poor and become recluses, and some among them truly wish to abandon and eradicate dukkha in this life and the next life and for this reason become recluses.

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Nāgasena said, "As for myself, my basic and true intention is to seek the path and it is for this reason that I became a recluse." The king said, "Dear, have you become a recluse for the sake of the path right now?"

Nāgasena said:

I became a recluse when I was young. There were the Buddhist discourses on the path and the disciples, recluses who were all very wise, and learning from them the scriptures and the precepts, these entered my heart. I became a recluse for the sake of abandoning dukkha in the present life and a next life; this is the reason.

The king said, "It is well."

[Transcending Rebirth]

The king asked, "Could there be people who after death are not reborn again?" Nāgasena said, "Some among them are reborn in the next life, some among them are not reborn again."

The king said, "Who is reborn in the next life and who is not reborn again?" Nāgasena said:

People who have craving and lustful desires are in turn reborn again in the next life. People who have no craving and lustful desires are not again reborn in the next life."

The king said, "Being mindful of the true Dharma and of what is wholesome with mental unification, will a person for these reasons not be reborn again in the next life?"

Nāgasena said:

Being mindful of the true Dharma and being mindful of what is wholesome with mental unification, and [also] having wisdom and other good qualities, a person will for these reasons not be reborn again in the next life. The king said:

Thus a person [will not be reborn again] by being mindful of the true Dharma and of what is wholesome with mental unification as well as by having wisdom. Do these two qualities have the same meaning? 135

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Nāgasena said, "The meaning of each is different; they are not the same." The king asked Nāgasena, "Oxen and horses, the six [types] of domestic animals, do they have wisdom or do they not have wisdom?" Nāgasena said, "Oxen and horses, the six [types] of domestic animals, each have their own [type] of wisdom; [but] their minds differ." Nāgasena said to the king, "Have you seen in the past a harvester of wheat? With the left hand they grasp the wheat and with the right hand they cut it." Nāgasena said, "A wise person cuts off craving and desire similar to a harvester of wheat."

The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What are the 'other good qualities'?" Nāgasena said:

The [other] good qualities are sincere faith, having devotion,57 being energetic, being mindful of what is wholesome, mental unification, and wisdom. These are the [other] good qualities.

The king said, "What is sincere faith?"

Nāgasena said:

One who has sincere faith has nothing further to doubt. He has faith in the Buddha, in the Dharma of the Buddhist discourses, and faith in the monastic community. He has faith in arahants, faith in the present life, and faith in the next life. He has faith in devotion toward one's parents, faith that doing what is wholesome has wholesome results, and faith that doing what is evil has evil results. By gaining faith, the mind is subsequently purified and in turn becomes remote and secluded from the five evils. What are the five evils? The first is sexual desire, the second is anger, the third is sloth-and-torpor, the fourth is restlessness-and-worry,58 and the fifth is being doubtful. The mind of a person who has not left behind these five evils will not become concentrated. Leaving behind these five evils, the mind in turn becomes pure.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a wheel-turning king who with chariots, horses, and men crosses the water of a river via a ford, making the water muddy and disgusting. Having already gone over by crossing it, the king becomes thirsty 136

and wishes to get water to drink. The king has a water-purifying gem, which he puts into the water so that the water becomes pure. Thus the king obtains in turn pure water to drink.

Nāgasena said:

The evils in people's minds are similar to the muddy water. The disciples of the Buddha cross over birth and death and gain awakening by purifying their minds just as the gem purified the water. Retreating from all evils, a person's sincere faith becomes purified, similar to the brilliance of the moon or a gem. The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king asked, "How is a person with sincere faith energetic?" Nāgasena said:

The disciples of the Buddha see among each other some who have removed evil [states] from the mind. Some among them have attained stream-entry, some among them have attained once-return, some among them have attained non-return, and some among them have attained arahantship. Pursuing examples from among them with sincere faith, they all gain the world-transcending path as well.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to abundant water that flows down from the top of the mountain during a heavy rain. All the people on both sides do not know how deep it is and are afraid, not daring to cross over. Suppose a person comes from far away and, looking at the water, divines the water's extents, limits, and its depth. They know their own strength and ability, enter the water, and in turn are able to cross it. The crowd of people on both sides in turn follow their example and are also able to cross it and depart. The disciples of the Buddha are also like that. They see that their forerunners have purified their minds and attained stream-entry, once-return, non-return, and the awakening of arahants, all of which are the result of a wholesome mind and being energetic. In a discourse the Buddha said that people who have sincere faith in their minds can themselves gain the world-transcending path. People who are able to be restrained and to retreat from the five strands of sensuality, who know by themselves that 137

the body is unsatisfactory, are able to gain the world-transcending path. It is by wisdom that all people accomplish the path of virtue.59 The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king said, "What is devotion?"

Nāgasena said:

All that is wholesome is such on account of devotion. All the thirty-seven requisites [of awakening described] in the discourses derive from devotion, which is their root.

The king said, "What are the thirty-seven requisites [of awakening described] in the discourses?"

Nāgasena said:

They are the four establishments of mindfulness,60 the four [right] efforts, the four bases of success, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the eightfold path of practice. The king asked Nāgasena again, "What are the four establishments of mindfulness?"

In reply, Nāgasena said to the king:

The Buddha has taught the first establishing [of mindfulness] by contemplating the body as a body, the second establishing [of mindfulness] by contemplating feelings as feelings, the third establishing [of mindfulness] by contemplating mind as mind, and the fourth establishing [of mindfulness] by contemplating dharmas as dharmas. These are the four establishments of mindfulness. The king asked again, "What are the four [right] efforts?" Nāgasena said:

The Buddha has taught that, having distinctly established oneself in the four aspects of no longer having [evil] thoughts, these are the four [right] efforts.61 By gaining the four right efforts one in turn gains oneself the four bases of success and remembrance.62

The king asked again, "What are the four bases of success and remembrance?" 138

Nāgasena said:

The first is being able to see penetratingly with the eye, the second is being able to hear penetratingly with the ear, the third is being able to know the thoughts in the minds of others, and the fourth is being able to fly with the body.63 These are the four bases of success and remembrance. The king asked again, "What are the five faculties?"

Nāgasena said:

The first is [when] the mind does not have lustful attachment on seeing with the eye beautiful forms and ugly forms, this is a faculty. The second is [when] the mind does not have lustful attachment on hearing with the ear pleasant sounds and evil or abusive sounds, this is a faculty. The third is [when] the mind does not have lustful attachment on smelling with the nose fragrances and stenches, this is a faculty. The fourth is [when] the mind does not have lustful attachment on getting in the mouth delicious flavors and bitter or pungent ones, this is a faculty. The fifth is [when] the mind does not delight in touching with the body what is fine and smooth and when the mind is also not averse to touching with the body what is rough and solid. These are the five faculties.64

The king asked again, "What are the five powers?"

Nāgasena said:

The first is the ability to restrain the eye, the second is the ability to restrain the ear, the third is the ability to restrain the nose, the fourth is the ability to restrain the mouth, and the fifth is the ability to restrain the body, [each] making the mind not sink down. These are the five powers. The king asked again, "What are the seven factors of awakening?" Nāgasena said:

The first is the awakening factor of mindfulness,65 the second is the awakening factor of discrimination [of things], the third is the awakening factor of being energetic, the fourth is the awakening factor of joy,66 the fifth is the awakening factor of tranquility, the sixth is the awakening factor of concentration, and the seventh is the awakening factor of equanimity.67 These are the seven factors of awakening.

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The king asked again, "What is the eightfold path of practice?" Nāgasena said:

The first is right view,68 the second right thought, the third right speech, the fourth right livelihood,69 the fifth right action, the sixth right effort, the seventh right mindfulness, and the eighth right concentration. This is the eightfold path of practice. All these thirty-seven requisites [of awakening described] in the discourses derive from devotion [to them], which is their root.

Nāgasena said:

Ordinary people who by hard work achieve their goal, whatever they accomplish and establish is all accomplished based on the earth. The five grains in the world, the trees and plants that face the sky, they all grow based on the earth.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a master artisan who plans to construct a great city. First he should take measure and prepare the foundation. This being completed, he can start the city.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to an acrobat who wishes to perform. He should first clean the ground by sweeping and making it even, and then perform. [In the same way] a disciple of the Buddha in quest of the path should first practice the precepts [found] in the scriptures and be mindful of what is wholesome. Relying on that, to understand dukkha and in turn abandon all craving and desire, he in turn mindfully attends to the eightfold path of practice. The king said, "How does one abandon all craving and desire?" Nāgasena said, "Being mindful of the path with mental unification one eradicates one's own craving and desire."

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king asked again, "What is being energetic?"

Nāgasena said, "To take hold of what is wholesome and support what is wholesome, this is being energetic."

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Nāgasena said, "It is similar to supporting a wall that is about to fall to one side or else further supporting a house that is about to collapse, this is being energetic."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to the king of the country who, on being attacked, dispatches his soldiers. [Being few],70 the soldiers are weak and nearly not up to it. The king again dispatches soldiers in support and with these soldiers in turn gains victory. People who have evils are like soldiers at the time of being few and weak. With the support of wholesome states of mind, people eliminate evil states of mind. It is similar to the king's reinforcements, who gained victory. With the support of the five wholesome states of mind one dispels the five evil states of mind. It is similar to gaining victory in war. This is being energetic in support of what is wholesome. "In this way," Nāgasena said, "with the support of having been energetic, people who have been on the path of wholesomeness attain the world-transcending path completely and do not turn back." The king said, "It is well."

The king asked again, "What is the meaning of being properly mindful of wholesome things?"

Nāgasena said, "It is similar to a person who takes different types of flowers and with a string binds them together so that the wind cannot blow them apart."

Nāgasena said again:

It is similar to the king's treasurer who knows that in the treasury of the king there is that much of gold, silver, gems, jade, beryl, and treasures. It is exactly similar to this when a person on the path who wishes to attain awakening is mindful of the thirty-seven requisites [of awakening described] in the discourses, namely when being mindful of the worldtranscending path. People who have the intention to awaken know what is wholesome and what is evil, know what should be practiced and know what should not be practiced, they distinguish black and white. Paying attention on their own, they subsequently abandon what is evil and in turn engage in what is wholesome.

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Nāgasena said:

It is similar to the king's gatekeeper, who knows whom the king respects and knows whom the king does not respect, he knows who is beneficial for the king and knows who is not beneficial for the king. Knowing whom the king respects and knowing who is beneficial for the king, the gatekeeper will in turn let them inside, and knowing whom the king does not respect and who is not beneficial for the king, the gatekeeper will not let them inside. Nāgasena said:

A person who takes hold of the intention [to awaken] is just like that; they should let wholesome [qualities] inside and should not let unwholesome [qualities] inside. Guarding one's intention and restraining the mind is just like this simile.

Nāgasena taught from the discourses, saying:

A person should on their own keep guarding and protecting their intentions and bodily [acts]. Being among [what arouses] the six cravings and desires, they should uphold their intention and keep guarding it. Then they will on their own transcend the world.

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king asked Nāgasena, "What is mental unification?" 71 Nāgasena said, "Among all skills, mental unification alone is foremost. All skills ensue for a person who is able to unify the mind." Nāgasena said, "It is similar to a flight of steps to an upper story which should have something as its support, so all skills adhere to mental unification." Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a king who goes out to battle with his four types of troops, his elephant troops, his cavalry, his chariot troops, and his infantry, all of which are led by the king, whom they surround. The Buddhist scriptures and precepts, and all other wholesome things, all ensue from mental unification, being similar to the troops. Nāgasena taught from the discourses, saying:

Among all skills, mental unification is the root. The many people who 142

train in the path will all first rely on mental unification [to realize that] the births and deaths of a person's body pass by like water flowing downwards, from beginning to end, following each other without stopping [at any] time.

The king said, "It is well."

The king asked again, "What is wisdom?"

Nāgasena said, "I already explained it earlier.72 A person who has wisdom is able to cut off all doubt and have clarity about all wholesome things; this is wisdom."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to holding a burning lamp to enter a dark room, as one proceeds with the flame to enter the room, the darkness in turn recedes and it certainly becomes bright. The brightness of a person who has wisdom is similar to the light of the flame. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person holding a sharp knife to cut down a tree. A person who has wisdom is able to cut off all evils, which is similar to having a sharp knife.

Nāgasena said, "For people in the world wisdom is foremost. People who have wisdom are able to attain deliverance from the dukkha of births and deaths." The king said, "It is well."

The king said:

The discourses quoted by Nāgasena earlier and later are from a variety of different types. Are they solely motivated by concern with retreating from all that is evil?

Nāgasena said, "Yes, the different discourses spoken by the Buddha on what is wholesome are solely motivated [by concern] with retreating from all that is evil."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a king who dispatches his four types of troops. Although they march to give battle, from the time of setting out his only intention 143

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is solely the wish to defeat the enemy. The different discourses spoken by the Buddha on what is wholesome just share the motivation of attacking and removing all that is evil.

The king said, "It is well, it is well. The discourses quoted by Nāgasena are very much to the point."

[On Rebirth]

The king asked Nāgasena again:

[When] a person at death proceeds on the paths of good and evil, does he continue keeping the consciousness of his former body on going to be reborn?73 Or does he rather change to another consciousness on going to be reborn?

Nāgasena said, "It is neither the consciousness of the former body nor different from the consciousness of the former body." On account of this, Nāgasena asked the king, "When your body was small and breastfeeding and when your body had come to grow up, did you continuously have the [same] former body?" The king said, "When I was small my body was different." Nāgasena said:

When a person's embryo in the mother's womb has just formed and when the embryo matures,74 is it the former embryo or is it different from it? [When] it solidifies into muscles and bones, is it the former embryo or is it different from it? When being just born and when being a few years old, is it the former embryo or is it different from it? When a person studies writing, can a bystander do the work in their stead? The king said, "[The bystander] is not able to do the work in their stead." Nāgasena said, "If a person violates the law and [faces] punishment, can one take an innocent person in their stead?"

The king said, "One cannot do this." The king did not understand in his mind what Nāgasena had told the king by way of consciousness and the law of punishment. On account of that, the king said, "If a person were to question Nāgasena [in the above manner], how would Nāgasena explain it?" 144

Nāgasena said:

My body is the former one, from the time when I was just small. From being small until growing up the old body continued. Being grown up or when small, it remains a single body that is nourished, whose destiny is to be nourished.

Nāgasena asked the king, "It is similar to a person who lights the flame of a lamp; will it last until daybreak?"

The king said, "A lighted lamp that has [sufficient] oil will last until daybreak." Nāgasena said:

Does the flame on the wick in the lamp at one time in the night always continue to be the light of the old flame? Reaching midnight, is it at that time still the light of the old flame? Reaching daybreak, is it at that time still the light of the old flame?

The king said, "It is not the light of the old flame." Nāgasena said:

The lamp being lighted, did it reach from one [time] in the night until midnight or was the flame of the lamp lit again? Was the lamp lit again close to the time of dawn?

The king said, "No, the flame that was alight at midnight just continued burning on the former single wick until the flame in the morning." Nāgasena said:

The successive continuity of a person's consciousness is just like in this simile. One goes and one comes. From there being consciousness, a person is born and reaches old age and death, after which the consciousness proceeds further toward being reborn. The successive continuity is not the former consciousness and it is also not different from the former consciousness. After a person passes away, the consciousness proceeds toward being reborn. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to milk which coagulates into curds. The cream of curds being taken and simmered, it turns into ghee. Can one take the ghee or the cream 709a

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of curds and still call them "milk"? Would such a statement made by someone be adequate?

The king said, "Such a statement made by someone is not adequate." Nāgasena said:

The consciousness of a person is [similar] to the milk. From the milk one gets curds, from the curds one gets cream, and from the cream one gets ghee. The consciousness of a person is also like that. From there being consciousness, one is reborn, and from being reborn one reaches growing up, from growing up one reaches old age, from old age one reaches death, and after death one's consciousness will again take rebirth. One body being dead, one will again take another body. It is similar to two flames that light each other.75

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

[The Arahant]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "A person who will not be reborn again in the next life, would those persons know this for themselves?" Nāgasena said, "Yes, they are able to know it for themselves." The king said, "How do they know?"

Nāgasena said:

Those persons know for themselves that there is no craving, no lustful desire, and no evils. For this reason they know for themselves that they will not be reborn again in the next life.

Nāgasena asked the king:

It is similar to a farmer who plows and sows grain, reaps much, and places it into a bamboo [granary]. In subsequent years he no longer plows and no longer sows, but just eats in reliance on what is in the bamboo [granary]. Will the farmer further expect to get new grain?

The king said, "The farmer has nothing further to expect." Nāgasena said, "How does the farmer know that he will not get further grain?"

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The king said, "The farmer has no longer plowed and no longer sowed; therefore he has nothing to expect."

Nāgasena said:

Those who have attained awakening are also like this. They know for themselves that they have already given up and relinquished craving, with pain or pleasure their minds are without lust. For this reason they know for themselves that they will not be reborn again in the next life. [The king said, "It is well, it is well."]76

The king said again, "Those persons, who will not be reborn again in the next life, do they at present have wisdom that is different from that of [other] people?"

Nāgasena said, "Yes, they have wisdom that is different from that of [other] people."

The king said, "Would they be able to have clarity about that?" Nāgasena said, "Yes, they have clarity about that." The king said, "What is the difference between wisdom and clarity?" Nāgasena said, "Wisdom and clarity are just the same." The king said, "Those who have wisdom and clarity, would they completely know all things? Could it be that they do not know something?" Nāgasena said, "Of some things [such] persons have knowledge and of some things they do not have it."

The king said, "Of what do they have knowledge and of what do they not have it?"

Nāgasena said:

What those persons have previously not studied, they do not know from earlier. What those persons have previously studied, they know from earlier. The wise ones see that people and all things will all pass away, they return to emptiness and do not gain independence, [they see] that all lust for pleasure in the mind of a person is the seed for dukkha, the root from which dukkha is caused. The wise ones know impermanence and the ups and downs of things. This is how the wise ones differ from [other] people. The king asked, "A person who has [such] wisdom, do they have delusion anywhere?"

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Nāgasena said, "A person who has [such] wisdom has themself eliminated all delusion."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who enters a dark room holding a burning lamp. Everything in the room becomes illuminated and the darkness is exterminated. Wisdom is like that. A person who has wisdom eliminates all delusion.

The king said, "Where is that person's wisdom?"

Nāgasena said:

[When] a person's wisdom has carried out [its task], this wisdom in turn disappears afterward. What as a result of the wisdom has been done, it [remains] done.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who at night writes a letter under the flame [of a lamp]. The flame becomes extinct, [but] the letter remains. What the wise one has accomplished is like that. The wisdom in turn disappears, what it has done remains.

The king said, "What does the statement mean that wisdom, having accomplished something, in turn disappears on its own?" Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who, to be prepared in advance for [the event of] a fire, sets up five jars with water to stop the fire. If something catches fire, that person takes the five jars of water and, pouring out the water, extinguishes the fire. After the fire has been extinguished, will the person, who has fought the fire, on returning home want to take the used jars along for their use? The king said, "That person will not want the jars anymore and will break them. The fire being extinct, how could they further want the jars?" Nāgasena said:

A person on the path who takes hold of the five wholesome mental states to eliminate all evils is similar to [the person] extinguishing the fire with the jars of water.

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The king said, "What are the five wholesome [mental states]?" Nāgasena said:

The first is faith that there is good and evil, the second is not violating the precepts [found] in the scriptures, the third is being energetic, the fourth is having wisdom and being mindful of what is wholesome, and the fifth is being mindful of the path with mental unification. These are the five wholesome [mental states]. A person able to undertake these five wholesome [mental states] in turn gains wisdom and knows in turn that the body and all things are impermanent, he knows in turn that they are dukkha and do not gain independence, he knows in turn that they are empty and with nothing in them to be owned.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a physician who takes [a mixture of] the five types of medicine and approaches the house of a sick person and gives the medicine to the sick person to drink. The sick one drinks the medicine and recovers. Would the physician again want to get that former medicine to go again to cure people?

The king said, "He will not again want to get that former medicine." Nāgasena said:

The five types of medicine are like the five wholesome [states of mind] of a wise one. The physician is like a person in quest of the path. The disease is like all evils. A deluded person is like a sick person. One who gains the world-transcending path is like a sick person who has been healed. What is accomplished by wisdom is to convey the person on the worldtranscending path. [When] the person has already reached the path, the wisdom disappears by itself.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a strong warrior who, grasping a bow and holding arrows, advances toward the enemy. Shooting five arrows at the enemy, he gains victory. Would that person want his arrows to return to him again and again?

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The king said, "He no longer wants the arrows."

Nāgasena said:

The five arrows are the fivefold wisdom of a person. A wise person gains the path through wisdom, just as the warrior gained victory. All the evil ones in the enemy's party are like all evils. A person on the path takes hold of the five wholesome states of mind to extinguish and retreat from all evils. All evils being extinguished, skillful wisdom arises. Through skillful wisdom the person attains the world-transcending path, and this remains constantly present and is not extinguished. The king said, "It is well."

The king said, "If a person has attained awakening and is not reborn again in the next life, will they afterward still experience pain?" Nāgasena said, "They will experience some pain and not experience other pain."

The king said, "How is it that they experience [some] pain and do not experience [other] pain?"

Nāgasena said, "Only their body experiences pain; their mind does not experience pain."

The king said, "How is it that [only] their body experiences pain and their mind does not experience pain?"

Nāgasena said:

Their body experiences pain as a result of the body being in existence at present, therefore they experience pain. Their mind has discarded all evils and is without any desires, therefore it no longer experiences pain. The king said, "In case a person attains awakening and is not able to be free from bodily pain, is this because they have not yet attained awakening to nirvana?"

The king said:

[If] a person, who has attained awakening and is without craving, has the mind at peace [yet] their body is in pain, of what use is it for them to have attained awakening?

The king said, "In case a person has attained awakening, why would they further remain?"

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Nāgasena said, "It is similar to fruit that is not yet ripe, it will not ripen by being forced. Being already ripe, there is also nothing further to wait for." Nāgasena said:

What the king has focused on in regard to awakening has been explained by Sāriputta. When still alive, Sāriputta said, "I do not seek death and I also do not seek life. I solely wait for my time. When the suitable time has arrived, I will in turn depart."77

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

[Types of Experiences]

The king asked:

Is it wholesome or is it unwholesome for a person to experience pleasure? Is it wholesome or is it unwholesome for a person to experience pain? The Buddha would not have denied that there is pleasure or that there is pain. The king said [further], "Provided that there is not [only] pain in what is conditioned."78

Nāgasena asked the king:

If a person takes burning hot iron in the hand, would that person's hand be burnt? Again, [if] he takes ice in the [other] hand, would that ice also burn the [other] hand?

The king said, "Yes, each of the two hands will be affected." Nāgasena asked the king, "In this way are each of the things he takes in his two hands burning?"

The king said, "They are not both burning."

Nāgasena said, "Are they both cold?"

The king said, "They are not both cold."

Nāgasena said, "[Yet,] both hands are all burnt."

Nāgasena said:

I again ask your majesty. [If] the former and the latter are both hot, your majesty should say, "Both are hot." [If] both are cold, you should say, "Both are cold." What is the reason, one being cold and one being hot, for you to be able to say equally that they burn the person's hand? 151

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The king said, "My wisdom is very elementary and I am not able to debate this. May Nāgasena explain it to me."

Nāgasena said:

The Buddha has taught in a discourse that there are altogether six things that cause joy inside of a person, six things that cause sadness inside of a person, and again six things that cause neither joy nor sadness [inside of] a person; moreover there are six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause a person [joy], sadness, [and neither joy nor sadness].79 The king asked, "What are the six things that cause joy inside of a person?" Nāgasena said:

The first is [pleasant] sights and what one hopes [to see] with the eye; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person. The second is pleasant sounds and what one hopes to hear with the ear; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person. The third is pleasant fragrances and what one hopes to smell with the nose; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person. The fourth is delicious flavors and what one hopes to get [to taste] with the tongue; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person. The fifth is [touching] what is fine and smooth and what one hopes to get [to touch] with the body; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person.

The sixth is [mental] pleasure and what one hopes to get to experience with the mind; this is a reason for causing joy inside of a person. In this way there are six things that cause joy inside of a person. The king asked again, "What are the six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause a person joy?"

Nāgasena said:

The first is [when], on seeing pleasant forms with the eye, one is aware that they cannot be constantly gotten and that they are all to be abandoned, whereupon one personally gives careful attention to their impermanent nature; this is a reason for causing a person joy outside [of attachment]. The second is [when], on hearing pleasant sounds with the ear, one is 152

aware that they cannot be constantly gotten and that they are all to be abandoned; this is a reason for causing a person joy outside [of attachment]. The third is [when], on smelling pleasant fragrances with the nose, one is aware that they cannot be constantly gotten and that they are all to be abandoned; this is a reason for causing a person joy outside [of attachment]. The fourth is [when], on getting delicious flavors in the mouth, one is aware that they cannot be constantly gotten and that they are all to be abandoned; this is a reason for causing a person joy outside [of attachment]. The fifth is [when], on getting [to touch] what is fine and smooth with the body, one is aware that this cannot be constantly gotten and that it is all to be abandoned; this is a reason for causing a person joy outside [of attachment].

The sixth is [when], on having thoughts of craving and desire in the mind, one gives attention to them and is aware that these are all impermanent and that they are all to be abandoned; by being aware of them in this way one experiences joy afterward.

These are the six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause a person joy.

The king asked again, "What are the six inner things that cause sadness inside of a person?"

Nāgasena said:

The first to cause sadness inside of a person is seeing what is unpleasant with the eye; this causes sadness inside of a person. The second is hearing what is unwanted with the ear; hearing it causes sadness inside of a person.

The third is smelling unwanted stenches with the nose; this causes sadness inside of a person. The fourth is getting an unwanted [flavor] in the mouth; getting [to taste] it causes sadness inside of a person.

The fifth is touching what is unwanted with the body; touching it causes sadness inside of a person.

The sixth is having what cannot be enjoyed in the mind; its existence causes sadness inside of a person.

These are six things that cause sadness inside of a person. 153

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The king asked again, "What are the six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause neither joy [nor sadness] in a person?"80 Nāgasena said:

The first is [if] seeing evil forms with the eye causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person. The second is [if] hearing evil sounds with the ear causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

The third is [if] smelling stenches and what is rancid with the nose causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

The fourth is [if] getting what is bitter or pungent on the tongue causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

The fifth is [if] touching with the body what is rough and solid causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

The sixth is [if] having in the mind what is hateful causes neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

These are the six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause neither joy [nor sadness] in a person.

The king asked again, "What are the six things that cause neither joy nor sadness [inside of] a person?"

Nāgasena said:

The first is seeing with the eye what is neither enjoyable nor saddening. The second is hearing with the ear sounds that are neither enjoyable nor saddening.

The third is smelling with the nose what is neither enjoyable nor saddening. The fourth is getting in the mouth what is neither enjoyable nor saddening. The fifth is touching with the body what is neither enjoyable nor saddening. The sixth is thinking in the mind of what is neither enjoyable nor saddening. These are the six things that cause neither joy nor sadness inside of a person.

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The king asked again, "What are the six things that, being outside [of attachment], cause a person sadness?"

Nāgasena said:

The first is seeing with the eye what is dead, because of which one is aware of one's own body and all things as impermanent. Those persons are aware of this and say to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

The second is not delighting in desirable sounds by the ear. Those persons are aware of this and say to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

The third is not delighting in stenches or fragrances at the nose. Those persons are aware of this and say to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

The fourth is not [delighting] in tasting what is bitter or sweet in the mouth. Those persons are aware of this [and say] to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

The fifth is not delighting in touching with the body what is fine and smooth, nor getting [averse to] what is rough and solid. Those persons are aware of this [and say] to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

The sixth is not delighting in cravings and desires in the mind. Those persons are aware of this [and say] to themselves, "Having such awareness, why have I not [yet] attained awakening?"; and because of that there is sadness outside [of attachment].

These are the six things that cause a person sadness outside [of attachment]. The king said, "It is well, it is well."

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[On Rebirth Again]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "After a person's death, who is reborn in the next life?"

Nāgasena said, "Name-and-form are reborn in the next life." The king asked Nāgasena, "Is it the former person's name-and-form that go to be reborn?"

Nāgasena said:

No. What persists is neither the old name nor the old body. With this nameand-form one does good and evil in this life. [Then] there is just rebirth in the next life.

The king said:

Provided that by means of this name-and-form good and evil are performed in the present life, and the [same name-and-]form is not reborn again because of that in the next life, then can one be delivered directly by the path of performing good and evil, without experiencing further dukkha? Nāgasena said:

One who does what is good in the present life and is not reborn again in the next life, would [such a one] not in turn have gained deliverance? [However], persons who do good and evil without stopping will later just be reborn; for this reason they have not gained deliverance. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who steals another person's fruit. The owner arrests the thief of the fruit and brings him before the king, saying, "This person has stolen my fruit." The thief says, "I did not steal this person's fruit. This person just planted a small seed; he did not originally plant the fruit. I myself took the fruit. How could I be a thief? I did not steal this man's fruit. I do not accept being at fault."

Nāgasena asked the king, "Of the two men disputing in this way together, who is right and who is wrong?"

The king said, "The one who planted the seed at his home is right. The 156

seed was formerly planted by him. The thief is guilty and has to accept being at fault."

Nāgasena said, "Why is [the thief] at fault?"

The king said:

As a result of stealing he is at fault. Earlier the planter of the seed planted it at his home. It was from what he had planted that the roots grew and just for this reason there were fruits up on the [tree]. Nāgasena said:

A person who is reborn is similar to that. By means of doing good and evil in this life with this name-and-form a person is reborn in the next life; doing good and evil in this life is the root. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who steals another person's ripe grain. The owner arrests the thief and, leading [the person] in turn along to be investigated, [says], "You stole my ripe grain." The thief says, "I did not steal your ripe grain, my dear. You yourself planted grain [seeds], my dear; I myself took ripe grain. How could I have committed a theft?" The two persons lead each other in front of the king and state [the situation] in this way. Who is right and who is wrong?

The king said, "The planter of the seed is right, the thief is wrong." Nāgasena said, "How can one know that the thief of the ripe grain is wrong?"

The king said, "The planting of the grain forms the root; without planting the grain there is no condition for it, so how could there be ripe grain?" Nāgasena said:

A person being reborn is similar to that. By means of doing good and evil in this life with this name-and-form a person is reborn in the next life; doing good and evil in this life is the root."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who in winter feels cold and in one house lights a 157

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fire wishing to warm themselves. [Then] that person leaves the fire behind and goes. Gradually burning, it reaches the walls and the floors [until] it burns down the room and contiguous stories of the house. The owner of the house, being told about the one who started the fire, leads [the person] in front of the king and says, "This person started a fire that continued to burn down the stories of my house." Yet the arsonist says, "I just lit a small fire to warm myself. I did not burn down the stories of the house." Nāgasena asked the king, "Who is right?"

The king said, "The one who earlier lit the fire is wrong; it is from that earlier place that [the great fire] arose."

Nāgasena said:

A person who is reborn is similar to that. It is just like that [when], by means of doing good and evil in this life with this name-and-form a person is reborn in the next life; doing good and evil in this life is the root. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who at night lights the flame of a candle and puts it on the wall, wishing to eat his meal by means of its light. The candle diminishes, yet [the flames burn] the walls above and reach the bamboo and wooden material. They burn down one house in turn and, becoming a great conflagration, they continue to burn down the whole town. The people in the whole town are angry and together say to him, "Why did you burn down the whole town like this?" Yet the arsonist says, "I lit a small candle flame just to eat my meal in its light. This great fire [arose] by itself; it is not my fire." In this way they in turn litigate with each other, leading [the arsonist] in front of the king.

Nāgasena said to the king, "In this way, who is right and who is wrong?" The king said, "The arsonist is wrong."

Nāgasena said, "How can one know that?"

The king said:

It arose from the earlier fire. [The arsonist should be told,] "Having eaten your meal, you did not undertake to put out the fire and this has caused the fire to burn down the whole city."

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Nāgasena said:

A person who is reborn is similar to that. In this way by means of doing good and evil in this life with this name-and-form a person is reborn in the next life; doing good and evil in this life is the root. Out of a lack of understanding a person does good and evil, being unable to attain deliverance for this reason. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who pays a bride price for a small girl in another person's family. Afterward the woman grows up and another man in turn gives a bride price for that woman to get that woman as his wife. The one who previously contracted the marriage with the family comes himself and says, "Return to me the wife you took." The one who later [contracted the marriage] with the family says, "You contracted marriage with the woman yourself when she was small. I contracted marriage with the woman myself when she had grown up. How could she be the infant you married?" They lead each other in front of the king. Nāgasena said to the king, "In this way, who is right and who is wrong?" The king said, "The one who previously contracted marriage with the family is right."

Nāgasena said to the king, "How can one know that?" The king said:

This woman was earlier small and now she has gradually grown up; for this reason one can know that he is right, that she is married to the one who previously contracted marriage with the family. Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who carries a bottle to buy milk from a dairy farmer's family. Having gotten the milk, he returns it to the owner in 159

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deposit, saying, "I will come back today." Soon after, the man returns for a moment to take the bottle with the milk. The milk has in turn coagulated into curds. The one who bought the milk from the family says, "Dear, I took milk and deposited it with you. What you are now handing over for me to take in return is curds." The dairy farmer says, "This is your old milk; by now it has coagulated into curds on its own." The two men litigate with each other and lead each other in front of the king. Nāgasena asked the king, "In this way, who is right and who is wrong?" The king said, "The dairy farmer's family is right." Nāgasena said to the king, "How can one know that?"

The king said:

[The buyer should be told], "You bought the milk yourself and deposited the milk in that place where it coagulated into curds on its own." What is there to blame the family of the dairy farmer?

Nāgasena said:

A person who is reborn is similar to that. By means of doing good and evil in this life with this name-and-form a person is reborn in the next life; doing good and evil in this life is the root.

The king asked again, "Now will Nāgasena be reborn again in the next life?"

Nāgasena replied to the king:

I have already replied to that question previously in this way, "Provided that I have craving, I will again be reborn in the next life. Provided I have no craving, I will not be reborn."

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who serves the king with all their forces. Knowing of their skills makes the king grant them wealth. Having gotten the wealth, the person makes the utmost use of it by means of getting for themselves clothes, food, and drink, delighting in their own pleasures. During discussions, that person states, "I have done service to the king and the king has not yet bestowed a reward on me."

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Nāgasena asked the king, "If that person, who got the reward, instead states that they have not yet received it, are the words of that person proper?" The king said, "The words of that person are improper." Nāgasena said:

For this reason I said to the king, "Provided that I have craving, I will again be reborn in the next life. Provided I have no craving, I will not be reborn in the next life."

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king asked Nāgasena, "Dear, previously you spoke of the name-andform of a person; what is 'name' and what is 'form'?" Nāgasena said, "Now, what visibly exists is 'form'; thoughts in the mind are 'name.'"

The king asked again, "Why is it that a person has a name that goes to be reborn in the next life and the form is not going to be reborn?" Nāgasena said:

The form and the name of a person are mutually connected from beginning to end. It is similar to the liquid in the egg and its outer shell, which becomes an egg. A person's name-and-form are mutually connected in this way and cannot be separated.

The king said, "It is well."

[On Time]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is a duration of time?" Nāgasena said:

By way of things of the past there is a duration of time and [by way of] things of the future there is also a duration of time. With present things there is no duration of time.

The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Does a duration of time verily exist?" Nāgasena said, "At times a duration of time exists, at times a duration of time does not exist."

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The king said again, "How does a duration of time exist and how does a duration of time not exist?"

Nāgasena said:

For those who have attained awakening to nirvana, a duration of time does not exist. For those who have not attained awakening and who will experience further deaths and rebirths, a duration of time exists. [Nevertheless, if] a person in this life is fond of giving and has regard for their parents, in the next life they will gain good fortune. The king said, "It is well, it is well."

[On the Origin of Things]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Regarding things of the past, things of the future, and things of the present, what is at the root of these three things?" Nāgasena said:

Delusion is at the root of things of the past, things of the future, and things of the present. Having arisen, delusion gives rise to consciousness, consciousness gives rise to the body, the body gives rise to name, name gives rise to form, and form gives rise to the six [spheres of] knowledge:81 The first is knowing through the eye, the second is knowing through the ear, the third is knowing through the nose, the fourth is knowing through the mouth, the fifth is knowing through the body, and the sixth is knowing through the mind. These are the six [spheres of] knowledge. These six things are all directed toward the external.

How are they directed toward the external? The eye is directed toward forms, the ear is directed toward sounds, the nose is directed toward fragrances, the mouth is directed toward flavors, the body is directed toward what is smooth, and the mind is directed toward lustful cravings. These six are directed toward the external through what is called contact. For one who has contact, who is conjoined with contact, there is knowledge of pain and knowledge of pleasure. From pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, becoming arises and in turn the condition for old age arises. From old age [comes] the condition for disease, from disease [comes] the condition for death, 162

from death [comes] the condition for lamentation, from lamentation [comes] the condition for sadness, from sadness [comes] the condition for being internally afflicted in the mind.

Together, in conjunction, these are all dukkha and their conjunction is what one calls "a person." Therefore, at that time, births and deaths do not end for [such] "a person," and of [such] "a person" a former origin of the aggregate [of dukkha] cannot be obtained.82

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who plants the five [types of] grain and their roots grow. From the roots, the stalks, leaves, and fruits grow. Having subsequently gotten grain, afterward, in the next year, they again plant and again get much grain.

Nāgasena asked the king, "If a person plants grain year after year, would the grain that is planted come to an end without growing in due time?" The king said, "Planting grain year after year, it will not come to an end without growing in due time."

Nāgasena said, "A person being reborn is just like this. At that time the continuity in the appearance of births does not come to an end." Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a chicken that gives birth to an egg, and the egg gives birth to a chicken. From the egg, [another] egg arises; from the chicken, [another] chicken arises. The births and deaths of a person are just like this and at that time do not come to an end.

Nāgasena in turn drew the wheel of a chariot on the ground and asked the king, "Does this wheel have corners?"

The king said, "It is well rounded and has no corners." Nāgasena said:

In a Buddhist discourse it is said that the births and deaths of a person are like the wheel of a chariot;83 there is a continuity in the appearance of births at that time that does not come to an end.

Nāgasena said:

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A person is aware by way of the eye, all types of forms, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth.

One is aware [by way of] the ear, the hearing of sounds, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth.

One is aware [by way of] the nose, the smelling of fragrances, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth.

One is aware [by way of] the mouth, the getting of flavors, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth.

One is aware [by way of] the body, the getting [to touch] what is fine and smooth, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth. 164

One is aware [by way of] the mind, thoughts, and consciousness; one knows by the conjunction of these three things. From their conjunction, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires, the condition for becoming arises; from becoming [comes] the condition for birth; from birth [comes] the condition for doing good and evil, and from [doing] good and evil there is in turn [another] birth.

Nāgasena said, "Thus the continuity in the appearance of a person's births does not come to an end."

The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again:

Dear, you said that an origin of a person's births and deaths cannot be obtained. What do you consider to be without an origin that could be obtained?

Nāgasena said, "There being [no] origin, it will not arise again.84 There being an origin, it will pass on again. This is by dint of there being an origin." The king said:

There being no origin, it will not arise again. Evidently, there being an origin, it will pass on again. In this way its origin has not yet been terminated? Nāgasena said, "Yes, and it will all pass on."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "From what else do the births and deaths of a person thrive?"

Nāgasena asked the king, "Is there something else from which people in the world and creeping and wriggling beings thrive?" The king said:

I did not ask Nāgasena about people in the world and about creeping and wriggling beings. I only wanted to ask you, dear, just about the origin of the births and deaths of a person.

Nāgasena said:

The growth of trees has as its origin being planted; the growth of the five 165

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grains has its origin in grain [seed]. All things throughout the world, they all grow from their specific origin. A person has their origin in craving in regard to the six senses.

Nāgasena said:

For a person there are eyes, there are forms, and there is consciousness; there are ears, there are sounds, and there is consciousness; there is the nose, there are fragrances, and there is consciousness; there is the tongue, there are flavors, and there is consciousness; there is the body, there is touching of what is fine and smooth, and there is consciousness; there is thinking, there are mind-objects, and there is consciousness. From this, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desire, just the conjunction of these [types] of dukkha arise, which becomes a person.

Due to the eye . . . ear . . . nose . . . mouth . . . body . . . consciousness being conscious of thoughts, there is contact as their point of convergence. From contact, pain and pleasure arise; from pain and pleasure, craving arises; from craving, lustful desires arise; from lustful desires as the condition, becoming arises; from becoming as the condition, there is birth; from birth as the condition, there is old age, and from this condition there is disease; from disease as the condition, there is death, and from this condition there is sadness; from sadness as the condition, there is lamentation; and from lamentation as the condition, there is being internally afflicted in the mind. A person being born is like this.

Nāgasena said:

There being no eye and no seeing of forms, one is not aware of them and does not know them; from not being aware of them and not knowing them, there is no conjunction. There being no conjunction, there is no pain and pleasure; there being no pain and pleasure, in turn craving does not arise; there being no craving, lustful desires do not arise; there being no lustful desires, there is no becoming; there being no becoming, there is no birth and no old age; there being no birth and no old age, there is no disease and no death; there being no disease and no death, there is no worry and no lamentation; there being no worry and no lamentation, the mind is not 166

internally afflicted. There being none of all these [types of] dukkha, one is in turn delivered by attaining awakening to nirvana. There being no ear, nothing is heard . . . there being no nose, nothing is smelled . . . there being no mouth, nothing is tasted . . . there being no body, nothing fine or smooth is touched . . . there being no consciousness, nothing is thought; nothing being thought, there is no contact; there being no contact, there is no pain and pleasure; there being no pain and pleasure, there is no craving; there being no craving, there are no lustful desires; there being no lustful desires, there is no coming to a womb; not coming to a womb, there is no being born; there being no birth, there is no old age; there being no old age, there is no disease; there being no disease, there is no death; there being no death, there is no worry; there being no worry, there is no lamentation; there being no lamentation, the mind is not internally afflicted. Abandoning all these [types of] dukkha, one attains in turn awakening to nirvana. The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Could there be in the world an entity that arises of itself?"

Nāgasena said, "There is no entity that arises of itself; all will do so being conditioned."

Nāgasena for this reason asked the king, "The hall in which the king is seated now, has it been constructed by workers or has it arisen of itself?" The king said, "Workers constructed it with wooden rafters that were produced from trees and with plaster on the wall that was produced from the earth." Nāgasena said:

The birth of a person is also like that. In this way the conjunction of elements results in a person. For this reason there is no entity that arises of itself, all are conditioned.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a potter who makes utensils. He takes earth and water, combines them so that they become clay and burns it to make various utensils. The clay is unable to become a utensil on its own. There must be a worker, firewood, and a fire, and just then it will become a utensil. In the world there is nothing that arises of itself.

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Nāgasena said to the king, "It is similar to, for example, a lute without strings, without frame, and without a player; would it be able to make sound?" The king said, "It will not able to produce sound on its own." Nāgasena said, "If the lute is made to play, has strings and a frame, and there is a player, would sounds emerge?"

The king said, "There will be sound."

Nāgasena said, "In the same way throughout the world there is no entity that arises of itself. All will do so being conditioned." Nāgasena asked the king, "It is like fire produced by drilling a flint. Without two pieces of wood and without a person to drill, would one be able to get fire?" The king said, "One will not be able to get fire." Nāgasena said, "In case there are two pieces of wood and there is a person to drill, would one be able to get fire?"

The king said, "Yes, fire will arise."

Nāgasena said, "Throughout the world there is no entity that arises of itself. All will do so being conditioned."

Nāgasena asked the king, "It is similar to a speculum without a person to hold it and also without sun and without a [clear] sky,85 would one be able to get fire?"

[The king said, "One will not be able to get fire."] Nāgasena said, "If a person holds the speculum and there is a [clear] sky and the sun, would one be able to get fire?"

The king said, "One gets fire."

Nāgasena said, "Throughout the world there is no entity that arises of itself. All will do so being conditioned."

Nāgasena asked the king, "If a person has no mirror and no light, and that person wishes to look at themselves, would they be able to see their appearance?"

The king said, "They will not be able to see themselves." Nāgasena said, "In case there is a mirror,86 there is light, and there is a person who looks at themselves, would they be able to see their own form?" The king said, "Yes, they will be able to see themselves." Nāgasena said, "Throughout the world there is no entity that arises of itself. All will do so being conditioned."

The king said, "It is well."

168

[On the Soul]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "Among people of the world, could there be a [truly existing] person?"

Nāgasena said, "It is not possible to query if a person [truly] exists in the world [without clarifying] who is properly called a '[truly existing] person.'"87 The king said, "Is it not the life principle in the body that is the [truly existing] person?"88

Nāgasena asked the king:

Is the life principle in the body able to see form by means of the eyes? Is it able to hear sounds with the ears? Is it able to smell fragrances by means of the nose? Is it able to know flavors by means of the tongue? Is it able to know what is fine and smooth by means of the body? Is it able to know what is there by means of the mind?

The king said, "It is able to do it."

Nāgasena said, "Now the king and I are in the upper hall which has windows on the four sides. Are we able to see freely, as we wish, from any window?" The king said, "We can see."

Nāgasena said:

Supposing that a person's life principle is inside the body and it can freely, as it wishes, see from any aperture. Looking through the ears, is it [also] able to see forms to be seen with the eye? Is it able to use the ear to see forms? Is it [also] able to use the nose to see forms? Is it [also] able to use the mouth to see forms? Is it [also] able to use the body to see forms? Is it [also] able to use the mind to see forms?

The king said, "It is not able to do it."

Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle resides in the ear. Is it [only] able to hear something through the ear? [Or] is it [also] able to see what is there through the ear? Is it [also] able to know fragrances and stenches through the ear? Is it [also] able to know flavors through the ear? Is it [also] able to know what is fine and smooth through the ear? Is it [also] able to [know] what is thought through the ear?

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Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle resides in the nose. Is it [only] able to know fragrances and stenches through the nose? [Or is it also able to see something through the nose?]89 Is it [also] able to hear sounds through the nose? Is it [also] able to know flavors through the nose? Is it [also] able to know what is fine and smooth through the nose? Is it [also] able to [know] what is thought through the nose?

Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle resides in the mouth. Is it [only] able to know flavors through the mouth? [Or] is it [also] able to see something through the mouth? Is it [also] able to hear sounds through the mouth? Is it [also] able to smell stenches and fragrances through the mouth? Is it [also] able to know what is fine and smooth through the mouth? Is it [also] able to [know] what is thought through the mouth?

Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle resides in the body. Is it [only] able to know what is fine and smooth through the body? [Or] is it [also] able to see what is there through the body? Is it [also] able to hear sounds through the body? Is it [also] able to know stenches and fragrances through the body? Is it [also] able to know flavors through the body? Is it [also] able to [know] what is thought through the body?

Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle resides in consciousness. Is it [only] able to [know] what is thought through consciousness? [Or is it also able to see something through consciousness?]90 Is it [also] able to hear sounds through consciousness? Is it [also] able to know stenches and fragrances through consciousness? Is it [also] able to know flavors through consciousness? Is it [also] able to [know] what is fine and smooth through consciousness? The king said, "It is not able to know it."

Nāgasena said, "What the king has said previously and subsequently do not tally with each other."

170

Nāgasena said, "It is like the king and I being seated together in the upper hall and the four windows were to be demolished, could we see far and wide?" The king said, "Yes, [we could see] far and wide." Nāgasena said:

Supposing the life principle is in the body. The eye being taken off, would one be seeing far and wide? The ears being cut off and [their orifices] being enlarged, would one be able to hear what is far? The nose being cut off and [its orifices] being enlarged, would one be able to smell fragrances far away? The mouth being cut off and enlarged, would one be able to know many [more] flavors? The skin being peeled off, would one know much [more] of what is fine and smooth? The mind being cut off and taken off, would its [ability to think] become large? The king said, "No, it would not."

Nāgasena said, "What the king said previously and subsequently also do not tally with each other."

Nāgasena asked the king, "[If] the king's treasurer came in and were to stand in front of the king, would your majesty be aware of him and know that he is in front of you?"

The king said, "I would know that he is in front of me." Nāgasena said, "[If] the king's treasurer came into the king's room, would he know that he has come into the room?"

The king said, "He would know that he has come into the room." Nāgasena said:

Supposing that a person's life principle is inside the body and the person has taken some flavor and placed it into the mouth, would it be able to know what is sweet, sour, acidic, salty, spicy, or bitter? The king said, "It would know it."

Nāgasena said, "What the king said previously and subsequently do not tally with each other."

Nāgasena said:

It is like a person who buys exquisite wine and puts it into a large vessel. He forcefully blocks another person's mouth and puts him upside down 171

713a

into the wine to taste the wine. Would that person know the taste of the wine?

The king said, "That person will not know it."

Nāgasena said, "Why will he not know the flavor?"

The king said, "It does not enter his mouth and reach the surface of his tongue; therefore he will not know the flavor."

Nāgasena said, "What the king said previously and subsequently do not tally with each other."

The king said, "I am bewildered and my intelligence is not up to debating this. May you explain how it appears [to you]."

Nāgasena said:

From a person's eye and vision of forms, there is activity of consciousness. With activity of consciousness, pain and pleasure arise. [From the arising of pain and pleasure] there is a conjunction with intentions and thoughts. Their conjunctions with the ear, nose, mouth, body, and mind are all similar. There being the mind and what is thought, there is activity of consciousness. With activity of consciousness, pain and pleasure arise. From the arising of pain and pleasure, there is intention, and from its arising, there are thoughts. The continuity in their appearance is accomplished appropriately without there being a permanent owner. The king said, "It is well."

[On Experience]

The king asked Nāgasena again, "When in a person [experience through] the eye arises, do the eye and consciousness arise together?" Nāgasena said, "Yes, they arise together at the same time." The king asked again, "Does the domain of the eye arise before or does the domain of consciousness arise before?"

Nāgasena said, "The domain of the eye arises before and the domain of the mind arises afterward."

The king said:

Did the eye say to consciousness, 'Where I am proceeding to arise, you should follow me and arise afterward.' Did the two communicate with each 172

other? Did consciousness say to the eye, 'Where you arise, I shall follow you and arise afterward.' Did the two communicate with each other? Nāgasena said, "The two did not communicate with each other." The king said, "Dear, you did not state the reason why, [although] arising together at the same time, they did not communicate with each other." Nāgasena said, "There are four situations in which [things arise] together without communicating with each other."

Nāgasena said on his own:

What are the four? The first is by descending, the second is by turning toward a door, the third is by proceeding along a rut, and the fourth is by estimating. These are four situations in which [things arise] together without communicating with each other.

The king asked again, "What is 'descending'?"

Nāgasena replied to the king, "[When] the sky rains on top of a high mountain, where will the ensuing water proceed to flow?" The king said, "It will descend."

Nāgasena said, "At a later time the sky rains again, where will the water again proceed to flow?"

The king said, "It will proceed according to where the previous water has flowed."

Nāgasena asked the king:

Would the previous water have said to the later water, "You should follow where I have gone"? Would the later water have said to the previous water, "I shall follow the place where you proceeded to flow"? Did the previous water and the later water communicate with each other? The king said, "Each of the waters proceeded to flow on its own. The previous and the later one did not communicate with each other." Nāgasena said:

The eye is just like the water. The eye did not say to consciousness, "You should follow me after I arose." Consciousness also did not say to the eye, "I shall follow you after you have proceeded to arise." The eye and consciousness did not [come] together and communicate with each other. 713b

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This is called "descending." As with the eye, it is the same with the ear, the nose, the mouth, the body, and the mind.91

The king asked again, "What is 'turning toward a door'?" Nāgasena said, "It is similar to a great imperial city which has a single gate. Inside there is one person who wishes to go out. Toward where should they turn?"

The king said, "They should just go out through the gate." Nāgasena said, "Afterward, again a person wishes to go out. Toward where should they turn to go out?"

The king said, "As earlier, they should just go out through the gate [used] by the previous person."

Nāgasena said to the king:

Would the person who went out previously have told the later person, "You should follow after me, where I went out"? Would the later person have told the previous person, "Dear, I shall follow after you, by the gate by which you went out"? Would the two persons have communicated with each other?

The king said, "The previous person and the later person did not [come] together and communicate with each other."

Nāgasena said:

The eye is just like the gate. The eye did not say to consciousness, "You should follow me after I arose." Consciousness also did not say to the eye, "Now I shall follow you after you arose." The eye and consciousness did not [come] together and communicate with each other. This is "turning toward a door." It is the same with the ear, nose, mouth, body, and the mind. The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'proceeding along a rut'?" Nāgasena asked the king, "A chariot has come previously and there is a rut. Where will a chariot that comes later proceed?" The king said, "The later chariot will proceed following in the rut of the previous vehicle."

Nāgasena said:

Would the previous chariot's wheels have told the wheels of the later one, 174

"You should later follow from where I have come." Would the wheels of the later chariot have told the wheels of the previous one, "We shall follow the places where you came." Would they have communicated with each other? The king said, "They did not [come] together and communicate with each other."

Nāgasena said:

It is just like that for a person. The eye did not say to consciousness, "You should follow me after I arose in the place where I arose." Consciousness also did not say to the eye, "Dear, I shall follow after you arose." Nāgasena said, "[It is the same with] the ear, nose, mouth, body, and consciousness; they do not [come] together and communicate with each other." The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'estimating'?" Nāgasena said:

One who estimates determines by writing or by studying. This is estimating. The eye, ear, nose, mouth, body, and consciousness gradually all know and through the conjunction of these six things there is what is known. There is nothing known from [just] one of these things. The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "When in a person [experience through] the eye arises, do pain and pleasure arise together with it?" Nāgasena said, "[Experience through] the eye as well as pain and pleasure arise together. They are all rooted in arising from conjunction." The king said again, "What is 'conjunction'?"

Nāgasena said:

Conjunction is the touching of two with each other. Conjunction is similar to two rams [head]butting with each other. This is conjunction. One ram is like the eye and the other ram is like visible form. Their conjunction is called "contact." It is similar to one hand being [like] the eye and the other hand being [like] visible form; the conjunction of the two hands is contact. It is similar to two stones,92 one stone being [like] the eye and the other stone being [like] visible form; the conjunction of the two stones is contact. By all the same conjunctions of the eye, ear, nose, [mouth], body, and 713c

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consciousness there is contact. It is similar to two stones,93 one stone being [like] consciousness and the other stone being [like] intention; the conjunction of the two stones is contact. The conjunction of consciousness and intention is like that. This is called "contact." The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'characteristic of pleasure'"? Nāgasena said, "One is aware of it by oneself and knows it as pleasure." Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person at the service of the king of the country. That person is virtuous and skilled, so the king grants him wealth. Having gotten it, that person makes use of it to enjoy himself with whatever he desires. That person thinks to himself, "Serving the king, I got wealth bestowed on me. Now I gain pleasure [over] pleasure like this." Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who thinks what is wholesome with the mind, says what is wholesome with the mouth, and does what is wholesome with the body. Having practiced what is wholesome in this way, after death they gain rebirth up in heaven. Up in heaven that person, delighting themselves to the utmost of their purposes, thinks to themselves, "When I was in the [human] world, I thought what is wholesome with my mind, said what is wholesome with my mouth, and did what is wholesome with my body. For this reason I have now come to be reborn in here, gaining pleasure and ever more pleasure." This is their being aware of it. The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'being aware'?" Nāgasena said:

From knowing one is aware. It is similar to the king's treasurer who enters into the treasury and looks inside the room himself. He knows on his own that there is so much of coins, gold, silver, gems, jade, silk of various colors and scents, knowing them all in their various places. This is "being aware and knowing."

The king said, "It is well."

176

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'characteristic of what a person thinks'?"

Nāgasena said:

What a person does is because of what they think. It is similar to a person who, having mixed poison into a medicine, drinks it themselves and also gives it to others to drink. It afflicts their own body and also afflicts the bodies of others.

Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a person who does evil and after death will enter into hell. Those instructed by them will all enter into hell. What the evil person said was what they thought, it is like this.

The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "What is 'inner reflection'?" Nāgasena said, "When one intentionally thinks, there is in turn inner reflection."

The king said, "How does reflection at that time proceed?" Nāgasena said:

It is similar to a copper bowl or a copper cauldron. A person arrives and hits it.94 The utensil produces sound and, on being raised with the hands,95 a remainder of sound proceeds. A person is like that, reflection and thought proceed because of intention.

Nāgasena said, "The time of hitting is [like the onset of] the reflection and the remainder of the sound [like] its proceeding." The king said, "It is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again:

Is one able to take what is conjoined and separate it as "this is their conjunction," "this is the knowledge," "this is the thought," "this is the mind," and "this is the reflection"?

Nāgasena said, "In case they have come to be conjoined, one cannot separate them again." Nāgasena said:

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[Suppose] the king gets his cook to prepare a delicious soup in which there is water, meat, onion, garlic, ginger, salted beans, and glutinous rice. The king gives the order to a kitchen servant, "From the delicious soup that has been made, come and fetch from the soup the water with the flavor it had previously, next come and fetch the flavor of the meat,96 next come and fetch the flavor of the onions, next come and fetch the flavor of the ginger, next come and fetch the flavor of the salted beans, next come and fetch the flavor of the glutinous rice." The soup being made, would the person be able to fetch each of the flavors from the soup and give it to the king? The king said, "After the soup has been conjoined into one, one cannot separate each of the flavors."

Nāgasena said:

All these things are also like that. Being conjoined into one, one cannot separate them as "this is pain and pleasure," "this is knowledge," "this is reflection," and "this is thought."

The king said, "It is well, it is well."

The king asked Nāgasena again, "A person who keeps looking with the eye, can they distinguish and know the flavor of salt?" Nāgasena said, "Is the knowledge of the king such as this? Is he able to keep looking with the eye and know the flavor of salt?" The king said, "[So] the eye does not know the taste of salt?" Nāgasena said, "A person who keeps [tasting] with the tongue is able to know and obtain the flavor of salt. They are not able to know the flavor of salt through the eyes."

The king said again, "Does a person know flavors by means of the tongue?" Nāgasena said, "People are all able to know flavors distinctly by means of the tongue."

The king said, "Will all salty flavors be known distinctly by means of a tongue?"

Nāgasena said, "Yes, all salty flavors will be known distinctly just by means of a tongue."

Nguồn: BDK America — English Tripiṭaka (bdkamerica.org).

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena

Notes

Glossary

Bibliography

Index

THE SCRIPTURE ON THE MONK NĀGASENA

Table of Contents

Translator’s Introduction

The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena