Analysis of the Middle and Extremes The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena

ANALYSIS OF THE MIDDLE AND EXTREMES & THE SCRIPTURE ON THE MONK NĀGASENA

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series ANALYSIS OF THE MIDDLE AND EXTREMES

(Taishō Volume 31, Number 1600) Translated by Jeffrey Kotyk THE SCRIPTURE ON THE MONK NĀGASENA A CHINESE COUNTERPART TO THE MILINDAPAÑHA (Taishō Volume 32, Number 1670B) Translated by Bhikkhu Anālayo BDK America, Inc. 2021

Copyright © 2021 by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and BDK America, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means —electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher. First Printing, 2021

ISBN: 978-1-886439-82-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021937828 Published by

BDK America, Inc.

1675 School Street

Moraga, California 94556

Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the

English Tripiṭaka

The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha's basic approach was to prescribe a different treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the suffering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha's Great Demise over twenty-five hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha's teachings. Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha's eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project. It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has finally gotten off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATA Yehan

Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

v

Editorial Foreword

In the long history of Buddhist transmission throughout East Asia, translations of Buddhist texts were often carried out as national projects supported and funded by emperors and political leaders. The BDK English Tripiṭaka project, on the other hand, began as a result of the dream and commitment of one man. In January 1982 Dr. NUMATA Yehan, founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), initiated the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō shinshū daizōkyō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was officially convened. The initial Committee included the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, (late) ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, (late) NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, (late) TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, (late) URYŪZU Ryūshin, and (late) YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium. After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred and thirty-nine texts for the First Series of the project, estimated to be one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected were not limited to those originally written in India but also included works composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published. Given the huge scope of this project, accomplishing the English translations of all the Chinese and Japanese texts in the Taishō canon may take as long as one hundred years or more. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue until completion, even after all the present members have passed away.

vii

Publisher’s Foreword

Editorial Foreword

Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven. He entrusted his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide with the continuation and completion of the English Tripiṭaka project. Mr. Numata served for twenty-three years, leading the project forward with enormous progress before his sudden passing on February 16, 2017, at the age of eighty-four. The Committee previously lost its able and devoted first Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. In October 1995 the Committee elected Professor MAYEDA Sengaku (then Vice President of Musashino Women's College) as Chairperson, and upon the retirement of Professor Mayeda in July 2016, the torch was passed to me to serve as the third Chairperson. Despite these losses and changes we, the Editorial Committee members, have renewed our determination to carry out the noble ideals set by Dr. NUMATA. Present members of the Committee are Kenneth K. Tanaka (Chairperson), MAYEDA Sengaku, ICHISHIMA Shōshin, KATSURA Shōryū, MINOWA Kenryō, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro, WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the translated texts. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center's operations were merged with Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America), and BDK America continues to oversee the publication side of the English Tripiṭaka project in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.

At the time of this writing, in July 2017, the project has completed about sixtyfive percent of the seven thousand one hundred and eighty-five Taishō pages of texts selected for the First Series. Much work still lies ahead of us but we are committed to the completion of the remaining texts in order to realize the grand vision of Dr. Numata, shared by Mr. Numata and Professor Hanayama, to make the Buddhist canon more readily accessible to the English-speaking world. Kenneth K. Tanaka

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripiṭaka

viii

Publisher's Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are dedicated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to disseminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world. The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.

As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.

In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Managing Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK America English Tripiṭaka Project.

A. Charles Muller

Chairperson

Publication Committee

ix

Table of Contents

x

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka NUMATA Yehan v Editorial Foreword Kenneth K. Tanaka vii Publisher's Foreword A. Charles Muller ix Analysis of the Middle and Extremes Contents 3

Translator's Introduction 5 Analysis of the Middle and Extremes 15 Notes 87

Glossary 91

Bibliography 95 Index 97

The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena: A Chinese Counterpart to the Milindapañha Contents 107 Translator's Introduction 109 The Scripture on the Monk Nāgasena 113 Notes 213

Bibliography 231 Index 237

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 243 xi xi

ANALYSIS OF THE MIDDLE AND EXTREMES

Table of Contents

Contents Translator's Introduction 5 Analysis of the Middle and Extremes 15 Part I Chapter One. Defnition of Characteristics Chapter Two. Discussion of Obstacles 17 29

Part II Chapter Three. Discussion of Reality Chapter Four. Discussion of the Cultivation of Antidotes Chapter Five. Discussion of the Stages of Practice 39 53

61

Part III Chapter Six. Discussion of the Attainments Chapter Seven. Discussion of the Unexcelled Vehicle 65 67

Notes 87 Glossary 91 Bibliography 95 Index 97 3

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

The present English translation, titled for the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series Analysis of the Middle and the Extremes, of the Chinese translation of the Madhyānta vibhāga-bhāṣya from Sanskrit by Xuanzang 玄奘 (602-664) is the first to date. Xuanzang traveled to India around the year 627 and returned in 645, after which time he translated numerous Buddhist works into Chinese under imperial patronage until his death. The chronology of his life and career, however, is not always clear.1

The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya has already been translated into English from Sanskrit and Tibetan. An important sub-commentary, the Madhyānta vibhāga-bhāṣya-ṭikā by Sthiramati, was translated by Richard Stanley, "A Study of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya-ṭikā" (Ph.D. dissertation, Australian National University, 1988). I have consulted Stanley's work in addition to English translations by Stefan Anacker, Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1986) and Mario D'Amato, Maitreya's Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes: Madhyāntavibhāga Along with Vasubandhu's Commentary: Madhyānta vibhāgabhāṣya, A Study and Annotated Translation (New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2012), as well as the modern Mandarin Chinese translation by Wei Dedong, Bian zhongbian lun (Gaoxiong: Foguang, 1997). The Sanskrit text was first typeset and published by Gadjin Nagao, Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya: A Buddhist Philosophical Treatise Edited for the First Time from a Sanskrit Manuscript (Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964); this volume also includes a helpful list of Chinese-Sanskrit correspondences, which I have consulted.

I have attempted to translate the Chinese as closely as possible while retaining coherent English readability. At the same time, I have frequently referred to the Sanskrit in order to clarify meanings, although it must be noted that the Chinese translation was, it seems, produced using a different manuscript than Nagao's recension. The structure and meaning of the Chinese differ considerably at times 5

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

from the extant Sanskrit version. It is uncertain whether these differences stem from Xuanzang's reorganization of the text or the simple fact that he used a separate recension. The Sanskrit text consulted by Xuanzang in the seventh century, which is not extant, was no doubt different from Nagao's text. Nagao's text was based on a photographed version from Tibet that dates to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. 2 The present translation might be of use to readers interested in Indian Yogācāra. The Chinese text and commentary often provide clear and reasonable interpretations of otherwise ambiguous lines in the Sanskrit. In some cases, I favor traditional Chinese explanations over D'Amato's translation of the corresponding Sanskrit, since it is reasonable to think that Xuanzang interpreted the text based upon what he had learned while resident at Nālanda. This is one advantage to consulting Xuanzang's translations. Nevertheless, although the Sanskrit is indeed key to understanding Yogācāra in its Indian context, East Asian Yogācāra, or Faxiang zong (Jp. Hossō-shū 法相宗), was based on Chinese translations of Indic texts and the subsequent commentarial literature that followed. The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya

in Chinese

With respect to the origin of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, Xuanzang's disciple Ji 基 (632-682, also known as Kuiji 窺基), gives the following explanation in his commentary on this work:

Nine hundred years after the Buddha passed away, the bodhisattva Asaṅga was born into the world. He went to Maitreya to request a teaching on the great śāstra, the circumstances of which are as explained elsewhere. Maitreya taught the verses (kārikā) of this śāstra, called the "Verses Analyzing the Middle and Extremes," which Asaṅga received and subsequently passed onto Vasu bandhu to have them explained in detail. Hence, this prose was produced by Vasubandhu, called Śāstra Analyzing the Middle and Extremes (Madhyānta vibhāga-bhāṣya). (T.1835:1a6-10) The work is comprised of primary verses (kārikā) together with interspersed commentary (bhāṣya). This text subsequently became an important component within the corpus of Yogācāra.

6

Translator's Introduction

According to a Buddhist bibliography compiled by the monk Zhisheng 智昇 (669-740) in 730, Xuanzang spent the fifth lunar month of 661 translating the Madhyāntavibhāga (the verses) followed by the bhāṣya (the exegetical prose), which was translated over the following weeks at Yuhuasi 玉華寺 with his disciple Ji acting as scribe (T.2154:556c4-7). The verses and prose altogether took one month to translate.

Xuanzang's terse translation of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya was not the first Chinese translation. Paramārtha 真諦 (499-569) had earlier translated this text with the Chinese title Zhongbian fenbie lun 中邊分別論 (T. 1599). Xuanzang, having traveled and lived in India, was a capable scholar of Sanskrit texts, although unlike earlier translators in China, such as Kumārajīva (344-413), Xuan zang was inclined toward more literal renderings. The result is a translation style that attempts to remain faithful to the Sanskrit, while at the same time observing conventions of Literary Chinese, such as character counts in verses. In the case of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya, this translation style resulted in a Chinese text that required a subsequent running commentary, since the source text was already highly technical and terse. The commentary, titled Bian zhongbian lun shuji 辯 中邊論述記 (T. 1835), was produced by Xuanzang's disciple Ji.

The Philosophy and Structure of the

Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya

The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya is an explanation of Mahayana Buddhist thought. The aim of this work is to explicate the full path to buddhahood via gradual advancement through the bodhisattva stages. The text is organized into seven sections that systematically explain how to gain wisdom, which are frequently connected to accurate comprehension of reality. This leads to liberation from samsara, and beyond that to the attainment of buddhahood. This requires a proper understanding of the nature of perceived phenomena (dharmas), as well as personal cultivation of the antidotes and meditative attainments necessary for progress along the path. The text exhaustively lays out all such matters in detail and enumerates them.

The seven sections of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya are:

1. Characteristics.

2. Obstacles.

7

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

3. Reality.

4. Cultivation of Antidotes.

5. Stages of the Practices.

6. Attainments.

7. Unexcelled Vehicle (Mahayana).

The ordering here makes it clear that the practitioner must first possess an accurate understanding of the framework to be explained, particularly with regard to how the observer ("grasper") apprehends perceived phenomena ("the grasped"). The grasper and grasped constitute a false duality, which lead to conceptions of "I" and "mine." This is a Buddhist way of addressing the generation of a personal identity that leads to fixation on sensory and mental objects. This in turn fuels samsara and suffering.

Buddhist philosophy adamantly refutes the notion of an inherently existent self (ātman), and so Vasubandhu connects personal identity and perceived objects to the problem of false discrimination (abhūtaparikalpa), while at the same time arguing for the emptiness (śūnyatā) of these categories, although, as the text shows, he does not absolutely deny the nominal existence of phenomena, since we all have such experiences. The problem is fundamentally with our mistaken perception of phenomena that inevitably leads to ill behavior and the perpetuation of unwholesome mental habits that run contrary to the Buddhist project of liberation. We then read—albeit initially puzzling—statements that say phenomena are neither empty nor existent, and that emptiness is neither existence nor nonexistence. This approach utilizing negating terms is employed to frame an accurate perception of phenomena, which is that although unreal they still nevertheless appear. This approach is furthermore regarded as the Middle Way, which is to say it steps away from both the reification and absolute denial of perceived phenomena. Reification is a common disorder in sentient beings, but the remedy is not to assert the absolute nonexistence of things, since this would also result in the complete denial of bondage and liberation and thereby undermine the entire Buddhist project. Again, the issue at hand is our mistaken perceptions of phenomena—an epistemological concern—rather than establishing some ontological framework to explain their concrete existence or nonexistence. Buddhist philosophy in this context should be understood as therapeutic in its application. Liberation is understood as the cessation of false discrimination. The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya intends to outline how to do this. 8

Translator's Introduction

The path to liberation is explained using a trifold apparatus called the "three natures" (tri-svabhāva), which refers to three manners in which beings might perceive the world:

1. Conceptualized (parikalpita): the nature of existence generated from falsely discriminated objects. Unreal appearances, which beings perceive, are imputed to possess a real essence. This process leads to harmful behaviors and negative karma. 2. Other-dependent (paratantra): the nature of existence generated from a more informed perspective. All perceived phenomena are understood from this perspective to exist dependent upon causes and conditions.

3. Perfectly accomplished (pariniṣpanna): the nature of existence that is completely perfected and conforms to the highest reality. All reifying and negating views are terminated from this perspective.

The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya utilizes the concept of the store consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), a characteristic feature of Yogācāra thought. This consciousness is said to be the condition for the emergence of other consciousnesses, functioning as a sort of explanatory element underlying the continuity of karmic potentials and the afflictions that propel a sentient being through samsara, lifetime after lifetime. This is furthermore connected to the twelve links of dependent origination, the process in which sentient beings perpetuate their conditioned existence over lifetimes. This framework utilizing the three natures and store consciousness was a unique innovation on the part of Yogācāra, and thus we see these concepts prominently deployed throughout the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya. The second section explains the obstacles faced by the two lineages. These include the bodhisattvas as one group, and śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas as a second group. The latter two groups respectively seek their own liberation and realize the emptiness of the self individually, while bodhisattvas seek to liberate all sentient beings and realize not only emptiness of the self, but also the emptiness of phenomena. The text therefore addresses the obstacles relevant to these respective paths. Obstacles here generally refer to habits or circumstances that hinder progress toward liberation. For instance, those who are subject to the "fetter" of craving are unable to distance themselves from agreeable objects of cognition, while the "fetter" of hatred renders someone unable to relinquish an object (or person) of contempt. In addition to such emotionally charged states leading to negative karma, these also connect to the earlier discussion concerning misperception of 9

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

objects. Accurate cognition of reality requires that the practitioner first be freed from the bondage of the objects to which they are attached, whether those objects are agreeable or disagreeable.

The text also outlines personal circumstances that contribute to stagnation along the path. For instance, a lack of spiritual lineage and virtuous friends or suffering from mental exhaustion hinder the generation of the mind of awakening (bodhicitta). The wisdom of a bodhisattva is obstructed due to lack of correct practice and living together with wicked or deluded people. The practitioner is therefore advised to address all such problems.

The following section of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya deals with reality, which is a discussion of factors that must be understood to progress along the path. Again, in this section we observe the three natures utilized to discuss reality—or specifically the perception of reality—using a threefold structure. For instance, accurate perception of reality requires one to discontinue views that reify and negate characteristics, which in this discussion extends to phenomena and persons (the conceptualized nature), grasped and grasper (the other-dependent nature), and existence and nonexistence (the perfectly accomplished nature). This framework of the three natures is further extended to matters such as impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and not-self, all of which tie in with the soteriological aim of the text. This point is further demonstrated when Vasubandhu brings to the discussion the ancient and characteristically Buddhist concept of the Four Noble Truths (the truths of suffering, arising, cessation, and the path). In this sense, the authority of the text's framework is strengthened with reference to concepts directly attributed to sermons given by the Buddha himself. Similarly, we see use of the five aggregates, dependent origination, and so on. In other words, while Vasubandhu was an innovator he established his philosophy on an orthodox Buddhist foundation.

The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya makes a point to clearly differentiate among the three vehicles, i.e., that of the "hearers" (śrāvakayāna), the "solitary realizers" (pratyekabuddhayāna), and the "unexcelled vehicle" (i.e., Mahayana). Followers of the first two paths gain liberation through realization of the faults of samsara and merits of nirvana. The difference between them is that the pratyekabuddhas realize these truths by themselves, whereas the śrāvakas hear of these from another. The bodhisattva, who is positioned as superior to these two, realizes liberation via nondiscriminating cognition, something which is inaccessible to 10

Translator's Introduction

the others. In this context, pratyekabuddhas and śrāvakas are not disparaged but their level of understanding is said to be limited.

Having explained the essential foundation of the path, the following section of the text addresses the antidotes necessary to correct faults. This is the applied and often meditative aspect of Vasubandhu's program of spiritual cultivation. This includes generating the factors of awakening and the bases of mindfulness, as well as correcting within the mind problems such as laxity and excitement. All these measures are required to ensure the mental fitness required for the attainment of liberating wisdom.

The role of faith is emphasized here. Faith in this context is perhaps more precisely understood as conviction in the efficacy of one's practice and its future fruits, rather than constituting a type of religious faith oriented around belief in future salvation. The Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya explains that practice is motivated by conviction in matters such as cause and effect, e.g., that the fruit of liberation can and will be attained through cultivation of its causes (correct view, application of the antidotes, etc.). One's outward presentation as a yogi, and one's morality and detachment, are all conducive to generating in others the same sort of faith or conviction. This is especially important for bodhisattvas, all of whom seek to benefit others.

The following section outlines the states of practice. This is presented in a logical sequence, since first the practitioner must apply antidotes and remove obstacles before moving upward to spiritual achievements. The text outlines eighteen states from the beginning of this section, beginning with the initial causal state and culminating finally in achievement or attainment of the nirmāṇakāya ("emanation body"). This whole sequence of stages clearly constitutes the typical career of a bodhisattva from the state of an ordinary aspiring practitioner to the full attainment of buddhahood. The sixth section addresses the results attained through the program of training already outlined. These are the shortest sections of the text.

The seventh and final section of the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya is an exposition of the ultimate vehicle, or Mahayana. The Mahayana is said to be unexcelled with respect to its correct practice, basis, and its cultivation of realization. This securely positions the Mahayana above the śrāvakayāna and the pratyeka buddhayāna, and indeed this section makes clear that these two paths lack many of the features of the Mahayana. This section also introduces the perfections 11

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

(pāramitās), an essential component within Mahayana, since it is necessary for the bodhisattva to cultivate these in order to benefit others and progress toward buddhahood. The bodhisattva must also realize freedom from all cognitive distortions that obstruct wisdom. At the same time, the reader is cautioned to avoid taking up extreme views with respect to existence and nonexistence, building on earlier discussions in the first section in particular. One particular concern, for instance, is grasping onto the view of impermanence, which is characteristic of the śrāvakas. The Middle Way, it is said, is free from grasping all views, e.g., holding neither the view of permanence nor of impermanence, which is a way of framing the correct perspective according to this system of Buddhist thought. In this way, categories such as afflictions, the three natures, and so forth are recognized for their nominal utility but the practitioner must avoid becoming attached to (i.e., reifying) these concepts, since this leads to erroneous views regarding existence and nonexistence. For example, belief that a being is truly afflicted leads to the view that such a being is truly existent; this view is problematic since no such being can be found after analyzing its components (the five aggregates), and these aggregates themselves break down under analysis. There is merely the appearance of a being comprised of the five aggregates, hence the need to discuss things in terms of ultimate and conventional realities. This approach enables one to avoid asserting absolute ontological categories that prevent understanding the emptiness of phenomena. Again, this is the Middle Way free from extremes, which is reflected in the title of the treatise: Analysis of the Middle and Extremes. To sum up, the Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya can be regarded as a kind of detailed manual explaining the career of a successful Buddhist practitioner— specifically a bodhisattva—from the very beginning until their achievement of the ultimate goal, buddhahood itself. This text is essentially a digested exegesis of Buddhist literature known to Vasubandhu. The tone of the work is clearly oriented toward emphasizing the superior qualities of the Mahayana in relation to the inferior vehicles, but this is not done in a hostile manner, since the other paths are considered orthodox and valid, if lacking the supreme aspirations as would be defined within a Mahayana framework.

I wish to thank A. Charles Muller for reviewing the drafts of my translation and offering many critical corrections and suggestions. I was also further assisted 12

Translator's Introduction by comments given by an anonymous reviewer. Finally, Kazuho Yamasaki and Christopher Emms of McMaster University assisted me in interpreting some Sanskrit passages. I hope this translation proves useful and reliable for future readers. Any faults and mistakes are my own. 13

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes (Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāṣya) Written by Vasubandhu Bodhisattva Translated by Imperial Decree by Tripiṭaka Dharma Master Xuanzang of the Great Tang

Part I

Chapter One

Definition of Characteristics

464b

Reverence to the author of this treatise, born of the body of the Sugata, and to the master who teaches us, for I shall diligently explicate its meaning. Here at the beginning I will set forth the structure of the treatise. The verse reads as follows:

(1) Characteristics, (2) Obstacles, (3) Reality, (4) Cultivation of Antidotes, (5) Stages of the Practices, (6) Attainments, and (7) Unexcelled Vehicle (i.e., Mahayana).

Commentary: This treatise addresses these seven topics: (1) characteristics, (2) obstacles, (3) reality, (4) cultivation of antidotes, (5) the stages of practice, (6) the results obtained, (7) the Unexcelled Vehicle. Here we will first analyze the characteristics. The verse reads as follows:

There is false discrimination, yet here these two do not exist. Herein there is but emptiness, and that is also existent in this.3

Commentary: "There is false discrimination" refers to there being discrimination between the grasped and the grasper (i.e., the conceptually apprehending subject and object). "Yet here these two do not exist" means that here false discrimination is never of the duality of grasped and grasper. "Herein there is but emptiness" means that within false discrimination, there is only emptiness that is devoid of grasped and grasper. "And that is also existent in this" means that therein within the emptiness of the two there is also only this false discrimination. If here there are no [grasped and grasper], it is due to those [two] being observed as empty; one understands [phenomena] as they actually are, since what remains is not nonexistent. This being so, the characteristic of emptiness can then be revealed without cognitive distortion. The verse reads as follows: Thus, it is taught that all phenomena are neither empty nor non-empty. 17

464c

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

This is due to existence, nonexistence, and again existence. This then accords with the Middle Way.

Commentary: "All phenomena" refers to conditioned and unconditioned phenomena. False discriminations are said to be conditioned. The emptiness of the two forms of grasping is called unconditioned. According to the former line of reasoning, it is said here that all phenomena are neither empty nor non-empty. Due to the existence of false discrimination [in] emptiness, they are said to be non-empty. Due to the nonexistence of grasped and grasper they are said to be not non-empty.4 "Due to . . . existence" means "due to the existence of false discrimination [in] emptiness." "Due to . . . nonexistence" means "due to there being no duality of that which is grasped and the grasper." "Due to . . . and again existence" means "due to the fact that within false discrimination there is emptiness" and "due to that within emptiness there is false discrimination." "This accords with the Middle Way" means that all phenomena are not exclusively empty, nor are they exclusively non-empty. This line of reasoning marvelously accords with the Middle Way. It also conforms well to the sutras, such as those of the Prajñāpāramitā, which state that all phenomena are neither empty nor existent.

Having thus explained the characteristic of existence and the characteristic of nonexistence in relation to false discrimination, I will now explain the intrinsic characteristic. The verse reads as follows:

Consciousness produces the appearances of (1) objects, (2) sentient beings, (3) self, and (4) cognitions. These objects are actually nonexistent. Since objects are nonexistent, there is no consciousness.5

Commentary: "The appearance of objects" means the appearance of the qualities of objects such as form and so forth. "The appearance of sentient beings" means the appearance of qualities of the five faculties of the body of oneself and others. "The appearance of self" means the afflicted manas (mind) because it is always concomitant with delusion in regard to the self and so forth. "The appearance of cognitions" means the other six consciousnesses (visual, auditory, etc.), because the characteristics of the cognitions are coarse.6 "These objects are actually nonexistent" means that there is no mode of appearance with respect to objects and faculties in appearance. Since 18

Chapter One

the appearances of self and cognitions are unreal appearances, all the aforementioned things are not actually existent. "Since objects are nonexistent, there is no consciousness" means that since the four aforementioned grasped objects are not existent, the consciousnesses that grasp them are also not actually existent. The verse reads as follows:

The nature of false discrimination is obtained based upon this meaning: it is neither actually existent nor entirely nonexistent. Liberation is thus considered to be the cessation [of false discrimination]. Commentary: "False discrimination" is thus defined based on this meaning: it is established that it is not actually existent, since it is like something manifested, which is not actually existent. It is also not entirely nonexistent, since herein there is at least the arising of disturbed consciousness. Why is this nature not admitted to be entirely nonexistent? Because we accept that liberation is attained from the cessation of this [false discrimination]. If it were otherwise, then bondage and liberation should not exist, and, in this manner, it would constitute the fault of denying defilements and purification. Having explained the intrinsic characteristic of false discrimination, here the collective characteristic will be explained. It is only this false discrimination that fully comprises three types of intrinsic natures. The verse reads as follows: The natures of the conceptualized, the other-dependent, and the perfectly accomplished are explained on account of object, discrimination, and the emptiness of the two.

Commentary: The existence of the nature of the conceptualized is explained based on falsely discriminated objects. The existence of the nature of the other-dependent is explained based on the nature of false discrimination. The existence of the nature of the perfectly accomplished is explained based on the emptiness of the grasped and the grasper.

Having explained the collective characteristic of false discrimination, I will explain the characteristic of the means by which one comprehends the characteristic of nonexistence in relation to false discrimination.7 The verse reads as follows:

Due to perception of consciousness, nonperception of objects arises; due to nonperception of objects, nonperception of consciousness arises. 19

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Commentary: On the basis of perception of consciousness only (vijñaptimātra), first there arises nonperception of objects. Moreover, due to nonperception of objects, there subsequently arises nonperception of consciousness. It is through these means that one comprehends the characteristic of the nonexistence of grasped and grasper.8 Next, the verse reads as follows: Due to the nature of perception of consciousness, [the nature of] nonperception [of consciousness] is also established. It is thus known that both perception and nonperception are equivalent in nature.

Commentary: Perception is so called because when consciousness only occurs, there appear to exist various types of falsely discriminated objects. Since the perceived objects are unreal, it is also not possible to perceive any reality to them. Having realized nonperception of consciousness, both grasped and grasper, [although] perceptible, are together realized as equally inapprehensible. Having explained the characteristic of the means by which one comprehends the characteristic of nonexistence in relation to false discrimination, I will now explain the characteristics of the distinctions and synonyms. The verse reads as follows:

The mind and mental factors of the three realms are false discriminations. Mere cognition of objects is called mind, and distinctions are called mental factors.

Commentary: The characteristics of distinction related to false discrimination are the minds and mental factors of the desire realm, the form realms, and the formless realms. As to the characteristics of synonyms [related to false discrimination], the mere cognition of the general characteristic of objects is called mind. Also, cognitions of distinctions are called the mental factors, such as feeling, etc.

From here I will explain the characteristic of the arising [of false discrimination]. The verse reads as follows: The first is called conditioning consciousness. The second is called the experiencer. Herein are the mental factors of (1) experience, (2) discrimination, and (3) stimulation. 20

Chapter One

Commentary: The conditioning consciousness is the store consciousness, since this is the condition for the arising of other consciousnesses. The store consciousness functions as the condition for the forthcoming consciousnesses that arise. The subject of experience is called the experiencer. Among these consciousnesses, feeling functions to experience, and perception functions to discriminate. Volition, attention, and so forth are concomitant formations, functioning to stimulate [the other] consciousnesses. These three auxiliary mental states are therefore called mental factors.

Next, I will explain the characteristics of defilements. The verses read as follows:

(1) Concealing and obstruction, (2) establishing, (3) leading, (4) collecting, (5) completing, (6) threefold discrimination, (7) experiencing, (8) inducing, (9) fettering, (10) manifesting, and (11) the fruit of suffering. The world is defiled due to these. The three, two, and seven defilements result from false discrimination.

Commentary: "Due to concealing and obstruction" means that ignorance obscures reality and obstructs accurate vision. "Due to establishing" means that mental formations deposit karmic perfuming in the base consciousness (i.e., the store consciousness). "Due to leading" means that consciousness, having attachment, directs sentient beings into a place of birth. "Due to collecting" means that name and form gather sentient beings into individual existences. "Due to completing" means that the six internal sense bases form sentient beings into a complete body. "Due to threefold discrimination" means contact can discriminate the three agreeable sensations and three feelings [of pleasure, pain, and neither pleasure nor pain] of faculty, object, and consciousness. "Due to experience" refers to objects related to sensory experience of what is agreeable, disagreeable, or neither. "Due to inducing" means that the power of craving brings about the arising of a future existence induced by past karma. "Due to fettering" refers to grasping, which causes fetters to arise, in which consciousness is made to conform to desire and so forth. "Due to manifesting" refers to the force of previous existences causing the appearance of various matured karmic fruits in a future existence based upon past activities. "Due to the fruit of suffering" means that the natures of birth, 21

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Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

465c

aging, and death are impelled as retribution from past causes. The twelve links of dependent origination explained here disturb people and make them uncomfortable.

The three defilements: (1) the defilements of afflictions, which refer to ignorance, craving, and grasping; (2) the defilements of karma, which refer to mental formations and becoming; (3) the defilements of birth, which refer to the other links of dependent origination.

The two defilements: (1) defilements as cause, which refer to afflicted karma; (2) defilements as results, which refer to the remaining links of dependent origination. The seven defilements refer to seven types of causes: (1) the cause of cognitive distortion, which refers to ignorance [among the twelve links of dependent origination]; (2) inducing causes, which refer to mental formations; (3) leading causes, which refer to consciousness; (4) gathering causes, which refer to name, form, and the six sense bases; (5) experiential causes, which refer to contact and feeling; (6) inductive causes, which refer to craving, grasping, and becoming; (7) distressing causes, which refer to birth, aging, and death. These defilements all grow from false discrimination. Here I summarize the nine characteristics of false discrimination elucidated earlier: (1) the characteristic of existence, (2) the characteristic of nonexistence, (3) the characteristic of intrinsic characteristic, (4) the characteristic of collection, (5) the characteristic of the means by which one comprehends the characteristic of nonexistence [in relation to false discrimination], (6) the characteristic of distinction, (7) the characteristic of synonym, (8) the characteristic of arising, (9) the characteristic of defilement.

Having thus explained false discrimination, I will now explain the emptiness that is known. The verse reads as follows: The emptiness of the two should be understood via (1) characteristics, (2) synonyms, (3) meanings, (4) distinctions, and (5) their proofs. The brief explanation is derived from these.

Commentary: The emptiness of grasped and grasper should be understood. The brief explanation is derived from these five (characteristics, etc.). What are the characteristics of emptiness to be understood? The verse reads as follows: 22

Chapter One

It is by way of nonduality and existence of nonexistence that [we speak of] not-existence as well as not-nonexistence. They are neither different nor identical. This is explained as the characteristic of emptiness. Commentary: "Nonduality" refers to the absence of grasped and grasper. "Existence of nonexistence" refers to there being the nonexistence of the two types of grasping. This explains how emptiness has nonexistence (abhāva) for its nature. Hence, this characteristic of emptiness is neither existence nor nonexistence. What is meant by "not-existence"? It is the absence of the two types of existence [of grasped and grasper]. What is meant by "not-nonexistent"? It is that there are the two kinds of nonexistents, [the lack of self in persons and in phenomena].9

This explains the characteristic of emptiness, i.e., neither existence nor nonexistence. This emptiness and that false discrimination are neither different from one another nor identical. If they were different, then it would mean that the nature of a dharma would differ from dharmas, which would be illogical, such as in the case of the nature of suffering and so forth. If identical, then it should stand that it [emptiness] is not an object of pure cognition, nor would it be of common characteristic [with phenomena]. This explains that emptiness and false discrimination are removed from the characteristics of sameness and difference. What are the synonyms of emptiness? The verse reads as follows:

I will briefly explain the synonyms of emptiness: they should be understood as referring to (1) thusness, (2) the apex of reality, (3) the signless (animitta), (4) the nature of ultimate reality, and (5) experiential reality (dharma dhātu).

Commentary: The brief explanation of emptiness includes these synonyms. What are the meanings of the synonyms? The verse reads as follows: The meanings of the synonyms are in the following order: (1) immutability, (2) the absence of cognitive distortion, (3) cessation of signs, (4) the sphere of noble wisdom, and (5) the cause of the noble dharmas. Commentary: Here emptiness, which is to be understood, is explained. The meaning of "immutability" explains thusness, since reality is constant, 23

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not being transitory. The meaning of "the absence of cognitive distortion" explains the apex of reality, since there is no basis for cognitive distortions. The meaning of "the cessation of signs" explains the absence of signs, since here all signs are permanently eliminated. The meaning of "the sphere of noble wisdom" explains the supreme meaning, since this is the meaning of the sphere of supreme wisdom. The meaning of "the cause of the noble dharmas" explains experiential reality (dharmadhātu), since all noble dharmas are produced dependent upon this. Here dhātu refers to the meaning of cause and meanings of not-self, etc., and should be understood according to reason. How are we to understand the distinctions in emptiness? The verse reads as follows: These defilements and purity stem from the presence or absence of taint. Purity is considered pure like the element of water, gold, or space.10 Commentary: The distinctions in emptiness are of two main types: the first is defiled, the second is pure. These constitute defilement and purity. They are distinguished according to the state, which means that the presence of taint is explained as defiled, while it is explained as purity when there is separation from taint. Although it is first defiled and then becomes pure, it is not that [the nature of emptiness] has transformed, since this would constitute an error with respect to impermanence. Just as the elements of water and so forth are [essentially] free from contaminants, so too is the purity of space. It is not the case that it is transformed in nature. There are furthermore sixteen kinds of emptiness: (1) inner emptiness, (2) outer emptiness, (3) the emptiness of inner and outer, (4) great emptiness, (5) the emptiness of emptiness, (6) the emptiness of the supreme meaning, (7) conditioned emptiness, (8) unconditioned emptiness, (9) ultimate emptiness, (10) boundless emptiness, (11) the emptiness of nondispersal, (12) the emptiness of original nature, (13) the emptiness of characteristics (lakṣaṇa), (14) the emptiness of all qualities, (15) the emptiness of nonexistence, and (16) the emptiness of the intrinsic nature of nonexistence. How should these brief meanings be understood? The verses read as follows: The (1) eater and the (2) eaten (i.e., the experiencing subject and the object of experience), (3) the bodies upon which these are dependent, and (4) the abode. Perceive these according to reason, the emptiness of the two 24

Chapter One

kinds of purities that are sought for the constant benefit to beings, so as to not abandon samsara, and so as to be skillfully inexhaustible. Thus contemplate these as empty, for the purity of the spiritual lineage, for the attainment of the primary and secondary marks, and for the pure Dharma of the buddhas. Thus the bodhisattva contemplates emptiness. Commentary: The emptiness of the eater is explained based on the inner sense bases, which refers to (1) inner emptiness. The emptiness of the eaten is explained based on external bases, which refers to (2) outer emptiness. "The body upon which these are dependent" refers to the body upon which the eater and the eaten are dependent. This body is empty, hence it is called (3) the emptiness of inner and outer. The receptacle world is called an abode. It is called great due to its vastness. Since the abode is empty, it is called (4) great emptiness. "Perceive these" refers to perceiving through knowledge the emptiness of the inner sense bases, etc. The wisdom of emptiness is empty, hence it is called (5) the emptiness of emptiness. "According to reason" refers to the supreme meaning, which is the accurate practice of the contemplated reality. This is empty, hence it is called (6) the emptiness of the supreme meaning. The bodhisattva practices to attain the two kinds of purity, which refer to conditioned and unconditioned wholesome phenomena. These two types of emptiness are therefore called (7) conditioned emptiness and (8) unconditioned emptiness. They constantly benefit sentient beings while contemplating emptiness, hence it is called (9) ultimate emptiness. Samsara is eternal with neither beginning nor end. Contemplating this as empty, it is therefore called (10) boundless emptiness.

To not contemplate this as empty would quickly lead to disillusionment. [The bodhisattvas] contemplate this boundless samsara as empty in order to not become disillusioned with samsara. The virtue cultivated while contemplating emptiness is not abandoned up to the state of parinirvāṇa without reminder. This is therefore called (11) the emptiness of nondispersal.11 The spiritual lineages of the nobles are inherent, and are not formed through habituation, hence it is said to be their original nature. The bodhisattva quickly attains purity due to this while contemplating emptiness, hence it is called (12) the emptiness of original nature. The bodhisattva attains the primary and secondary characteristics of a great person while contemplating emptiness, 25

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Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

hence it is called (13) the emptiness of characteristics. The bodhisattva attains purity in regard to all the qualities of the Buddha, such as powers and fearlessness, etc., while contemplating this emptiness, hence it is called (14) the emptiness of all qualities.

[Up to here] these fourteen types of emptiness have been set forth individually. What is here called emptiness? The verse reads as follows: Person and phenomena: their real natures are both not-existent. Hence, the emptiness of the two is separately established here in relation to nonexistence and existence. Commentary: Since the real natures of neither persons (pudgala) nor phenomena exist, [this instance] is called (15) the emptiness of nonexistence. This emptiness of nonexistence is not the intrinsic nature of nonexistence. The (16) emptiness of the intrinsic nature of nonexistence is called as such because the intrinsic nature of emptiness is considered to be nonexistence.12 As explained earlier, in the case of the emptiness of the eater and so forth, the emptiness of the two is separately established to elucidate the characteristics of emptiness. This serves to restrain attachment to reification of person and phenomena, as well as attachment to negation by emptiness. The emptiness of the two is established according to this order. Having explained the distinctions in emptiness, how should the meaning proven here be understood? The verse reads as follows:

Here if there were no defilements, all would be naturally liberated. Here if there were no purity, effort would be fruitless.

Commentary: If phenomena were empty, and prior to the production of an antidote there were no adventitious defilements, then all beings would naturally be liberated without effort. If the antidotes had already been produced and yet there was still impurity, then there would be no fruit when striving in pursuit of liberation. The verse reads as follows:

Neither defiled nor undefiled; neither pure nor impure; since the nature of the mind is originally pure, it is defiled by adventitious defilements. Commentary: Why neither defiled nor undefiled? It is because the nature of the mind is originally pure. Why neither pure nor impure? It is because 26

Chapter One

[the nature of mind] is defiled as a result of adventitious defilements. This is called proving the meanings of the distinctions of emptiness. This previous meaning of emptiness generally includes two types, which refer to characteristics and establishment. The characteristics further include two types, namely nonexistence and existence. The characteristic of emptiness in relation to existence is being apart from existence, nonexistence, difference, and sameness, which is considered its characteristic. One should understand that the establishment is in terms of synonyms and so forth.

27

Chapter 2. Discussion of Obstacles

Chapter Two

Discussion of Obstacles

Having analyzed characteristics [the terminology outlined above], I will now explain the obstacles. The verse reads as follows:

The whole and the partial, the excessive and regular, and the grasping and rejection of samsara, are explained as obstacles related to [practitioners of the] two spiritual lineages (gotra).

Commentary: The "whole" obstacles refer to afflictive obstacles and cognitive obstacles, since they constitute obstacles within the spiritual lineage of bodhisattvas. The "partial" obstacles refer to afflictive obstacles, since they obstruct the ways of the spiritual lineages of the śrāvakas, etc.13 The "excessive" obstacle affects those who experience craving, etc. The "regular" obstacle affects those who act in a normal manner (i.e., those with few defilements). "Grasping and rejection of samsara" refer to obstruction of the attainment of the nirvana of nonabiding by the bodhisattva spiritual lineage, called "the obstacle of grasping and rejection of samsara." The five obstacles are accordingly like this, explaining the obstructions to the two types of spiritual lineages (bodhisattvas and śrāvakas, etc.). The verses read as follows: The nine types of characteristics of afflictions refer to the nine fetters of craving, etc. The first two obstruct disillusionment and dispassion. The other seven obstruct accurate vision, referring to the obstruction of full comprehension of (1) the false view of individuated identity, (2) its things, (3) cessation, (4) the path, (5) the Three Treasures, (6) gain and honor, and (7) detachment.

Commentary: There are, briefly speaking, nine types of characteristics of obstacles in relation to afflictions, referring to the nine types of fetters, which include craving, etc. (1) The fetter of craving obstructs disillusionment because one is unable to distance oneself from favorable objects of cognition. (2) The fetter of hatred obstructs dispassion because one is unable to relinquish unfavorable objects of perception. 29

466c

467a

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

The other seven fetters obstruct accurate vision. Full comprehension is obstructed in the following seven ways. (3) The fetter of conceit obstructs full comprehension of the falsity of the view of individuated existence. Due to the momentum of intermittent and continuous arising of self-conceit, this fetter is not severed during cultivation of present contemplation.14 (4) The fetter of ignorance obstructs full comprehension of the view of individuated existence, because one does not realize that [the sentient being is comprised of] appropriated aggregates. (5) The fetter of views obstructs full comprehension of the noble truth of cessation, because satkāyadṛṣṭi (the view of individuality) and the views of attachments to extremes (i.e., a view that there is or is not postmortem continuity) lead to fear of cessation, and because wrong views repudiate cessation. (6) The fetter of grasping obstructs full comprehension of the noble truth of the path, because one grasps other phenomena as pure. (7) The fetter of doubt obstructs full comprehension of the Three Treasures, because one does not have faith in the merits of the Three Treasures as a result of this. (8) The fetter of envy obstructs full comprehension of gain and honor, and so forth, because one does not perceive their faults. (9) The fetter of avarice obstructs full comprehension of detachment, because one craves the means to sustain life.

Furthermore, there are specific obstacles that obstruct the ten types of pure phenomena, which relate to virtue and so forth. What are their characteristics? The verses read as follows: (1) The absence of application, (2) [application in] inappropriate places, (3) erroneous conduct, (4) nonarising [of the virtuous Dharma], (5) not producing correct thought, (6) incomplete preparations, the lack of (7) spiritual lineage and (8) virtuous friends, (9) mental exhaustion, (10) lacking in correct practice, living together with (11) base and (12) wicked people, (13) cognitive debilitation, (14) the remainders among the three, (15) the immaturity of wisdom, (16) inherent debilitations, (17) laziness, (18) negligence, (19) attachment to existence, (20) attachment to wealth, (21) a dissolute state of mind, (22) lack of faith, (23) the absence of determination, (24) deliberation according to language, (25) disdain for the Dharma, (26) veneration of name and gain, (27) lack of compassion for sentient beings, (28) deficient learning and (29) little learning, and (30) lack of cultivation of meditative concentration.

30

Chapter Two

Commentary: These are called obstacles to virtue, etc. What are the characteristics of virtue, etc. that are obstructed? The verse reads as follows: "Virtue, etc." refers to: (1) virtue, (2) bodhi (awakening), (3) sustaining, (4) possession of wisdom, the absence of (5) confusion and (6) obstacles, (7) dedication, the lack of (8) fear and (9) avarice, and (10) mastery. Commentary: With respect to these ten types of pure phenomena as they relate to virtue etc., which ones encompass which of the aforementioned types of obstacles? The verse reads as follows:

These ten (virtue, etc.) are each are beset with three obstacles to start with. Commentary: Virtue is beset with three obstacles: (1) the absence of application, (2) application in inappropriate places, (3) application in erroneous conduct.

Awakening is beset with three obstacles: (1) nonarising of wholesome phenomena, (2) not giving rise to correct thought, (3) lack of complete preparation. The generation of the mind of awakening (bodhicitta) is called "sustaining." This is beset with three obstacles: (1) lack of spiritual lineage, (2) lack of virtuous friends, (3) mental exhaustion.

"Possession of wisdom" refers to the bodhisattva who comprehends this nature; for them there are three obstacles: (1) lack of correct practice, (2) living together with base people, (3) living together with the wicked. Here "base people" refers to deluded types. Those who delight in the destruction of others are called the wicked.

The absence of confusion is beset with three obstacles: (1) the debilitations of cognitive distortion, (2) the residual qualities accompanying each of the three obstacles [of the afflictions, karma, and karmic fruition in the form of unfavorable rebirths], (3) the immaturity of wisdom that enables the maturation of liberation.

The elimination of inherent obstacles is called the absence of obstacles. This is beset with three obstacles: (1) being born with congenital debilitations, (2) laziness, (3) negligence.

Dedication is beset with three obstacles that make the mind face the other way, rather than facing unexcelled perfect awakening: (1) attachment to existence, (2) attachment to wealth, (3) a dissolute mind. 31

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The absence of fear is beset with three obstacles: (1) lack of faith in persons, (2) absence of determination with respect to the Dharma, (3) deliberation according to language. The absence of avarice is beset with three obstacles: (1) lack of veneration of the true Dharma, (2) venerating name, gain, and honors, (3) lack of compassion for sentient beings. Mastery is beset with three obstacles that prevent one from gaining mastery: (1) deficient learning that emerges as a result of karma capable of causing deficiencies with respect to the Dharma, (2) little learning, (3) lack of cultivation of superior samādhi. Furthermore, these obstacles have ten activations accompanying their other meanings with respect to the ten types (virtue, etc.). These should be known according to their respective meanings. The ten activations are as follows: 1. The activation of arising, such as the eyes and other organs in relation to the visual consciousness and other consciousnesses.

2. The activation of subsistence, such as the four types of food [coarse food, sensory food, and nourishment from thought and the six consciousnesses] consumed by beings. 3. The activation of preservation, which refers to the capacity for support provided by the receptacle world for sentient beings.

4. The activation of illumination, such as light in relation to forms. 5. The activation of alteration, such as fire and so forth in relation to that which is cooked.

6. The activation of separation, such as sickles and so forth in relation to what is cut.

7. The activation of transformation, seen in the work of the goldsmith and so forth who make metals into bracelets and such things. 8. The activation of belief, such as smoke in relation to fire [i.e., smoke indicates fire].

9. The activation of intellectual expression, such as a reason contained in a premise.

10. The activation of attainment, such as the noble path, etc., in relation to nirvana, etc.

On the basis of such meanings, the following verses are stated: 32

Chapter Two

There are ten types of activations: (1) arising, (2) subsistence, (3) preservation, (4) illumination, (5) alteration, (6) separation, (7) transformation, (8) belief, (9) intellectual expression, and (10) attainment. Examples of consciousnesses, the four foods, the ground, the lamp, the fire, the sickle, the craftsman, smoke, reason, and the noble path relate to the activities of consciousnesses.15 The obstacles as they relate to virtue, etc., should be understood in the same way:

1. The obstacle to arising functions in relation to the virtues. Wholesome phenomena should arise.

2. The obstacle to subsistence functions in relation to awakening (bodhi). Great awakening is unshakeable.

3. The obstacle to preservation functions in relation to maintaining. The mind of awakening serves to preserve.

4. The obstacle to illumination functions in relation to the possession of wisdom (intelligence). Intelligence should be illuminated. 5. The obstacle to alteration functions in relation to the absence of confusion. Alteration is called the extinguishing of confusion. 6. The obstacle to separation functions in relation to the absence of obstacles. This is disassociation from the obstacles. 7. The obstacle to transformation functions in relation to dedication. The mind of awakening is of a transformative characteristic. 8. The obstacle to belief functions in relation to lack of fear. Those without belief have fear.

9. The obstacle to intellectual expression functions in relation to the lack of avarice. Those without avarice toward the Dharma reveal it to others. 10. The obstacle to attainment functions in relation to mastery. Through it one can attain the characteristics of mastery.

The point of the order of the ten things [listed above] that are obstructed is that if there is a desire to realize unexcelled awakening, superior virtuous roots should first be produced, since it (i.e., the desire for realization) will be preserved by the power of those superior virtuous roots. One will definitely gain the ability to abide in unexcelled awakening, having made virtuous roots grow. Next, one should generate the mind of great awakening. This mind of awakening is the basis for the bodhisattva nature, since the bodhisattva in 33

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this way has generated the mind of great awakening and is supported by the power of superior virtuous roots. They sever cognitive errors and give rise to the state of freedom from errors, since on the path of seeing there are no cognitive errors.

Next, on the path of cultivation one severs all obstacles. Having severed the obstacles and maintaining virtuous roots, one dedicates themself to unexcelled perfect awakening. As a result of the support of the power of one's dedication to it, there will then be no fear with respect to the profound Dharma. Having no fear, one will then witness the superior merits of that Dharma and be able to explain it widely to others. Since the bodhisattva is supported by the power of these various merits, they quickly realize unexcelled perfect awakening and attain complete mastery over all phenomena. This is called the order of the meanings with respect to the ten (virtue, etc.). Although these phenomena (virtue, etc.) comprise the factors of awakening, there are still general and specific differences so far as the perfections and the qualities of the various grounds (bhūmis) of practice are concerned. Now I will explain the differences among the obstacles to the factors of awakening, etc. The verse reads as follows:

There are specific obstacles that should be understood with respect to the factors of awakening, the perfections, and the grounds. Commentary: Again, with respect to the the factors of awakening, the perfections, and the qualities of the various grounds, each have their respective specific obstacles. With respect to the specific obstacles of the factors of awakening, the verse reads as follows:

(1) Lack of skill with respect to objects of meditation, (2) laziness, (3) the two deficiencies in meditation, (4) not planting, (5) weakness, and the faults of (6) false view and (7) debilitations.

Commentary: The obstacle of being unskillful in regard to specific objects of meditation is seen in the four bases of mindfulness. The obstacle of laziness impedes the four types of correct elimination. The obstacle of the two deficiencies in samādhi exist in relation to the four supernormal powers. The first is due to deficiencies in the completion [of meditation]: by way of either will, effort, mind, or contemplation. The second is due to deficiencies in 34

Chapter Two

practice: by way of being deficient in at least one of the eight practices of severance.

The obstacle to the development of the superior virtuous roots lies in the lack of planting perfected factors that are conducive to liberation, such as the five spiritual faculties. The obstacle of weakness impedes five powers, referring to the five spiritual faculties beset with weakness as a result of interference by obstacles. The obstacle of errors in view impedes the seven factors of awakening. These are revealed during the path of seeing. The obstacle of debilitating faults impedes the branches of the Eightfold Noble Path. These are revealed during the path of cultivation.

Concerning the specific obstacles to reaching the other shore (the perfections), the verses read as follows: Obstacles to (1) being wealthy, (2) birth in a favorable existence, (3) not abandoning sentient beings, (3) the decrease of faults and the increase of merits, (4) introducing beings to the Dharma and (5) liberation, obstacles to the (6) virtues of generosity etc., the (7) inexhaustible and (8) uninterrupted, (9) the skillful determination that is made, and (10) the maturation of the Dharma to be enjoyed.

Commentary: Here I explain the obstacles that impede the results attained via the ten perfections, to show the obstacles as they pertain to the inherent qualities of the ten perfections.

The obstacle to mastery (i.e., having financial means) is explained as an impediment to the perfection of giving. The obstacle to being reborn in a favorable existence is explained as an impediment to the perfection of morality. The obstacle to not abandoning sentient beings is explained as an impediment to the perfection of patience. The obstacle to the reduction of error and increase of merit is explained as an impediment to the perfection of effort. The obstacle to introducing the Dharma to those beings to be taught is explained as an impediment to the perfection of meditation. The obstacle to liberation is explained as an impediment to the perfection of wisdom. The obstacle to being inexhaustible with respect to the virtues of generosity and so forth is explained as an impediment to the perfection of skill in means. It is due to turning from here toward unexcelled awakening that the virtues of generosity and so forth are made inexhaustible. The obstacle to uninterrupted 35

468a

468b

Analysis of the Middle and Extremes

transmission of virtue through all rebirths is explained as an impediment to the perfection of vows. Wholesome phenomena arise through receiving and being accordant with the power of great vows. The obstacle to the firm attainment of produced virtues is explained as an impediment to the perfection of power. The powers of discernment and practice can subdue that obstacle, rather than one being subdued by it. The obstacle to the maturation of Dharma, enjoyed by both oneself and others, is explained as an impediment to the perfection of gnosis. Realization of meaning is unlike the words one has heard. There are specific obstacles with respect to the qualities of each of the grounds. The verses read as follows:

(1) Omnipresence, (2) supremacy, (3) superior flow of continuity, (4) nongrasping, (5) uninterrupted continuity, (6) absence of both defilements and purity, (7) absence of distinction among various phenomena, (8) neither increasing nor decreasing, (9) the four masteries of nondiscrimination, etc., (10) the truth of the basis. Among these ten experiential realms there exists undefiled ignorance. There are obstacles to the qualities of the ten grounds, hence ten obstacles are explained.

Commentary: With respect to "omnipresence," etc., the ten experiential realms are impeded by the obstacle of undefiled ignorance. The obstacles to the ten grounds (bhūmis) are set forth according to the qualities of the ten grounds. The experiential realm realized on the first ground is called the principle of omnipresence. Having reached here, one realizes the dharma-nature in which self and other are equal.

The experiential realm realized on the second ground is called the principle of the supreme. Having reached here, one thinks, "Now having thus achieved the [aforementioned] liberation of sameness [of self and other], purifying practices should be carried out in every way." This is diligence concomitant with liberation.

The experiential realm realized on the third ground is called the principle of the superior flow of continuity. Having reached here, one knows that the Dharma that has been heard is of a pure experiential realm, flowing from that which is supreme and so forth. In seeking this Dharma, one would not consider it difficult to try to grasp hold of it even if one were cast into a flaming pit as vast as trichiliocosm.

36

Chapter Two

The experiential realm realized on the fourth ground is called the principle of nongrasping. Having reached here, even love for the Dharma is completely extinguished.

The experiential realm realized on the fifth ground is called the principle of uninterrupted continuity. Having reached here, one attains the pure mind in which there is equality of the ten aspirations.

The experiential realm realized on the sixth ground is called the principle of the absence of both defilements and purity. Having reached here, one understands that the dharma of dependent origination is neither defiled nor pure. The experiential realm realized on the seventh ground is called the principle of the absence of distinction among various phenomena. Having reached here, one understands that phenomena are without characteristics, without traversing through the various dharma characteristics in the scriptures, etc. The experiential realm realized on the eighth ground is called the principle of neither increasing nor decreasing. Having reached here, one perfectly realizes the tolerance based on the nonproduction of phenomena. Not a single phenomenon is perceived to increase or decrease among pure and defiled phenomena. There are four kinds of mastery: (1) mastery of nondiscrimination, (2) mastery of purifying the realm, (3) mastery of cognition, (4) mastery of karma. The experiential realm is the support for these four types, meaning it is the principle of support for these four kinds of mastery. On the eighth ground, one attains the first two kinds of mastery, which serve as bases. On the ninth ground, one also attains the base of the mastery of cognition. One completely realizes unobstructed cognition. On the tenth ground, one can furthermore attain the base of the mastery of karma. One manifests various benefits and joys for sentient beings as one wishes. The summary verse reads as follows:

Having explained the afflictive and cognitive obstacles, consider the extinguishing of these two as liberation from all obstacles. Commentary: Since these two categories include all obstacles, it is held that liberation from all obstacles is attained when these are extinguished. The general meaning of the earlier obstacles encompasses eleven types: (1) major obstacles, which refer to whole obstacles; (2) minor obstacles, which refer to partial obstacles; (3) obstacles to application, which refer excessive 37