Cây Giác Ngộ

Ba mươi bẩy nhân tố được phân loại thành bẩy nhóm: (a)

tứ niệm xứ (bốn bậc chú tâm-satipatthana), (b) tứ chánh cần (bốn nỗ lực đúng – sammappadana), (c) tứ như ý túc (bốn con đường tới sức mạnh – iddhipada), (d) năm căn (năm lực kiểm soát – indriya), (e) năm lực (năm thần thông – bala), (f) thất bồ đề phần (bảy nhánh giác ngộ – bojjhanga), và (g) Bát Chánh Đạo Cao Quý (atthangika magga). Vì chúng ta đã xét tứ chánh cần và Bát Chánh Đạo Cao Quý trong các Chương 5, 6 và 7, tôi sẽ bỏ qua hai nhóm này và chỉ tập trung vào năm nhóm kia.

Đức Phật gọi chánh niệm là cách duy nhất để loại bỏ ô trược. Đức Phật cũng nói tâm là gốc rễ của mọi đức hạnh. Do đó hành trì quan trọng nhất là rèn luyện tâm. Ta cũng có thể hiểu tầm quan trọng của chánh niệm từ thực tế là chánh niệm phát sinh trong năm nhóm thuộc bẩy nhóm tạo thành ba mươi bẩy nhân tố dẫn đến giác ngộ, và nhóm đầu của những nhóm này dành riêng cho tứ niệm xứ.

Chánh niệm cũng được dạy trong Kinh Satipatthana(Thuyết pháp về các nền tảng chánh niệm), xuất hiện hai lần trong kinh Phật. Tất cả những điều này cho thấy tầm quan trọng của chánh niệm.

Trong những năm gần đây, có một sự hồi sinh lớn chú trọng vào tứ niệm xứ cả ở truyền thống Nguyên Thủy, nhất là tại Miến Điện, và cả ở truyền thống Đại Thừa, nơi tầm quan trọng của tứ niệm xứ là một phần của hành thiền, nay đã được đánh giá cao. Một trong những lý do tứ niệm xứ này chiếm một vị trí quan trọng trong thiền Phật Giáo là vì chúng dẫn đến sự nhận thức về ba đặc tính phổ quát (vô thường, khổ đau và vô ngã). Chính xác là điều này vận hành ra sao sẽø trở nên rõ ràng một khi chúng ta kể đến tứ niệm xứ: (i) chú tâm đến thân xác, (ii) chú tâm đến cảm nghĩ (tưởng), (iii) chú tâm đến thức, và (iv) chú tâm đến đối tượng tinh thần. Chú tâm đến thân xác (thân) nơi đây rộng hơn nó ở trong phạm vi bốn mươi thứ hỗ trợ thiền truyền thống, nơi nó phát sinh như một trong mười ký ức nhưng chỉ giới hạn đối với thân. Nơi đây nó áp dụng không chỉ cho chú tâm về thân mà còn chú tâm đến tiến trình hít thở, những yếu tố vật chất, thân xác mục rữa vân vân... Chú tâm về cảm giác (thọ) nói đến những thứ cảm xúc của kinh nghiệm bản thân, đến những cảm giác thích, không thích hay trung lập. Chú tâm về thức (tâm) – hay đúng hơn, chú tâm về tư tưởng – ngụ ý quan sát sự sinh diệt của ý nghĩ. Chú tâm về những đối tượng tinh thần (pháp), nói đến những cái thuộc về thức, đặc biệt những quan niệm như vô thường và loại giống như vậy.

Bằng tứ niệm xứ đầu tiên chúng ta bàn hết mọi khía cạnh vật chất của kinh nghiệm cá nhân, và bằng ba tứ niệm xứ sau chúng ta bàn hết mọi khía cạnh tinh thần của kinh nghiệm cá nhân (tức là những thức uẩn, hành uẩn, thọ uẩn ï và tưởng uẩn). Sự áp dụng trọn vẹn chánh niệm dẫn đến việc từ bỏ ba quan điểm sai lầm (thường còn, hạnh phúc, và cái ngã) và đạt được tuệ giác về ba đặc tính phổ quát (vô thường, khổ đau và vô ngã). Giải thích về đối tượng của tứ niệm xứ thay đổi theo những truyền thống về thiền Phật Giáo. Tuy nhiên, nói chung, sự giải thích nơi đây có thể chấp nhận được đối với hầu hết các truyền thống.

Chúng ta hãy nhìn vào tứ như ý túc: (i) mong muốn hay ham thích, (ii) nghị lực (tấn), (iii) tâm hay tư tưởng, và (iv)

lý trí. Bốn yếu tố này cũng thấy có trong hai mươi bốn phương thức về tính điều kiện (xem Chương 39), nơi mà chúng được gọi là "điều kiện trội". Cả hai tứ như ý túc và "điều kiện trội" rõ ràng gợi ý sức mạnh của tâm ảnh hưởng đến kinh nghiệm. Một thí dụ đơn giản là sức mạnh này sẽ tới một điểm nào đó kiềm chế những cử động của thân và việc sử dụng lời nói. Điều này đúng là trường hợp sức mạnh của tâm, khao khát, nghị lực (tấn), và lý trí chưa phát triển đầy đủ để kiểm soát hiện tượng vật lý. Khi những nhân tố trội này được tăng cường bởi trau dồi năm yếu tố về nhập định (sơ thiền, nhị thiền, chú tâm, hỉ lạc và nhất tâm) – đặc biệt là sự tăng cường về nhất tâm, xuất hiện ngay khi đạt giai đoạn thứ năm của nhập định cõi sắc – chúng trở thành đường tới thần thông.

Do sự tăng cường, những nhân tố trội dẫn đến cái gọi là những loại siêu kiến thức về trần cảnh và kiến thức siêu trần. Có năm loại siêu kiến thức trần cảnh (thần thông):

khả năng ngồi bắt chân chữ ngũ bay được trên trời, đi trên mặt nước, đi xuyên qua đất, đọc được tư tưởng của người khác, và nhớ lại tiền kiếp của mình. Kiến thức siêu trần là kiến thức phá hủy những ô trược, vô minh vân vân... Có lẽ điều này là lý do tại sao đôi khi người ta nói bốn điều kiện trội có thể là trần cảnh hoặc siêu trần. Nếu chúng hướng tới cõi trần, chúng dẫn đến năm loại về siêu kiến thức trần cảnh, trong khi nếu chúng hướng về cõi siêu trần, hay niết bàn, chúng dẫn đến thâm nhập Tứ Diệu Đế và phá hủy những ô trược. Giống như tứ như ý túc, năm căn – (i) tín (niềm tin), (ii) tấn (nghị lực), (iii) niệm (chú tâm), (iv) định (tập trung), và (v)

huệ (trí tuệ) – cũng được tìm thấy trong hai mươi bốn phương thức của tính điều kiện. Trong cuốn Quan Hệ Nguyên Quả, năm căn được định nghĩa là những yếu tố trội. Có một sự liên quan rất mật thiết giữa năm căn và tứ như ý túc, được biểu lộ bởi sự hiện diện chung trong những phương thức của tính điều kiện và sự tương đồng của chúng theo nghĩa kiểm soát, chế ngự, hay làm chủ. Năm căn được gọi là "kiểm soát" vì người ta cho rằng chúng kiểm soát hay kiềm chế những đối nghịch của chúng: tín (hay lòng tin) kiểm soát sự thiếu niềm tin (hay nghi ngờ); tấn kiểm soát lười biếng, niệm kiểm soát không chú tâm; định kiểm soát quẫn trí và huệ kiểm soát vô minh. Giống như tứ như ý túc, năm căn chỉ thực sự kiểm soát được những đối nghịch của chúng khi chúng được tăng cường bởi những nhân tố nhập định. Chẳng hạn, tín chỉ có thể thực hiện khả năng kiểm soát khi nó được củng cố bởi sự hiện diện của ba yếu tố nhập định về chú tâm, hỉ lạc và nhất tâm; và huệ chỉ thực hiện chức năng hữu hiệu khi nó được củng cố bởi sơ thiền, trợ thiền, và nhất tâm.

Khi năm yếu tố về nhập định củng cố và tăng cường năm căn do đó năm căn có thể thực hiện chức năng hữu hiệu để tiến tới giác ngộ. Tương tự như vậy, năm căn củng cố năm yếu tố của nhập định. Chẳng hạn, định củng cố sức mạnh chú tâm và hỉ lạc. Bởi vậy sự quan hệ giữa hai tập hợp nhân tố là một trong những hỗ trợ và tăng cường lẫn nhau.

Mặc dù năm căn rất cần thiết nhằm mang lại sự biến đổi lối sống nghi ngờ, thờ ơ, không chú ý, quẫn trí và vô minh của một chúng sinh thành lối sống giác ngộ nhưng chúng phải được trau dồi trong một đường lối hài hòa. Điều này có nghĩa là trong phạm vi năm căn có những nhân tố cân bằng lẫn nhau. Chẳng hạn như tín và huệ là một cặp thay đổi cho nhau: nếu để tín lấn át huệ, kết quả là làm yếu đi khả năng (căn) chủ yếu của ta, khả năng phân tích và điều tra trí huệ; và nếu huệ lấn át tín, nó làm giảm lòng tin tới mức không chắc chắn và thiếu ràng buộc bước đầu để tu tập. Tương tự như vậy, nếu để tấn lấn át định dẫn đến dao động, và nếu để định lấn át tấn dẫn đến uể oải và kinh sợ. Bởi vậy, tín, tấn, định và huệ phải được phát triển và duy trì trong một phương cách quân bình, và năng lực có thể giúp ta làm việc ấy là chánh niệm. Chánh niệm là người bảo vệ bảo đảm mối quan hệ qua lại thích ứng, quân bình giữa tín và huệ, và giữa tấn và định.

Nhóm nhân tố giác ngộ kế tiếp là năm năng lực (bala) – (i)

tín, (ii) tấn, (iii) niệm, (iv) định, và (v) huệ – về số lượng và thuật ngữ giống như năm căn. Năm nhân tố này được gọi là năng lực vì ở giai đoạn này tín, tấn, niệm, định và huệ trở thành kiên quyết, vững vàng và hùng mạnh. Đức Phật cho thấy năm căn và năm năng lực là hai mặt của cùng một sự vật, giống như hòn đảo ở giữa sông có thể khiến người ta gọi một phía sông là bên đông và phía kia là bên tây, mặc dù hai phía của con sông là một và như nhau. Tương tự như vậy, năm căn và năm năng lực là một và như nhau. Năm căn là tiềm lực phải được làm mạnh thêm và phát triển qua sự phối hợp với năm nhân tố nhập định. Khi chúng trở thành kiên định và vững vàng, do sự tăng cường này, chúng có thể được gọi là năng lực.

Chúng ta có thể nói thêm là năm năng lực trở nên tuyệt đối không lay chuyển nổi chỉ trong trường hợp các bậc thánh (xem Chương 35). Khi đã vào được dòng thánh, chẳng hạn, niềm tin sẽ trở thành một năng lực không lay chuyển nổi vì sự câu thúc của nghi ngờ đã bị loại bỏ.

Mặc dù chỉ năm căn và năm năng lực được liệt kê trong ba mươi bẩy nhân tố, trong phân loại mở rộng của Vi Diệu Pháp về kiểm soát căn và năng lực, có thêm ba căn nữa ngoài năm đã có (tâm, hỉ, và sinh khí), và thêm hai năng lực (xấu hổ tinh thần và kinh hãi tinh thần được gọi chung là "người bảo vệ thế giới", xấu hổ tinh thần và sợ hải tinh thần được giải thích là giác quan trực tính của mình và sự sợ hãi về phê phán hay khiển trách. Chúng được gọi là người bảo vệ thế giới vì, khi phát triển đến tầm mức trở thành năng lực, chúng trở thành người bảo vệ hành độïng thiện.

Nhóm cuối cùng mà chúng ta sẽ xét nơi đây là thất bồ đề phần của giác ngộ: (i) niệm, (ii) điều tra, (iii) tấn, (iv) chú tâm, (v) trầm tĩnh, (vi) định và (vii) khinh an. Niệm cũng lại xuất hiện như một trong những nhân tố, và lại dẫn đầu nhóm, vì chính là bằng chánh niệm mà con đường giải thoát bắt đầu. Bởi vậy chính do sự tỉnh thức về tình trạng của ta mà sự tiến bộ trên con đường đạo bắt đầu. Sự tiến bộ này giữ vững được do điều tra nghiên cứu – trong trường hợp này, sự điều tra nghiên cứu về những nhân tố.

Tấn phát sinh tại đây như nó phát sinh trong tứ như ý túc, năm căn và năm năng lực. Tấn hết sức cần để giữ vững tiến bộ đạt được trên con đường tinh thần của ta. Thông thường, những cố gắng của chúng ta chỉ xẩy ra từng chặp; chúng ta hết sức cố gắng trong một thời gian ngắn và rồi lại không cố gắng trong một thời gian dài hơn nhiều. Nếu tiến bộ được giữ vững, nó cần phải đều đặn, và tấn góp phần vào việc tiến bộ vững vàng, kiên định theo con đường đạo. Nhân tố thứ tư, chú tâm, cũng là một trong năm nhân tố của nhập định, tràn nhập hỷ lạc, mặc dù nhân này tố có thể được hiểu tốt đúng nhất là chú tâm nhiều hơn là hỷ hay trạng thái mê ly (xem Chương 34).

Trầm tĩnh trong phạm vi này là trầm tĩnh của tâm do loại bỏ những ô trược của vô minh, ác ý, và luyến chấp.

Định đồng nghĩa với nhất tâm là một trong năm nhân tố của nhập định. Khinh an (Thanh thản) là sự loại bỏ khuynh hướng suy nghĩ lan man của tâm. Giống như rất nhiều thuật ngữ Vi Diệu Pháp, khinh an hành hoạt ở một số tầm mức. Ở tầm mức của tưởng, nó có thể là tính trung lập. Ở mức độ trau dồi tứ thiền vô biên xứ (brahmavihara), khinh an là tính điềm tĩnh đối với chúng sinh – không quyến luyến người thân thuộc, và không sân hận đối với kẻ thù. Theo sự phân tích kinh nghiệm cá nhân trong giáo lý về năm uẩn, khinh an là sự làm mất tác dụng của tám điều kiện trần thế (hỷ lạc và đau đớn, được và mất, khen và chê, danh thơm và ô nhục) Nơi đây trong phạm vi thất bồ đề phần của giác ngộ, khinh an là trạng thái tâm vững vàng không lay chuyển hoàn toàn thoát khỏi khuynh hướng quen thói suy nghĩ lan man của tâm.

Ba mươi bẩy yếu tố này được hệ thống hóa, gìn giữ và được dạy bởi các thầy tổ qua nhiều thế hệ vì một lý do duy nhất:

chúng rất hữu ích và lợi lạc trong việc phát triển tâm và đặc biệt là trợ giúp cho sự tiến tới giác ngộ. Dù chúng ta quyết định tập trung vào tứ niệm xứ, tứ chánh cần, tứ như ý túc, năm căn, năm lực, thất bồ đề phần, hay Bát Chánh Đạo Cao Quý, hiểu biết rõ những nhân tố giác ngộ này rõ ràng và ngay tức thì có thể trợ giúp sự tiến tới mục tiêu (giác ngộ) ấy của chúng ta.

• CHƯƠNG BỐN MƯƠI VI DIỆU PHÁP TRONG ĐỜI SỐNG THƯỜNG NHẬT Trong chương này tôi muôn nhắm vào một số khái niệm đã được xem xét từ Chương 30 đến Chương 40, gắn kết chúng với đời sống thường nhật và sự tu tập giáo lý của Đức Phật. Tôi đã bàn thảo Vi Diệu Pháp một cách kỹ lưỡng, và một số tài liệu khá chuyên môn. Mặc dầu có lẽ không thể đem sử dụng đầy đủ điều mà chúng ta đã học, tôi hy vọng nó sẽ vẫn còn được giữ nơi tâm trí bạn, và bạn có thể quay về sử dụng nó khi thời gian qua đi. Tôi muốn bắt đầu bằng cách lưu ý quý bạn về định hướng căn bản của Đức Phật và Phật Giáo đối với toàn bộ vấn đề phát triển tinh thần. Quý bạn sẽ nhớ lại phần lớn trong số ba mươi bẩy nhân tố dẫn đến giác ngộ (xem Chương 40)

nói đến sự nỗ lực và tâm. Phật Giáo bao giờ cũng nhấn mạnh ở hai khía cạnh này, tương phản rõ ràng đối với các truyền thống tôn giáo khác, nơi mà câu trả lời thông thường nhất về vấn đề tiến bộ tinh thần liên quan đến định mệnh hay ân huệ – nói một cách khác, quyền năng nào đó bên ngoài chúng ta (dù là một quyền năng không ám chỉ riêng ai, không nhìn thấy, giống như số phận, hay quyền năng cá nhân như Thượng Đếù), những quyền năng đó quyết định sự tiến bộ và định mệnh của chúng ta. Số phận và ân huệ là những câu trả lời tiêu biểu được tuyên bố bởi những truyền thống khác trong thời Đức Phật và vẫn còn lưu lại cho đến ngày nay. Những cách giải quyết ấy có một điều chung: Chúngï ỷ vào một thứ gì đó ngoài chúng ta, mà chúng ta hầu như không hay không có quyền. Tuy nhiên Đức Phật dạy rằng chính tâm và nỗ lực của chính ta quyết định sự tiến bộ và định mệnh của ta. Tâm và nỗ lực là những bí quyết cho sự tự phát triển như đã được rõ ràng phản ảnh trong ba mươi bẩy yếu tố giác ngộ. Đó là lý do tại sao tâm thường được nói đến là thứ quý giá nhất mà chúng ta có. Tâm đôi khi giống như một hạt ngọc thực hiện được điều mong ước, trong đó nó có thể cho tái sinh vào tình trạng may mắn hay không may mắn. Chính là trên cơ sở của tâm mà ta bước qua ngưỡng cửa cuộc sống có điều kiện và nhập vào cõi siêu trần của các bậc thánh. Chính là tâm quyết định việc này và tâm làm như vậy do hành động cố ý, hay nghiệp – ý chí của tâm được biểu lộ dẫn đến những hoàn cảnh riêng biệt trong đó chúng ta thấy chính mình.

Chúng ta cũng có thể thấy tầm quan trọng của tâm được phản ảnh trong tứ như ý túc (xem Chương 40), tứ như ý túc là những nhân tố tinh thần có thể ảnh hưởng và điều chỉnh vật chất. Điều chúng ta cần làm là tăng cường, trau dồi, và nâng cao tâm. Chúng ta có thấy điều này rõ ràng khi chúng ta nhìn vào năm nhân tố nhập định hay tăng cường và năm chướng ngại, hai khía cạnh của thức thông thường trần cảnh (xem Chương 34). Năm chướng ngại tiêu biểu cho mức phát triển thức rất thấp như thức của súc vật, đầy rẫy những nhân tố ấy. Sự hiện diện của năm chướng ngại có nghĩa tâm ta hoàn toàn bị tùy thuộc điều kiện và bị thao túng bởi những tác nhân kích thích khác nhau.

Đối lập với năm chướng ngại là năm nhân tố nhập định, những nhân tố này cũng hiện diện cả trong thức của súc vật. Năm nhân tố nhập định phản công lại và cuối cùng loại bỏ năm chướng ngại. Bởi vậy chúng ta có thể giảm thiểu sức mạnh kiềm chế của những chướng ngại dù ở mức độ nào đi nữa chúng ta vẫn có thể trau dồi nhập định. Về một ý nghĩa nào đó, chúng ta đang đứng ở bước quyết định. Tất cả mười nhân tố, chướng ngại và nhập định đều hiện diện trong tâm chúng ta, và đó chính là câu hỏi liệu chúng ta có để cho những chướng ngại lấn át, hay phát triển những nhân tố tăng cường để chứng bắt đầu chiếm ưu thế trong tâm chúng ta. Đó là một trận chiến quan trọng vì chừng nào mà những chướng ngại còn chiếm ưu thế chúng ta rất có khả năng thấy kết quả trong kiếp này và kiếp sau, dưới dạng tái sinh vào cõi bất thuận lợi hay thống khổ. Nhưng nếu tâm ta được nâng cao bởi sự trau dồi năm nhân tố của nhập định, chúng ta tiến tới tầm phát triển cao hơn cả trong kiếp này lẫn kiếp sau.

Một khi chúng ta tăng cường và nâng cao sức mạnh của tâm bằng cách phát triển năm nhân tố nhập định, chúng ta có thể thúc đẩy và hướng tâm vào một hướng riêng biệt.

Việc này làm được do sự kiềm chế năm căn: tín, tấn, niệm, định và huệ (xem Chương 40). Ta đã được biết là muốn hành trì Phật Pháp, hai điều thiết yếu là: (1) tín, và (2) huệ.

Huệ là vấn đề chính trong khi tín là điều kiện tiên quyết.

Trong một số truyền thống không phải là Phật Giáo, tín có nghĩa là sự gắn bó mù quáng, nhưng trong truyền thống Phật Giáo, tín có nghĩa tin tưởng vào khả năng thành công.

Nói một cách khác, nếu chúng ta không tin chúng ta có thể thành công, sẽ không có cơ hội đạt được thành công dù chúng ta cố gắng đến thế nào đi nữa. Với ý nghĩa đó hành trì tinh thần mà không có tín giống như hạt giống cháy không bao giờ có thể mọc thành cây tiến bộ tinh thần dù đất có phì nhiêu ra sao hay chúng ta chăm sóc cẩn thận thế nào đi nữa.

Tín và huệ là căn đầu và căn cuối trong năm căn. Cùng nhau với ba căn còn lại, tấn, niệm, và định, chúng hiện diện trong Bát Chánh Đạo Cao Quý (xem Chương 5, 6.và 7). Tấn, niệm và định tương ứng với chánh tinh tấn, chánh niệm, và chánh định trong nhóm phát triển tinh thần của

Bát Chánh Đạo.

Tín liên quan tới nhóm giới luật của Bát Chánh Đạo vì rốt cuộc tín bắt chúng ta phải giữ những luật lệ của giới hạnh và tin vào nghiệp luật vào lúc chúng ta bắt đầu tu tập. Trừ phi và cho đến khi chúng ta đạt được tầm mức thức siêu đẳng (như Đức Phật và các đại đệ tử của Ngài có thể trực tiếp nhận thức được những hậu quả của những hành động thiện và bất thiện), chúng ta phải dựa vào tín để tạo ra nền móng tu tập về giới.

Huệ tương ứng đúng với nhóm huệ của Bát Chánh Đạo.

Cho nên trong năm căn dưới dạng thức phôi thai, chúng ta có tám bước của Bát Chánh Đạo Cao Quý.

Tóm lược, muốn tiến tới mục tiêu giác ngộ, chúng ta cần tăng cường, nâng cao và thức đẩy tâm chúng ta. Phương cách mà chúng ta có thể làm được việc này là (1) trau dồi năm nhân tố nhập định để giảm thiểu ảnh hưởng của năm chướng ngại, và rồi (2) phát triển năm căn và đưa chúng vào việc thực hành Bát Chánh Đạo.

Khi năm căn trở nên không lay chuyển, những căn ấy phát triển thành năm thần thông (xem Chương 40) sinh ra cùng với chúng những trạng thái siêu trần của các bậc thánh.

Huệ, là nhóm cuối cùng trong việc tu tập Bát Chánh Đạo, đặc biệt thích hợp cho sự nghiên cứu Vi Diệu Pháp mà ta đã thực hiện vì huệ là sự hiểu biết về thực tế tối hậu. Khi chúng ta nói về huệ, chúng ta có hai thành tố trong tâm: (1) Vô ngã và (2) tính Không.

Chúng ta đã bàn thảo về phương pháp phân tích và tương quan đối với sự phân tích về kinh nghiệm cá nhân trong giáo lý về vô ngã và giáo lý về lý nhân duyên. Khi chúng ta xét vô ngã, chúng ta cần nghĩ về cái ngã trong quan hệ với năm uẩn. Giống như khái niệm lầm lẫn về con rắn hiện hữu tùy thuộc vào và liên quan đến cái dây trong bóng tối, vậy khi chúng ta nhìn vào cái ngã liên quan với năm uẩn, chúng ta thấy nó không hiện hữu trong bất cứ cách nào. Cái ngã không thể tìm thấy trong bất cứ uẩn nào, thức, tưởng, thọ, hành và sắc. Ngã không kiểm soát uẩn. Nó không kiểm soát tâm mà cũng không kiểm soát thân.

Không có cách nào xác minh cái ngã ở trong hay ở ngoài uẩn.

Vì đã đi tới hiểu biết về vô ngã, chúng ta có thể nhìn vào các uẩn một chút. Ở vấn đề này, chúng ta chuyển sự phân tích kinh nghiệm cá nhân bằng năm uẩn sang sự phân tích năm uẩn bằng lý nhân duyên. Năm uẩn không ngẫu nhiên phát sinh và cũng không bắt đầu không có nguyên nhân. Chúng hình thành một cách lệ thuộc – tùy thuộc vào những ô trược (vô minh, tham lam và luyến chấp) và vào nghiệp, hành (ý muốn) và hữu (bắt đầu trở thành).

Người ta nói rằng lý nhân duyên là một kho báu vĩ đại trong giáo lý của Đức Phật. Hiểu được lý nhân duyên là chìa khóa để mở cái nút giam hãm chúng ta quá lâu trong luân hồi. Chính Đức Phật nói ai thấy lý nhân duyên tức thấy Pháp, và ai thấy Pháp tức thấy Đức Phật. Đó là một nhận xét rất khích lệ, vì nếu chúng ta bắt đầu thấy kinh nghiệm thường nhật bằng lý nhân duyên – bằng bản chất có điều kiện, tương quan và trống rỗng của những nhân tố kinh nghiệm – chúng ta sẽ thấy Pháp, và do thấy Pháp, chúng ta sẽ thấy Phật. Và không còn đúng để nói rằng chúng ta là không thể nhìn thấy Phật, Đức Phật không hiện diện ngay đây.

Tôi hy vọng rằng việc nghiên cứu về Vi Diệu Pháp sẽ không còn là sự rèn luyện trí tuệ, mà đem áp dụng vào đời sống thường nhật dù ít oi. Mặc dù có thể là rất khó khăn áp dụng mọi thứ trong suốt mười hai chương sau cùng, tôi nghĩ rằng tất cả chúng ta đã nghiên cứu Vi Diệu Pháp sẽ không còn lầm lẫn suy nghĩ về thực tế bằng một cái ngã nhất thể, độc lập và thường còn và những đối tượng thiết yếu thực chất chung quanh chúng ta. Tới lúc chúng ta đã hướng tới một cách mới để hiểu biết thực tế bằng những nhân tố và chức năng là tùy thuộc và tương quan, chúng ta đã hướng tới cách thấy Pháp và Đức Phật.

• Vài nét về Tác giả Tiến sĩ Peter Della Santina sinh trưởng tại Hoa Kỳ. Ông đã bỏ nhiều năm nghiên cứu và dạy tại Đông Nam Á Châu. Ông đậu cử nhân về tôn giáo tại Đại Học Wesleyan, Middgletown, Connecticut năm 1972 và thạc sĩ về Triết học tai Đại Học New Delhi hai năm sau. Ông đậu tiến sĩ về Phật học cũng tại Đại Học New Delhi, Ấn Độ năm 1979. Ông làm việc ba năm tại Viện Nghiên Cứu Cấp Cao về Tôn Giáo Thế Giới, Fort Lee, New Jersey với tư cách là một học giả nghiên cứu phiên dịch những kinh điển triết học Phật Giáo Tây Tạng thế kỷ thứ Tám. Ông dạy tại một số trường Đại Học và Trung Tâm Phật Giáo tại Âu Châu, và Á Châu, như Đại Học Pisa tại Ý, Đại Học Quốc Gia tại Singapore và Viện Tibet House ở Delhi Ấn Độ. Ông là phối hợp viên của chương trình Phật Học tại Viện Phát Triển Chương Trình Giảng Dạy tại Singapore, thuộc Bộ Giáo Dục từ năm 1983 tới năm 1985.

Mới đây ông là thành viên cao cấp tại Viện Nghiên Cứu Cấp Cao Simla, Ấn Độ và dạy triết tại Hàn Lâm Viện Fo Kuang Shan về Phật Giáo Trung Hoa tại Kaoh-shiung, Đài

Loan.

Trong hai mươi lăm năm, ông là học trò của Đức Sakya Trizin, nhà lãnh đạo dòng tu Sakya của Phật Giáo Tây Tạng, một dòng tu nổi tiếng của truyền thống Sakya. Ông đã tu tập hành thiền và đã hoàn tất một số nhập thất.

Ông đã xuất bản một số sách và những bài viết có tính cách học thuật gồm có "Thư của Nagarjuna (Long Thọ) gửi Hoàng Đế Gautamiputra", tại Delhi năm 1978 và 1982, và "Các Trường Phái Madhyamaka tại Ấn Độ" tại Delhi năm 1986, "Madhyamaka và Triết Lý Tây Phuơng Hiện Đại", nhà xuất bản Triết Lý Đông và Tây, Hawaii, năm 1986. • Vài nét về Thượng Tọa Thích Tâm Quang

THÂN THẾ Thượng tọa có thế danh là Nguyễn Hữu Vũ, pháp danh Minh Phát, và pháp tự là Thích Tâm Quang, thuộc dòng Lâm Tế Chánh Tông thứ 45. Thầy sinh năm Giáp Tý (1924), nguyên quán ở Quận Hoàn Long, Hà Nội, là con trai trưởng trong một gia đình có sáu anh chị em, gồm ba trai ba gái.

Sinh trưởng trong một gia đình nề nếp theo đạo Phật, ngay từ thuở bé đã theo bố mẹ đi chùa lễ bái cúng Phật thường xuyên vào những ngày Rằm và mồng Một mỗi tháng. Lớn lên, Thầy theo học chương trình Pháp văn nên rất thông thạo tiếng Pháp.

Thầy cùng gia đình di cư vào miền Nam năm 1955; tham gia quân đội, phục vụ Cục Mãi Dịch và là sĩ quan đại diện Phật Giáo của Cục này. Năm 1965, giải ngũ với cấp bậc Đại Úy. Sau đó, Thầy làm việc cho một cơ quan Hoa Kỳ tại Sài Gòn. Nhờ đó, Thầy được trau dồi thêm khả năng phiên dịch Anh ngữ.

Năm 1975, Thầy cùng gia đình sang định cư tại Hoa Kỳ, ở Quận hạt Fresno, Tiểu bang California. Vừa đến Fresno là Thầy được nhận vào làm việc với cơ quan tài chánh quận này cho đến ngày về hưu trí năm 1987. Nhờ duyên lành, Thầy được gặp Hòa thượng Thích Đức Niệm năm 1979, và được Hòa thượng dìu dắt học Phật và làm Phật sự tại đây. Sau thời gian tu tập và làm Phật sự gần một năm, Hòa thượng Thích Đức Niệm nhận thấy Thầy đã có cơ duyên với Phật Pháp nên hướng dẫn cho quy y Tam Bảo, với pháp danh là Minh Phát.

CÔNG TÁC PHẬT SỰ Nhờ có tâm thành với Phật Pháp, lại được sự dìu dắt ân cần của Hòa thượng Bổn Sư, nên Thầy đã cùng với một số Phật tử tại quận hạt Fresno mua được một ngôi nhà cũ nhỏ để cải gia vi tự với tên là Chùa Tam Bảo. Khi còn là Phật tử tại gia, Thầy rất cần mẫn và nhiệt thành với Phật sự trong cương vị Hội Trưởng Hội Phật Giáo Việt Nam vùng Central Valley, California. Vì không có trụ trì nên ban ngày thì đi làm, tối về ngủ luôn tại chùa, lo kinh kệ và hương đèn sớm hôm cúng Phật như một vị hộ tự. Người Việt định cư tại đấy đều mến mộ. Nhờ đó, ngôi chùa Tam Bảo ngày càng vững mạnh thêm.

Sau khi nghĩ hưu, Thầy đích thân đến Phật Học Viện Quốc Tế, đảnh lễ Hòa thượng Bổn Sư và xin được xuất gia đầu Phật. Tháng Sáu năm 1988, bổn sư nhận thấy có khả năng kham lãnh giới pháp nên cho phép đăng đàn thọ giới Cụ túc và Bồ Tát giới cùng một lần. Hòa thượng Thích Đức Niệm làm Đàn Đầu truyền giới, Hòa thượng Thích Trí Chơn làm Yết Ma A xa lê sư, và Thượng tọa Thích Tín Nghĩa làm Giáo Thọ A xà lê sư. Sau khi đắc giới, bổn sư cho trở lại Chùa Tam Bảo, vừa để trông coi ngôi già lam vừa cấm túc ba tháng tụng kinh và lạy Hồng Danh Bảo Sám. Mãn hạ, lại trở lại Phật Học Viện để đảnh lễ Bổn Sư và Đại Chúng là đã làm tròn bổn phận một phần nào trong sự bái sám theo sự chỉ dẫn của bổn sư.

Kể từ khi phát tâm xuất gia, cầu thọ giới pháp, Thầy không lúc nào là không để tâm cho Phật Pháp, từ những việc của Chùa Tam Bảo, Fresno, cho đến những đóng góp khiêm tốn theo hạnh nguyện của Thầy với Giáo Hội.

Đầu năm 1995, Thầy phát động xây cất chùa mới. Ngôi chùa Tam Bảo thật sự đã hình thành. Chùa Tam Bảo mới nầy được xây cất tuy không to lớn đồ sộ nguy nga, nhưng khang trang và đẹp đẽ, hợp pháp nơi xứ người, với những nét đặc thù văn hóa Việt Nam và Phật Giáo. Trong khuôn viên chùa, còn có Ngôi Bảo Tháp bảy tầng để thờ xá lợi Phật và Đài Quán Thế Âm lộ thiên. Ngôi già lam này không những chỉ đáp ứng cho nhu cầu Phật Sự tại địa phương mà còn là một di tích lịch sử quý giá về việc hoằng pháp lợi sanh trong tương lai cho đàn hậu tấn ở xứ người. Đây là một thành quả đáng kể và xứng đáng với hạnh nguyện xuất gia của Thượng tọa Tâm

Quang.

HOẠT ĐỘNG VĂN HÓA Song song với công tác Phật Sự, như lo xây cất Ngôi Bảo Điện, Tháp thờ Xá Lợi, Đài Quán Âm Lộ Thiên, v.v..., Thượng tọa còn dấn thân vào công tác Phật Sự của Giáo Hội Phật Giáo Việt Nam Thống Nhất tại Hoa Kỳ. Ngoài nhiệm vụ Phụ Tá Đặc Biệt của Hòa thượng Thích Đức Niệm, Chánh Văn Phòng Hội Đồng Đại Diện, Thượng tọa Tâm Quang còn dành ra một số thời gian rất lớn cho các hoạt động văn hóa, nhất là về mặt dịch thuật kinh sách. Thầy chú tâm vào công tác dịch thuật những tác phẩm nổi tiếng của các bậc cao tăng chơn tu. Đa phần những dịch phẩm đều có dạng song ngữ Anh-Việt.

Phần chuyển ngữ từ Anh Văn sang Việt Văn: - Ba Ngàn Năm Một Kiếp Luân Hồi - Những Chuyên Luân Hồi Hiện Đại - Người Chết Vẫn Sống Phần Song Ngữ Anh-Việt:

- Nền Tảng Của Đạo Phật - Hạnh Phúc Lứa Đôi - Làm Sao Khỏi Sợ Hãi và Lo Lắng - Đạo Phật và Đời Sống Hiện Đại - Làm Sao Thực Hành Lời Phật Dạy - Chúng Ta Phải Làm Gì Trước Những Tệ Nạn Xã Hội - Chết Có Thật Đáng Sợ Không

- Vì Sao Tin Phật, 3 tập - Khoa Học Dưới Lăng Kính Phật Giáo - Những Hạt Ngọc Trí Tuệ Phật Giáo, 3 tập

- Cây Giác Ngộ, 3 tập - Nghệ Thật Tạo Hạnh Phúc, 2 tập.

Với hạnh nguyện, sự tu tập hành trì giới luật, và công tác Phật sự đã và đang đóng góp, vào tháng 9 năm 1998, Thầy được bổn sư tấn phong lên hàng Thượng Tọa trong Đại Hội Thường Niên Năm Thứ Hai, nhiệm Kỳ Hai, tại Tổ Đình Từ Đàm Hải Ngoại. Thượng tọa đã được chư tôn giáo phẩm tán dương và hoan hỷ. Theo lời của Thượng tọa

Thích Tín Nghĩa:

– "Thượng tọa Thích Tâm Quang, xứng đáng có một chỗ đứng trong hàng ngũ Tăng Già tại Hải ngoại, đặc biệt là phần kiến tạo Ngôi Già Lam Tam Bảo tại Quận Hạt Fresno, Tiểu Bang California cũng như phần đóng góp tích cực về Văn Hóa Phật Giáo qua những dịch phẩm vô cùng quý giá để lại cho đời và đạo. Tôi, Tỳ Kheo Thích Tín Nghĩa, đã từng hướng dẫn Thượng tọa trong thời gian chưa xuất gia khi còn là một cư sĩ thuần cẩn trong cương vị Hội Trưởng Hội Phật Giáo Việt Nam Vùng Central Valley California và Chùa Tam Bảo, xin có đôi lời chúc mừng và tán dương Thượng tọa Thích Tâm Quang."

Bình Anson ghi chép, Perth, Western Australia Tháng 3-2003

Pháp thí thắng mọi thí

Sabbadānaṃ dhammadānaṃ jināti

SÁCH ẤN TỐNG

KHÔNG BÁN

Peter Della Santina

The

Tree of

Enlightenment

An Introduction to the Major

Traditions of Buddhism

Chico Dharma Study Foundation

1997

Copyright © by Peter Della Santina

About the Author

Peter Della Santina was born in the USA. He has spent

many years studying and teaching in South and East Asia. He received his BA. in religion from Wesleyan University,

Middletown, Connecticut, USA in 1972 and a MA in philoso-

phy from the University of Delhi, India two years later. He did

his Ph.D. in Buddhist Studies also from the University of Delhi, India in 1979.

He worked for three years for the Institute for Advanced

Studies of world Religions, Fort Lee, New Jersey as a research

scholar translating 8th century Buddhist philosophical texts from

the Tibetan. He taught at several Universities and Buddhist cen-

ters in Europe and Asia including, the University of Pisa in Italy, the National University of Singapore and Tibet House in Delhi,

India. He was the Coordinator of the Buddhist Studies pro-

ject at the Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore, a

department of the Ministry of Education from 1983 to 1985.

More recently, he was a senior fellow at the Indian Institute

of Advanced Study, Simla, India and taught Philosophy at the

Fo Kuang Shan Academy of Chinese Buddhism, Kaoh-shiung,

Taiwan.

For twenty-five years Peter Della Santina has been a student

of H.H. Sakya Trizin, leader of the Sakya Order of Tibetan

Buddhism and of eminent abets of the Sakya Tradition. He

has practiced Buddhist meditation and has completed a num-

ber of retreats.

viii

He has published several books and articles in academic

journals including Nagarjuna’s Letter to King Gautamiputra,

Delhi 1978 and 1982 and Madhyamaka Schools In India, Delhi

1986 and the Madhyamaka and Modern Western Philosophy, Philosophy East and West, Hawaii, 1986.

ix

Author’s Note

From 1983 to 1985 when I was in Singapore engaged in the

Buddhist studies project at the Curriculum Development

Institute, I was invited by the Srilankaramaya Buddhist Temple

and a number of Buddhist friends to deliver four series of lec-

tures covering some of the major traditions of Buddhism. The

lectures were popular, and thanks to the efforts of Mr. Yeo Eng

Chen and others, they were recorded, transcribed and printed

for limited free distribution to students of the Dharma. In the

years since, the lectures which originally appeared in the form

of four separate booklets have remained popular and have even

been reprinted from time to time. Consequently, it seemed to

me to be desirable to collect the four series of lectures in one vol-

ume, and after appropriate revision to publish them for the gen-

eral use of the public.

In keeping with the original objectives of the lectures, this

book is – as far as possible – non-technical. It is intended for ordi-

nary readers not having any special expertise in Buddhist stud-

ies or in Buddhist canonical languages. Original language terms

have therefore been kept to a minimum and foot notes have been

avoided. Names of texts cited are sometimes left untranslated,

but this is because the English renderings of some titles are awk-

ward and hardly make their subject matter more clear. In brief

I hope that this book will serve as the beginning of its readers’

Buddhist education and not the end of it. The book can supply

a general introduction to the major traditions of Buddhism, but

x

it does not pretend to be complete or definitive. Neither can I

honestly affirm that it is altogether free from errors, and there-

fore I apologize in advance for any that may remain in spite of

my best efforts.

A number of original language terms and personal names

which have by now entered the English language such as

‘Dharma’, ‘karma’, ‘Nirvana’ and ‘Shakyamuni’ have been used

throughout the book in their Sanskrit forms. As for the rest, Pali

original language terms, text titles and personal names have been

retained in parts I and IV which are largely based on Pali sources,

while Sanskrit original language technical terms, text titles and

personal names have been used in parts II and III which are

largely based on Sanskrit and Tibetan sources. Occasionally, this

general rule has been ignored when the names of texts and per-

sons referred to in a given context actually occur in another one

of the canonical languages. In as much as Pali and Sanskrit are

in most cases quite similar, I trust the average reader will have

no difficulty in coping with this arrangement.

I owe a great debt to a very large number of people for the

realization of this book. First and foremost, I would like to thank

H.H. Sakya Trizin without whom my interest in Buddhism

might well have remained superficial and merely intellectual.

Next I would like to thank Yeo Eng Chen and many other mem-

bers of the Singapore Buddhist community without whose help

and encouragement the lectures would never have been delivered

and the original transcripts on which this book is based, never

made. Then, I would also like to thank a great many friends

and students in Asia, Europe and America who encouraged me

to think the lectures might be useful for an even wider reader-

xi

ship. Finally, I want to thank all those who have been involved

in the actual preparation of the present book. They include, the

members of the Chico Dharma study group, specially, Jo and

Jim Murphy, Victoria Scott for her help with the manuscript,

L. Jamspal for his help with the original language terms, my

wife Krishna Ghosh for the many hours she spent checking the

manuscript, and my son Siddhartha Della Santina for the cover

design and formatting of the manuscript.

In conclusion, I would like to add that by offering this book

to the public, the Chico Dharma Study Group hopes to ini-

tiate a program whereby Buddhist Studies materials may be

made available free of commercial considerations to students of

Buddhism through a variety of media. For the time being, the

present book will be available not only in hard copy, but also

over the internet. In the future, the Chico Dharma Study Group

plans to produce and make available important materials in the

fields of Buddhist philosophy, practice and folk lore, including

materials for children and young adults. We welcome the help

of anyone who would like to contribute in any way to the edu-

cational activities of the group and we invite you to contact us

with your suggestions.

Peter Della Santina

7 July, 1997 Chico, California, USA.

Chico Dharma Study Group

26 Kirk Way, Chico, CA. 95928

U.S.A.

E-mail: dsantina@ecst.csuchico.edu

www: http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~dsantina/

xii

Part One

The Fundamentals of Buddhism

CHAPTER ONE

Buddhism: A Modern Perspective

In Part One of this book, it is my intention to cover what I

would like to call the fundamentals of Buddhism, that is, the

basic teaching of Buddhism. This survey will include the Life of

the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path,

karma, rebirth, interdependent origination, the three universal

characteristics, and the teaching of the five aggregates. Before

the actual treatment of these basic topics, I would like to deal

first with the notion of Buddhism in perspective, and that a mod-

ern perspective. There are many ways in which people of differ-

ent times and different cultures have approached Buddhism, but

I believe it may be especially useful to contrast the modern atti-

tude toward Buddhism with the traditional attitude toward it.

This kind of comparative consideration may prove useful because

understanding how people of different times and cultures view a

particular phenomenon can begin to show us the limitations of

our own particular perspective.

Buddhism has awakened considerable interest in the West,

and there are many persons who enjoy positions of some note

in western society who are either Buddhist or sympathetic to

Buddhism. This is perhaps most clearly exemplified by the

remark said to have been made by the great twentieth-century

scientist Albert Einstein, that although he was not a religious

man, if he had been one, he would have been a Buddhist. At

first glance it may seem surprising that such a remark should

be made by one regarded as the father of modern western sci-

14

ence. However, if we look more closely at contemporary west-

ern society, we find a Buddhist astrophysicist in France, a psy-

chologist who is a Buddhist in Italy, and a leading English

judge who is one, too. Indeed, it would not be too much to say

that Buddhism is fast becoming the favorite choice of western-

ers who belong to the elite in the areas of science and art. I will

look at the reasons for this in a moment, but before doing so, I

would like to compare this situation with that found in tradi-

tionally Buddhist communities and countries. Take, for exam-

ple, the situation among the traditionally Buddhist communi-

ties of Southeast and East Asia.

In Europe and America, Buddhism is generally believed to

be more than usually advanced in its thought, rigorously ratio-

nal, and sophisticated. I will not attempt to conceal the fact that

it came as quite a shock to me when I first went to Southeast

Asia and found that many people there view Buddhism as old-

fashioned, irrational, and bound up with outdated superstitions.

This is one of two prevalent attitudes that obstruct the appreci-

ation of Buddhism in such traditionally Buddhist communities.

The other popular misconception that afflicts Buddhism in such

communities is the notion that it is so deep and so abstract that

no one can ever possibly understand it. Perhaps it is the intel-

lectual arrogance of the West that has saved Europeans and

Americans from this aberration. In short, when I look at the

common attitudes prevailing in the West and in the East toward

Buddhism, I find a radical contrast. This is why I want to begin

our examination of Buddhism with a consideration of alterna-

tive perspectives.

In the West, Buddhism has a certain image in the popular

15

mind, while in traditionally Buddhist communities, Buddhism

has an altogether different image. The dismissive attitude that

prevails in such communities has to be overcome before people

there can really begin to appreciate the teaching of the Buddha.

In this way people everywhere can acquire the balanced perspec-

tive needed to approach Buddhism without prejudice and pre-

conceived ideas. Consequently, this introduction to Buddhism

is intended not only for people in the West but also for people

in traditionally Buddhist communities who may have become

estranged from the religion for a variety of social and cultural

reasons. It should also be said, of course, that the image of

Buddhism common in the West may be limited in its own way,

but I hope that, in the chapters that follow, a clear and objective

presentation of the traditions of Buddhism will, finally, emerge.

For the moment, to turn again to the western attitude

toward Buddhism, one of the first features we can appreciate

about it is the fact that it is not culture-bound, that is to say, it

is not restricted to any particular society, race, or ethnic group.

There are some religions that are culture-bound: Judaism is one

example; Hinduism is another. However, Buddhism is not sim-

ilarly constrained. That is why, historically, we have had the

development of Indian Buddhism, Sri Lankan Buddhism, Thai

Buddhism, Burmese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Japanese

Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and so on. In the near future,

I have no doubt that we will see the emergence of English

Buddhism, French Buddhism, Italian Buddhism, American

Buddhism, and the like. All this is possible because Buddhism

is not culture-bound. It moves very easily from one cultural con-

text to another because its emphasis is on internal practice rather

16

than external forms of religious behavior. Its emphasis is on the

way each practitioner develops his or her own mind, not on how

he dresses, the kind of food he eats, the way he wears his hair, and so forth.

The second point to which I would like to draw your atten-

tion is the pragmatism of Buddhism, that is to say, its practical

orientation. Buddhism addresses a practical problem. It is not

interested in academic questions and metaphysical theories. The

Buddhist approach is to identify a real problem and deal with it

in a practical way. Again, this attitude is very much in keeping

with western conceptions of utilitarianism and scientific prob-

lem-solving. Very briefly, we might say the Buddhist approach

is encapsulated in the maxim, “If it works, use it.” This attitude

is an integral part of modern western political, economic, and

scientific practice.

The pragmatic approach of Buddhism is expressed very

clearly in the Chulamalunkya Sutta, a discourse in which the

Buddha himself made use of the parable of a wounded man. In

the story, a man wounded by an arrow wishes to know who shot

the arrow, the direction from which it came, whether the arrow-

head is bone or iron, and whether the shaft is one kind of wood

or another before he will let the arrow be removed. His attitude

is likened to that of people who want to know about the ori-

gin of the universe – whether it is eternal or not, finite in space

or not, and so on – before they will undertake to practice a reli-

gion. Such people will die before they ever have the answers to

all their irrelevant questions, just as the man in the parable will

die before he has all the answers he seeks about the origin and

nature of the arrow.

17

This story illustrates the practical orientation of the Buddha

and Buddhism. It has a great deal to tell us about the whole

question of priorities and scientific problem-solving. We will not

make much progress in the development of wisdom if we ask the

wrong questions. It is essentially a matter of priorities. The first

priority for all of us is the reduction and eventual elimination of

suffering. The Buddha recognized this and consequently pointed

out the futility of speculating about the origin and nature of the

universe – precisely because, like the man in the parable, we have

all been struck down by an arrow, the arrow of suffering.

Thus we must ask questions that are directly related to the

removal of the arrow of suffering and not waste our precious

time on irrelevant inquiries. This idea can be expressed in a very

simple way. We can all see that, in our daily lives, we constantly

make choices based on priorities. For instance, suppose you are

cooking and decide that, while the pot of beans is boiling, you

will dust the furniture or sweep the floor. But as you are occu-

pied with this task, you suddenly smell something burning: you

then have to choose whether to carry on with your dusting or

sweeping or go immediately to the stove to turn down the flame

and thereby save your dinner. In the same way, if we want to

make progress toward wisdom, we must clearly recognize our

priorities. This point is made very nicely in the parable of the

wounded man.

The third point I would like to discuss is the teaching on the

importance of verifying the truth by means of recourse to per-

sonal experience. This point is made very clearly by the Buddha

in his advice to the Kalamas contained in the Kesaputtiya Sutta.

The Kalamas were a community of town-dwellers in some ways

18

very much like people in the contemporary world, who are

exposed to so many different and often conflicting versions of

the truth. They went to the Buddha and asked him how they

were to judge the truth of the conflicting claims made by various

religious teachers. The Buddha told them not to accept anything

merely on the basis of purported authority, nor to accept any-

thing simply because it is contained in sacred text, nor to accept

anything on the basis of common opinion, nor because it seems

reasonable, nor yet again because of reverence for a teacher. He

even went so far as to advise them not to accept his own teaching

without verification of its truth through personal experience.

The Buddha asked the Kalamas to test whatever they might

hear in the light of their own experience. Only when they came

to know for themselves that such and such things were harm-

ful should they seek to abandon them. Alternatively, when they

came to know for themselves that certain things were benefi-

cial – that they were conducive to peace and tranquillity – then

they should seek to cultivate them. We, too, must judge the

truth of whatever we are taught in the light of our own personal

experience.

In his advice to the Kalamas, I think we can see clearly the

Buddha’s doctrine of self-reliance in the acquisition of know-

ledge. We ought to use our own minds as a kind of private test

tube. We can all see for ourselves that when greed and anger are

present in our minds, they lead to disquiet and suffering. By the

same token, we can all see for ourselves that when greed and

anger are absent from our minds, it results in tranquillity and

happiness. This is a very simple personal experiment that we can

all do. The verification of the validity of teachings in the light of

19

one’s own personal experience is very important, because what

the Buddha taught will only be effective, will only really succeed

in changing our lives, if we can carry out this kind of personal

experiment and make the teaching our very own. Only when we

can verify the truth of the Buddha’s teachings by recourse to our

own experience can we be sure that we are making progress on

the path to the elimination of suffering.

Again we can see a striking similarity between the approach

of the Buddha and the scientific approach to the quest for know-

ledge. The Buddha stressed the importance of objective obser-

vation, which is in a sense the key to the Buddhist method for

acquiring knowledge. It is objective observation that yields the

first of the Four Noble Truths, the truth of suffering; it is obser-

vation that verifies one’s progress along the steps of the path; and

it is observation that confirms the realization of the complete

cessation of suffering. Therefore, at the beginning, in the mid-

dle, and at the end of the Buddhist path to liberation, the role of

observation is essential.

This is not very different from the role played by objective

observation in the scientific tradition of the West. The scien-

tific tradition teaches that when we observe a problem, we must

first formulate a general theory and then a specific hypothe-

sis. The same procedure obtains in the case of the Four Noble

Truths. Here the general theory is that all things must have a

cause, while the specific hypothesis is that the cause of suffering

is craving and ignorance (the second noble truth). This hypothe-

sis can be verified by the experimental method embodied in the

steps of the Eightfold Path. By means of the steps of this path,

the soundness of the second noble truth can be established. In

20

addition, the reality of the third noble truth, the cessation of

suffering, can be verified, because through cultivating the path

craving and ignorance are eliminated and the supreme happi-

ness of nirvana is attained. This experimental process is repeat-

able, in keeping with sound scientific practice: not only did the

Buddha attain the end of suffering but so, too, we can see his-

torically, did all those who followed his path to the end.

Therefore, when we look closely at the teaching of the

Buddha, we find that his approach has a great deal in com-

mon with the approach of science. This has naturally aroused

a tremendous amount of interest in Buddhism among modern-

minded people. We can begin to see why Einstein was able to

make a remark like the one credited to him. The general agree-

ment between the Buddhist approach and that of modern sci-

ence will become even clearer when we examine the Buddhist

attitude toward the facts of experience, which, like that of sci-

ence, is analytical.

According to the teaching of the Buddha, the data of expe-

rience are divided into two components, the objective compo-

nent and the subjective component; in other words, the things

we perceive around us, and we ourselves, the subjective perceiv-

ers. Buddhism has long been noted for its analytical approach in

the fields of philosophy and psychology. What is meant by this

is that the Buddha analyzed the facts of experience into vari-

ous components or factors. The most basic of these components

are the five aggregates: form, feeling, perception, volition, and

consciousness. These five aggregates can be viewed in terms of

the eighteen elements, and there is also an even more elaborate

analysis in terms of the seventy-two factors.

21

The procedure adopted here is analytical inasmuch as it

breaks up the data of experience into their various compo-

nents. The Buddha was not satisfied with a vague conception

of experience in general; rather, he analyzed experience, probed

its essence, and broke it down into its components, just as we

might break down the phenomenon of a chariot into the wheels,

the axle, the body, and so forth. The object of this exercise is to

gain a better idea of how these phenomena function. When, for

instance, we see a flower, hear a piece of music, or meet with a

friend, all these experiences arise as the direct result of a combi-

nation of component elements.

This has been called the analytical approach of Buddhism,

and again, it is not at all strange to modern science and philos-

ophy. We find the analytical approach very widely applied in

science, while in philosophy the analytical approach has char-

acterized the thought of many European philosophers, perhaps

most clearly and recently that of Bertrand Russell. Studies have

been done comparing his analytical philosophy quite success-

fully with that of early Buddhism. Consequently, in western sci-

ence and philosophy, we find a very close parallel to the analyt-

ical method as it is taught within the Buddhist tradition. This is

one of the familiar and recognizable features that has attracted

modern western intellectuals and academics to Buddhist phi-

losophy. Modern psychologists, too, are now deeply interested

in the Buddhist analysis of the various factors of consciousness:

feeling, perception, and volition. They are turning in increasing

numbers to the ancient teaching of the Buddha to gain greater

insight into their own discipline.

This growing interest in the teaching of the Buddha – provoked

22

by these many areas of affinity between Buddhist thought and

the major currents of modern science, philosophy, and psycholo-

gy – has reached its apex in the twentieth century with the star-

tling suggestions advanced by relativity theory and quantum

physics, which represent the very latest developments in exper-

imental and theoretical science. Here, again, it is evident not

only that the Buddha anticipated the primary methods of sci-

ence (namely, observation, experimentation, and analysis), but

also that, in some of their most specific conclusions about the

nature of man and the universe, Buddhism and science actually

coincide.

For example, the importance of consciousness in the for-

mation of experience, so long ignored in the West, has now

been recognized. Not long ago, a noted physicist remarked that

the universe may really be just something like a great thought.

This very clearly follows in the footsteps of the teaching of the

Buddha expressed in the Dhammapada, where it is said that the

mind is the maker of all things. Likewise, the relativity of mat-

ter and energy – the recognition that there is no radical division

between mind and matter – has now been confirmed by the most

recent developments in modern experimental science.

The consequence of all this is that, in the context of contem-

porary western culture, scientists, psychologists, and philoso-

phers have found in Buddhism a tradition in harmony with some

of the most basic principles of western thought. In addition, they

find Buddhism particularly interesting because, although the

principal methods and conclusions of the western scientific tra-

dition often closely resemble those of Buddhism, western science

has thus far suggested no practical way of achieving an inner

23

transformation, whereas in Buddhism such a way is clearly indi-

cated. While science has taught us to build better cities, express-

ways, factories, and farms, it has not taught us to build better

people. Therefore people in the contemporary world are turn-

ing to Buddhism, an ancient philosophy that has many features

in common with the western scientific tradition but that goes

beyond the materialism of the West, beyond the limits of prac-

tical science as we have known it thus far.

24

CHAPTER T WO

The Pre-Buddhist Background

Although studies of Buddhism usually begin with the life of

the Buddha, the historical founder of the faith, I would like

first to examine the situation that prevailed in India before the

time of the Buddha, that is to say, the pre-Buddhist background

of Buddhism. I personally believe such an examination to be

particularly helpful because it enables us to understand the life

and teaching of the Buddha in a broader historical and cultural

context. This sort of retrospective examination can help us better

understand the nature of Buddhism in particular, and perhaps, too, the nature of Indian philosophy and religion in general.

I would like to begin our examination of the origin and

development of Indian philosophy and religion with a geo-

graphical analogy. In the north of the Indian subcontinent are

two great rivers, the Ganges and the Yamuna. These two great

rivers have separate sources in the high Himalayas, and their

courses remain quite separate for the better part of their great

length. Gradually they draw nearer to each other and eventually

unite in the plains of northern India, near the city now known as

Allahabad. From their point of confluence they flow on together

until they empty into the Bay of Bengal.

The geography of these two great rivers exemplifies the ori-

gin and development of Indian philosophy and religion because

in Indian culture, as in Indian geography, there are two great

currents of thought that were originally quite different and dis-

tinct in character. For many centuries the course of these two

25

remained separate and distinct, but eventually they drew closer

together, merged, and continued to flow on together, almost

indistinguishable from each other, right up to the present day.

Perhaps as we proceed with our examination of the pre-Buddhist

culture of India, we can bear in mind the image of these rivers

whose origins were separate, but which at a certain point merged

and continued together to the sea.

When we look into the very early history of India, we find

that, in the third millennium b.c.e., there was a very highly

developed civilization on the subcontinent. This civilization was

easily as old as those which are called the cradles of human cul-

ture, such as the civilizations of Egypt and Babylon. It flour-

ished from about 2800 to 1800 b.c.e. and was known as the

Indus Valley, or the Harappan, civilization. It extended from

what is now western Pakistan south to a point near present-day

Bombay and east to a point near Shimla, in the foothills of the

Himalayas.

If you look at a map of Asia, you will at once realize that

the geographical extent of the Indus Valley civilization was

immense. And not only was this civilization stable for a thou-

sand years, it was also very advanced, both materially and spiri-

tually. Materially, the Indus Valley civilization was agrarian and

exhibited a great degree of skill in irrigation and urban planning.

There is evidence that the people of this civilization had evolved

a system of mathematics based on a binary model – the same

model employed in modern computing. The Indus Valley civi-

lization was literate and developed a script that remains largely

undeciphered to date. (The meaning of the Indus Valley script is

one of the great unsolved mysteries of linguistic archaeology.) In

26

addition, there is ample evidence that the civilization enjoyed a

very highly developed spiritual culture. Archaeological discov-

eries at two major sites, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, bear wit-

ness to this.

The peaceful unfolding of the life of this great ancient civi-

lization was rather abruptly interrupted sometime between 1800

and 1500 b.c.e., either by some natural disaster or by an invasion.

What is certain is that, simultaneous with or very soon after the

demise of the Indus Valley civilization, the subcontinent was

invaded from the northwest – just as, centuries later, Muslim

invaders were to come from that direction. The invading people

were known as Aryans. This term designated a people who orig-

inally belonged to a region somewhere in Eastern Europe, per-

haps the steppes of modern Poland and the Ukraine. The Aryans

were very different from the people of the Indus Valley civiliza-

tion. Whereas the latter had been agrarian and sedentary, the

Aryans were nomadic and pastoral. They were unused to urban

life. A warlike and expansionist people, they lived in large part

on the spoils of conquest won from the peoples they subjugated

in the course of their migrations. When the Aryans arrived in

India, they very soon became the dominant civilization, and

after the middle of the second millennium b.c.e., Indian society

was largely dominated by Aryan values.

Let us now look at the religious attitudes of the people of

the Indus Valley civilization and of the Aryan civilization. This

is of particular interest to us. As I have said, the Indus Valley

civilization had a written language which we have thus far been

unable to decipher. Nonetheless, our knowledge of the civiliza-

tion is derived from two reliable sources: the archaeological dis-

27

coveries at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and the written records

of the Aryans, who described the religious behavior and beliefs

of the people they came to dominate.

Archaeological excavations have revealed a number of sym-

bols important to the people of the Indus Valley civilization.

These symbols have religious significance and are also sacred

to Buddhism. They include the pipal tree (later known as the

bodhi tree, or ficus religiosa), and animals such as the elephant

and deer. Perhaps most significant, the image of a human figure

has been found that is seated in a cross-legged posture, hands

resting on the knees and eyes narrowed – clearly suggestive of

the attitude of meditation. With the help of these archaeologi-

cal discoveries and other evidence, eminent scholars have con-

cluded that the origins of the practices of yoga and meditation

can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization. Moreover, when

we study the descriptions of the religious practices of the peo-

ple of the Indus Valley civilization found in the written records

of the early Aryans, the Vedas, we find the figure of the wander-

ing ascetic frequently mentioned. These ascetics are said to have

practiced methods of mind training, to have been celibate, naked

or clothed in the most meager of garments, to have had no fixed

abode, and to have taught the way beyond birth and death.

Putting together the evidence gathered from the archaeo-

logical findings at the major sites of the Indus Valley civilization

and that found in the early records of the Aryans, the picture

that emerges of the religious attitudes and practices of the peo-

ple of the Indus Valley civilization, while sketchy, is clear enough

in its essentials. The religion of the Indus Valley civilization evi-

dently contained several important elements. First of all, medi-

28

tation, or the practice of training the mind, was clearly pres-

ent. Second, the practice of renunciation – that is to say, aban-

doning household life and living the life of a homeless ascetic,

or mendicant – was also common. Third, it is clear that there

was some conception of rebirth or reincarnation occurring over

the course of a countless number of lives, and, fourth, a sense

of moral responsibility extending beyond this life – that is to say,

some form of the conception of karma. Last, there was a par-

amount goal of religious life – namely, the goal of liberation, of

freedom from the endless cycle of birth and death. These were

the outstanding features of the religion of the earliest civiliza-

tion of India.

Next, let us look at the religion of the early Aryan people,

which contrasted sharply with that of the Indus Valley civili-

zation. Indeed, it would be difficult to find two religious cul-

tures more radically different. Constructing a complete picture

of the religious attitudes and practices of the early Aryans is

much simpler than doing so for the Indus Valley people. When

the Aryans arrived in India, they brought with them a religion

that was completely secular in nature. As I have said, they were

an expansionist society – a pioneer society, if you like. Their ori-

gins lay in Eastern Europe, and their religion in many ways

resembled that of the ancient Greeks. If you look at descrip-

tions of the gods who composed the Greek pantheon, you will

not fail to notice striking parallels between the two. The Aryans

revered a number of gods who were personifications of natural

phenomena, including Indra (not unlike Zeus), the god of thun-

der and lightning; Agni, the god of fire, and Varuna, the god of

water – to name just a few.

29

Whereas in the religion of the Indus Valley civilization the

ascetic was the preeminent religious figure, in the Aryan reli-

gious establishment the priest was by far the most important.

Whereas in the religious value system of the Indus Valley civi-

lization renunciation was paramount, in the value system of the

early Aryans the most worthy state was that of the family man,

or householder. Whereas in the religious culture of the Indus

Valley civilization the value of progeny was not emphasized, for

the early Aryans progeny, particularly sons, was the highest pri-

ority. The religion of the Indus Valley civilization emphasized

the practice of meditation, while the Aryan faith relied on the

practice of sacrifice, which was its primary means of communi-

cating with the gods, securing victory in war, obtaining sons and

wealth, and finally reaching heaven. While the religion of the

Indus Valley civilization included the conceptions of rebirth and

karma, the early Aryans had no such conceptions. The notion of

moral responsibility extending beyond the present life appears to

have been unknown to the Aryans, for whom the highest social

value was loyalty to the group, a virtue calculated to contribute

to the power and cohesion of the tribe. Finally, the ultimate goal

of religious life for the people of the Indus Valley civilization was

liberation, a state that transcended birth and death, whereas for

the early Aryans the goal was simply heaven – and a heaven that

looked very much like a perfected version of this world, in fact.

In brief, while the religion of the Indus Valley civilization

stressed renunciation, meditation, rebirth, karma, and the final

goal of liberation, the Aryan religion stressed this life, ritual

sacrifice, loyalty, wealth, progeny, power, and heaven. Thus it

is clear that the sets of religious attitudes, practices, and values

30

professed by these two ancient civilizations of India were almost

diametrically opposed to each other. And yet, over the course

of centuries of cohabitation, these two religious traditions did

manage to merge and become, in many instances, practically

indistinguishable.

Before concluding our review of the salient features of the

Indus Valley and early Aryan religions, it should be mentioned

that the religious culture of the Aryans was characterized by

two further elements unknown and foreign to the religion of

the Indus Valley people. The two elements I have in mind are

caste – that is to say, the division of society into social strata – and

belief in the authority and infallibility of revelation, in this case

the ancient scriptures known as the Vedas. The religious culture

of the Indus Valley civilization did not accept these conceptions,

and they remained constant points of contention dividing the

two major religious traditions of India.

The history of Indian religion from 1500 b.c.e. to the sixth

century b.c.e. (i.e., the time of the Buddha) is the history of the

interaction between these two originally opposed traditions. As

the Aryan people gradually moved eastward and southward, set-

tling and spreading their influence over most of the Indian sub-

continent, they adopted a more sedentary pattern of life. Little

by little, the opposing religious cultures of the two peoples began

to interact, influence, and even merge with each other. This is

precisely the phenomenon I had in mind earlier when I referred

to the merging of the two great rivers of India, the Ganges and

the Yamuna.

By the time of the Buddha, a very heterogeneous religious

culture flourished in India. This is clear even from a superficial

31

look at some of the prominent facts about the Buddha’s life. For

example, after his birth, two distinct types of people made pre-

dictions about his future greatness. The first prophesy was pro-

nounced by Asita, who was a hermit and ascetic living in the

mountains, although the biographies of the Buddha insist that

Asita was a Brahmin, a member of the priestly caste of Aryan

society. This in itself is clear evidence of the interaction of the

two ancient religious traditions, for it indicates that, by the sixth

century b.c.e., even Brahmins had begun to abandon household

life and adopt the life of homeless ascetics, something unheard

of a thousand years before. A little later, we are told that 108

Brahmins were invited to the ceremony for bestowing a name on

the young Buddha. There, they also prophesied the future great-

ness of the child. These men were evidently priests who had not

renounced household life and who thus represented the original, orthodox practice accepted in the Aryan fold.

How is it that two traditions initially so different were able to

merge? I think the answer may be found in the dramatic changes

that occurred in the life of the Indian people between the mid-

dle of the second millennium b.c.e. and the time of the Buddha.

Aryan expansion came to an end when the Aryans had spread

across the plains of India. The end of this expansion brought

about many social, economic, and political changes. First of all,

the tribal, nomadic, and pastoral way of life of the early Aryans

gradually changed into a more sedentary, agrarian, and even-

tually urban pattern of existence. Before long, the majority of

the population was living in urban settlements where the peo-

ple were somewhat removed from the natural forces which had

been personified in the gods of the early Aryans.

32

Second, commerce became increasingly important. Whereas

priests and warriors had been the dominant figures in early

Aryan society – priests because they communicated with the

gods, and warriors because they waged war against the enemies

of the tribe and brought home the spoils of battle – now mer-

chants became ascendant. In the time of the Buddha, this trend

is evident in the famous disciples who belonged to the merchant

class – Anathapindika, to name just one example.

Last, the organization of society along tribal lines gradu-

ally became obsolete, and the territorial state began to evolve.

No longer was society organized into tribes within which there

were very close sets of personal loyalties. The tribal pattern of

social organization was replaced by the territorial state, in which

many people of different tribes existed together. The kingdom

of Magadha, ruled by King Bimbisara, the famous patron and

disciple of the Buddha, is an example of such an emerging ter-

ritorial state.

These social, economic, and political changes contributed

to a growing willingness on the part of the Aryan people to

accept and adopt the religious ideas of the Indus Valley civili-

zation. Although the Aryans had materially dominated the ear-

lier, indigenous civilization of the subcontinent, the next thou-

sand to two thousand years saw them come increasingly under

the influence of religious attitudes, practices, and values adopted

from the religion of the Indus Valley civilization. Consequently,

by the beginning of the common era, the distinction between

the Aryan tradition and that of the Indus Valley civilization was

more and more difficult to draw. In fact, this historical reality

is responsible for the misconception expressed in the claim that

33

Buddhism was a protest against, or an offshoot of, Hinduism.

Buddhism is a religion that draws most of its inspiration

from the religious culture of the Indus Valley civilization. The

elements of renunciation, meditation, rebirth, karma, and liber-

ation, which were important components of the religious culture

of the Indus Valley people, are also important in Buddhism. The

Buddha himself very probably meant to indicate that the origins

of the religion he proclaimed lay in the Indus Valley civilization

when he said that the path he taught was an ancient path, and

that the goal to which he pointed was an ancient goal. Buddhism

also maintains a tradition of six prehistoric Buddhas who are

believed to have flourished before the Buddha Shakyamuni. All

this, I believe, points to a certain continuity between the reli-

gious culture and traditions of the Indus Valley civilization and

the teaching of the Buddha.

When we examine the two religious phenomena we call

Buddhism and Hinduism, we find a greater or smaller propor-

tion or preponderance of elements inherited from each of the

two great religious traditions of ancient India. In Buddhism

the greater proportion of significant elements is clearly inher-

ited from the religion of the Indus Valley civilization, while a

far smaller proportion may be traced to the religion of the early

Aryans. There are undoubtedly elements in Buddhism inherited

from the religion of the Aryans, such as the presence of the gods

of the Vedas, but their role is peripheral.

Conversely, many schools of Hinduism retain a greater

proportion of elements of religious culture inherited from the

Aryan tradition and a much smaller proportion that can be

traced back to the religion of the Indus Valley. Many schools of

34

Hinduism still emphasize caste, the authority of revelation in

the shape of the Vedas, and the efficacy of the practice of sacri-

fice. Notwithstanding these clearly Aryan elements, a place is

also made in Hinduism for important elements of the culture of

the Indus Valley civilization, such as renunciation, meditation, rebirth, karma, and liberation.

35

CHAPTER THREE

The Life of the Buddha

Next I would like to turn to the life of the Buddha Shakyamuni.

I shall not attempt to treat this topic exhaustively, nor to

cover the great majority of the biography of Shakyamuni. The

accounts of the life of the Buddha are for the most part narra-

tive, and they have been presented elsewhere by both ancient

and modern authors. Instead, I would like to use this brief con-

sideration of the life of the Buddha to draw attention to a few

important Buddhist values that are strikingly illustrated in the

accounts of the life of Shakyamuni.

In Chapter 2, I discussed the origins and nature of the two

ancient traditions of India, the one having its source in the reli-

gious culture of the Indus Valley civilization and the other asso-

ciated with the Aryan civilization. In addition, I indicated that

these two ancient traditions, originally quite different, in the

course of time began to interact with and influence each other

until, by the first millennium of the common era, they became

almost indistinguishable one from the other. It is, perhaps, no

coincidence that the area of the north central Gangetic plain

and the Nepalese Tarai, which came to be known as “the central

country,” or Madhyadesha, was one of the regions in which the

two traditions came into active contact, and even conflict. The

priests who were custodians of the Aryan tradition associated

the eastward movement of Aryan civilization with the threat of

a dissipation of the purity of Aryan culture and with the growth

of unorthodox practices and attitudes.

36

The history of religions teaches that, when two very differ-

ent traditions like those of the Indus Valley civilization and the

Aryans come into contact and conflict, a tremendous potential is

created for the growth of new attitudes and patterns of religious

culture. The life and teaching of the Buddha can be usefully

viewed in the context of this historical phenomenon. Moreover,

as mentioned in Chapter 2, there were significant social, eco-

nomic, and political changes affecting the lives of the people of

the region in the sixth century b.c.e. These naturally contributed

to a heightened level of religious consciousness. It has consis-

tently been the case that, in times of major social, economic, and

political change, people tend to look inward for safety and secu-

rity in an ever more uncertain world. They instinctively look to

religion – and to the ostensibly unchanging values embodied in

religious belief and practice – for stability in the midst of uncer-

tainty. Such periods have almost always produced great reli-

gious revolutions and revivals. This was most certainly the case

in sixth century India, just as it was in China in the sixth cen-

tury, and just as it was at the beginning of the Christian era in

the Mediterranean world.

There are three values of paramount importance that emerge

from the life of the Buddha: (1) renunciation, (2) love and com-

passion, and (3) wisdom. These values stand out very clearly in

many episodes throughout his life. It is no coincidence that these

three, taken together, are the essential requisites for the attain-

ment of nirvana, or enlightenment. According to the teaching of

Buddhism, there are three afflictions which cause us to be reborn

again and again in the wilderness of cyclical existence – namely,

attachment, aversion, and ignorance. These afflictions are elim-

37

inated by the correctives of renunciation, love and compassion,

and wisdom, respectively. Through cultivating these three atti-

tudes, the Buddhist practitioner is able to remove the afflictions

and attain enlightenment. Consequently, it is no accident that

these attitudes should feature so prominently in the life of the

Buddha Shakyamuni.

Let us consider these essential attitudes one by one, begin-

ning with renunciation. As in the case of love and compassion,

the first signs of renunciation manifested themselves very early

in the life of the Buddha. Basically, renunciation is the recog-

nition that all existence is permeated by suffering. When you

realize this, it leads to what we might call a turning about, that

is to say, the realization that all of common life is permeated

by suffering causes us to look for something more or some-

thing different. This is precisely why suffering is counted as

the first of the Four Noble Truths, and why the clear recogni-

tion of the reality and universality of suffering is the essence

of renunciation.

Now, as it happens, Prince Siddhartha is believed to have

participated, as we might expect, in the annual plowing cer-

emony of his clan at the tender age of seven. It was then that,

while watching the proceedings, the young prince noticed a

worm that had been unearthed being devoured by a bird. This

casual observation led Siddhartha to contemplate the realities of

life – to recognize the inescapable fact that all living beings kill

one another to survive, and that this is a great source of suffer-

ing. Already, at this early age, we find in the Buddha’s biography

the beginning of the recognition that life as we know it is per-

meated by suffering.

38

If we look again at the biographical accounts of Siddhartha’s

early life, we soon come to the famous episode of the four sights

that moved him to renounce the life of a householder and adopt

the life of an ascetic in order to seek the truth. Seeing an old

man, a sick man, and a corpse led him to consider why it was

that he should feel unsettled by these sights. Clearly, he himself

was not immune to these conditions but was subject to the inev-

itable succession of old age, sickness, and death. This recognition

led the prince to develop a sense of detachment from the ephem-

eral pleasures of this world and prompted him to seek the ulti-

mate truth about existence by way of renunciation.

It is important to remember at this stage that the prince’s re-

nunciation was not prompted by despair occurring in the ordi-

nary course of life. He enjoyed the greatest possible happiness

and privilege known in his day, and yet he recognized the suf-

fering inherent in sentient existence and realized that, no matter

how much we may indulge ourselves in pleasures of the senses,

eventually we must face the realities of old age, sickness, and

death. Understanding this – and encouraged by the fourth sight,

that of an ascetic – Siddhartha was moved to renounce the life

of a householder and to seek ultimate truth for the benefit of all

living beings.

Let us look next at the attitude of love and compassion,

which also appears very early in the life of the Buddha. The

most striking example is the episode of the wounded swan.

The biographical accounts tell us that the prince and his cousin

Devadatta were wandering in the park that surrounded the royal

residence when Devadatta shot down a swan with his bow and

arrow. Both youths ran toward where the swan had fallen, but

39

Siddhartha, being the faster runner, reached the place first. The

young prince gathered the wounded bird up in his arms and

sought to allay its suffering. Devadatta reacted angrily to this,

insisting that the swan belonged to him, inasmuch as he had

shot it down. The youths took their dispute to the wise man of

the court, who decided to award the bird to Siddhartha on the

grounds that life rightly belongs to him who would preserve it

and not to him who would destroy it.

In this simple story, we have an excellent example of the

Buddha’s early manifestation of the attitude of love and com-

passion, an attitude whose object is to foster as far as possible

the happiness of others and to allay their suffering. Later, also,

after his enlightenment, the Buddha continued to demonstrate

this attitude in remarkable ways. There is, for instance, the well-

known episode wherein the Buddha took it upon himself to nurse

the ailing monk Tissa. The latter’s illness was such as caused all

the other members of the Order to shun him. However, the

Buddha, resolved to lead by example, personally cleaned and

cared for Tissa’s diseased and decaying body, thereby alleviating

his suffering.

Last, let us take a long look at the attitude of wisdom, which

is the most important of the three, being commensurate with

enlightenment itself. It is wisdom that finally opens the door

to freedom, and wisdom that removes ignorance, the funda-

mental cause of suffering. It is said that while one may sever the

branches of a tree and even cut down its trunk, if the root is not

removed, the tree will grow again. In a similar way, although

one may remove attachment by means of renunciation, and aver-

sion by means of love and compassion, as long as ignorance is

40

not removed by means of wisdom, attachment and aversion are

liable to arise again.

The principal instrument through which wisdom may be

gained is meditation. Again, there is an event early in the

Buddha’s life in which his precocious skill in concentrating

the mind is evident. According to the accounts of the life of

Shakyamuni, immediately after witnessing the unhappy inci-

dent involving the worm and the bird at the plowing ceremony,

the prince sat under a nearby rose-apple tree, and there sponta-

neously began to meditate, achieving the first level of medita-

tion by concentrating his mind on the process of inhalation and

exhalation. In this event we have evidence of a very early expe-

rience of meditation in the life of the Buddha.

Later, when he renounced the life of a householder and went

forth to seek the ultimate truth, one of the first disciplines he

developed was that of meditation. The accounts tell us that the

ascetic Gotama (as he was known during his six years of striv-

ing for enlightenment) studied under two renowned teachers of

meditation, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. Under the

tutelage of these teachers he studied and mastered the various

techniques of concentrating the mind. In Chapter 2 I mentioned

that there is evidence which suggests that the origins of medi-

tation go back to the dawn of Indian civilization, to the golden

age of the Indus Valley civilization. It is very likely that the two

teachers mentioned in the biographies of the Buddha were expo-

nents of this very ancient tradition of meditation, or mental con-

centration.

And yet, remarkably, the ascetic Gotama left the two teach-

ers in question because he found that meditation alone could not

41

permanently put an end to suffering, even though it might sup-

ply temporary relief. This fact is important, because although the

teaching of the Buddha emphasizes the practice of mental devel-

opment and is therefore clearly in the tradition of the Indus Valley

civilization, the Buddha transcended the limited goals of mere

meditation and brought a new dimension to religious experience.

This is what distinguishes the Buddha’s teaching from the teach-

ing of many other Indian schools, particularly those which, in one

form or another, embrace the practice of yoga, or meditation.

In short, what distinguishes Buddhism from the contempla-

tive traditions of Hinduism and other religions is the fact that,

for Buddhism, meditation by itself is not enough. We might

say that, for Buddhism, meditation is like sharpening a pencil. We sharpen a pencil for a purpose, let us say, in order to write.

Similarly, by means of meditation we sharpen the mind for a def-

inite purpose – in this case, the purpose is wisdom. The relation-

ship between meditation and wisdom has also been explained

with the help of the example of a torch. Suppose we want to see

a picture on the wall of a darkened room with the aid of a torch.

If the light cast by the torch is too dim, if the flame is disturbed

by drafts of air, or if the hand holding the torch is unsteady, it

is impossible to see the picture clearly. Similarly, if we want to

penetrate the darkness of ignorance and see into the real nature

of existence, we will be unable to do so if our minds are weak,

distracted, and unsteady as a consequence of habitual indolence

and emotional and intellectual disturbances. The Buddha put

this discovery into practice on the night of his enlightenment. Then, we are told, he made his mind concentrated, one-pointed,

and supple by means of meditation, directed it to the under-

42

standing of the real nature of things, and comprehended the

truth. Therefore, the enlightenment of the Buddha was the con-

sequence of the combination of meditation and wisdom.

There are also other dimensions of wisdom exemplified in

the life of the Buddha. One of these is the understanding of

the Middle Way. The conception of the Middle Way is central

in Buddhism and has many levels of meaning, all of which it is

not possible to consider here. However, this much may be said

at once: The most fundamental meaning of the Middle Way is

the avoidance of the extremes of indulgence in pleasures of the

senses and, alternatively, tormenting the body. This fundamental

aspect of the Middle Way is illustrated in the life of the Buddha

by his very own career and experience. Before his renunciation of

the life of a householder, Siddhartha enjoyed a life of luxury and

sensual pleasure. Later, when he had become an ascetic in search

of the truth, he spent six years practicing all manner of physical

deprivations and self-mortification. Eventually, he understood

the futility of such practices as well as the meaninglessness of his

former life of indulgence, and discovered the Middle Way that

avoids both extremes.

There are, of course, many other important episodes in the

life of the Buddha that would be interesting and valuable to dis-

cuss, but my point in choosing to concentrate on these few ele-

ments is simply that we can begin to look at the Buddha’s life as

a lesson in conduct and concept, and not simply as a biography

containing a number of names and places. Then we can appreci-

ate the attitudes exemplified in Shakyamuni’s career. In this way,

a greater and more genuine insight into the real significance of

the life of the Buddha becomes possible.

43

CHAPTER FOUR

The Four Noble Truths

With this chapter, we enter the real heart of the teaching of

the Buddha. The Four Noble Truths are one of the most

fundamental of the schemes delineated by the Buddha. In many

important particulars, they virtually coincide with the whole

of the doctrine of Shakyamuni. The understanding of the Four

Noble Truths is synonymous with the attainment of the goal

of Buddhist practice. The Buddha himself indicated as much

when he said that it is failure to comprehend the Four Noble

Truths that has caused us to run on so long in the cycle of birth

and death. The importance of the Four Noble Truths is simi-

larly indicated by the fact that the Buddha’s first discourse, deliv-

ered to the five ascetics at the Deer Park, near Benares, was the

Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta, which had as its subject the

Four Noble Truths and the Middle Way. In the formula of the

Four Noble Truths – that is, the truth of suffering, the truth of

the cause of suffering, the truth of the cessation of suffering, and

the truth of the path – we have a summary of the teaching of the

Buddha in theory and in practice.

Before turning to a consideration of the Four Noble Truths

individually, I would like to draw your attention to a few facts

about the formula in general. In this context, it is appropriate

to recall that the ancient science of medicine had enjoyed a cer-

tain degree of development by the time of the Buddha. One of

the fundamental formulas evolved by practitioners of the science

of medicine in ancient India was the fourfold scheme of disease,

44

diagnosis, cure, and treatment. If you consider carefully these

four stages in the practice of the science of medicine, it will be

apparent that they correspond very closely to the formula of the

Four Noble Truths: (1) the truth of suffering clearly corresponds

to the first element of disease; (2) the truth of the cause just as

clearly corresponds to the element of diagnosis; (3) the truth of

cessation corresponds to the achievement of a cure; and (4) the

truth of the path just as clearly corresponds to the course of

treatment of a disease.

Having said this about the therapeutic nature of the for-

mula of the Four Noble Truths and its resemblance to the for-

mula evolved by ancient practitioners of the science of medicine

in India, I would like to make another point which, although

conceptual, is nonetheless very important for a correct under-

standing of the Four Noble Truths. When Sariputta, who was

to become one of the Buddha’s most outstanding disciples, came

upon Assaji, one of the first five ascetics to embrace the Buddha’s

teaching, he asked him about it. Assaji is said to have replied that

he could not tell Sariputta much about the Buddha’s teaching

because he was relatively new to it. Nonetheless, Assaji went on

to give a summary of the teaching of the Buddha that goes some-

thing like this: “Of things that proceed from a cause, their cause

the Tathagata has told, and also their cessation; thus teaches the

great ascetic.” The accounts report that Sariputta was greatly

impressed by the few words spoken by Assaji. He went to find

his friend and fellow seeker-after-truth Moggallana, and the two

of them sought out the Buddha and became his disciples.

Assaji’s very brief summary of the teaching of the Buddha

tells us something about the central conception that lies behind

45

the formula of the Four Noble Truths: it indicates the impor-

tance of the relationship between cause and effect. The con-

cept of cause and effect lies at the heart of the teaching of the

Buddha, and it also lies at the heart of the formula of the Four

Noble Truths. In what way? The formula of the Four Noble

Truths begins with a problem, namely, the first of the four noble

truths, the truth of suffering. The problem of suffering arises

from causes, causes expressed in the second noble truth, the

truth of the cause of suffering. Similarly, there exists an end of

suffering expressed in the third noble truth, the truth of cessa-

tion, and a cause of the end of suffering, that is to say the path,

which is the last of the four truths. In the fourth noble truth the

cause is absence: in other words, when the causes of suffering

are removed, the absence of such causes is the cause of the ces-

sation of suffering.

If you look more closely at the Four Noble Truths, you will

see that they divide quite naturally into two groups. The first

two truths, those of suffering and its cause, belong to the realm

of birth and death. Symbolically, they can be pictured in the

form of a circle, because they operate in a circular manner. The

causes of suffering produce suffering, and suffering in turn pro-

duces the causes of suffering, which in their turn again produce

suffering. This is the cycle of birth and death, or samsara.

The latter two truths, the truth of the cessation of suffering

and the truth of the path, do not belong to the realm of birth and

death. They can be represented figuratively through the image

of a spiral, in which the movement is no longer merely circular

but is now directed upward, so to speak, toward another plane

of experience.

46

To return for a moment to the conception of cause and effect

in the context of the Four Noble Truths, it is clear that these four

truths stand in a causal relationship, one to another, within each

of the two groups just indicated: the first of the four (the truth

of suffering) is the effect of the second (the truth of the cause),

while the third (the truth of cessation) is the effect of the last of

the truths (the truth of the path).

If we remember the importance of the relationship between

cause and effect when we consider the Four Noble Truths, I

believe we will find them easier to understand. Likewise, if we

recall the importance of the principle of cause and effect, it will

be of great help to us as we proceed in our survey of the funda-

mental teaching of the Buddha, whether in the context of the

study of karma and rebirth or that of interdependent origina-

tion. In short, we will find that the principle of cause and effect

runs like a thread throughout the whole of the teaching of the

Buddha.

Let us now turn our attention to the first of the Four Noble

Truths, the truth of suffering. Many non-Buddhists and even

some Buddhists find the choice of suffering as the first of the

four truths disturbing. It is said that such a choice is indicative

of pessimism. I have often had people ask me why Buddhism

is so pessimistic. Why does it choose to begin with the truth

of suffering? There are a number of ways this question may be

answered. Let us consider, for a moment, the attitudes of pessi-

mism, optimism, and realism. In practical terms, let us suppose

that someone is suffering from a serious illness but refuses to rec-

ognize the truth of his condition. His attitude may be optimistic,

but it is also surely foolish, inasmuch as it precludes taking any

47

measures to remedy the disease. Such an attitude is analogous

to that of the ostrich who, it is said, buries its head in the sand

and so convinces itself that no danger threatens it. If a problem

exists, the only sensible course of action is to recognize the prob-

lem and then do whatever is necessary to eliminate it.

The Buddha’s insistence on the need to recognize the truth

of suffering is therefore neither pessimistic nor optimistic: it is

simply realistic. Besides, if the Buddha had taught only the truth

of suffering and had stopped there, then there might be some

truth in the charge that his teaching is pessimistic. However, the

Buddha only began with the truth of suffering. He went on to

teach the truth of the cause of suffering and, even more impor-

tantly, the truths of its cessation and of the means to achieve its

cessation.

I am quite sure that, if we are honest with ourselves, all of us

will admit that there is a fundamental problem with life. Things

are not quite as they should be. No matter how much we may try

to run away from this fact, at some time or other – perhaps in the

middle of the night, in a crowd of people, or for just a moment

during an ordinary working day – we do come face to face with

the reality of our situation. We realize that something, after

all, is wrong somewhere. This experience is what impels peo-

ple to seek solutions to the fundamental problems of unhappi-

ness and frustration. Sometimes these solutions are only appar-

ent, like the attempt to eliminate unhappiness by accumulat-

ing more and more possessions. Alternatively, people may seek

solutions to the fundamental problems of life in various forms of

therapy. In Buddhism, the truth of suffering can be divided into

two categories. These are, broadly speaking, physical and mental.

48

Physical suffering includes the sufferings of birth, old age, sick-

ness, and death. You will recall that in Chapter 3 we mentioned

Prince Siddhartha’s encounter with the facts of old age, sick-

ness, and death in the shape of the three sights of an old man, a

sick man, and a corpse. Here, we find a fourth form of suffering

added, the suffering of birth. Birth is suffering both because of

the physical pain experienced by the infant and because it is from

birth that the other forms of suffering, such as old age, inevita-

bly follow. Birth may be said to be a gateway through which the

other sufferings naturally follow. I think we need hardly spend

much time on the sufferings of old age, sickness, and death. We

have all observed the suffering of old age, the inability to func-

tion effectively and think coherently. Most of us have experi-

enced for ourselves the suffering of sickness, and even if we have

had the good fortune always to be healthy, we have seen the suf-

fering of others afflicted by disease. Again, we have all observed

the suffering of death, the pain and the fear experienced by the

dying person. These sufferings are an unavoidable part of life.

No matter how happy and contented we may be at a particular

moment, the sufferings of birth, old age, sickness, and death are

inevitable.

In addition to these physical sufferings, there are mental

sufferings: the suffering of separation from what is dear to us,

the suffering of contact with what we despise, and the suffer-

ing of frustrated desires. Often, in the course of our lives, we

are separated from the people and places we love. The require-

ments of career or country sometimes force us to leave our homes

and loved ones. Change and death can bring about separation

from the people and places we love. Again, the course of our

49

lives often brings us into contact with people and situations we

would rather avoid, such as a colleague or superior at work who

is antagonistic toward us. Such a situation can make our time

at our place of work a genuine torment. The suffering of contact

with what we despise can also take more extreme forms, such as

the experiences of flood, fire, famine, persecution, war, and other

natural and manmade disasters. Finally, most of us, some time

or other, experience the suffering of frustrated desires. We expe-

rience such frustration when, for instance, we cannot obtain the

things we want, be it a job, a car, a house, or even a partner.

These mental and physical sufferings are woven into the fab-

ric of our human existence. But what about happiness? Is there

no happiness at all in life? Of course there is; however, the hap-

piness we experience in the course of our lives is impermanent.

As long as we still enjoy youth and health, we may find happi-

ness in a comfortable situation or in the company of someone

we love, yet all these experiences of happiness are conditioned,

and therefore impermanent. Sooner or later, we will experience

suffering.

Now, if we really want to solve the problem of suffering,

reduce and eventually eliminate it, we must identify its cause. If

the lights go out and we want to eliminate the darkness, we must

identify the cause of the problem. Is it a short circuit, has a fuse

blown, or has the power supply been cut off? Similarly, once we

have recognized the problem of suffering, we must look for its

cause. Only by understanding the cause of suffering can we do

something to solve the problem.

What is the cause of suffering according to the Buddha? The

Buddha taught that craving is the great cause of suffering. There

50

are various kinds of craving: craving for pleasant experiences,

craving for material things, craving for eternal life, and craving

for eternal death. We all enjoy good food, our favorite music,

pleasant company, and the like. Enjoying such things, we want

more and more of them. We try to prolong such pleasant expe-

riences and to experience them more and more often. Yet some-

how we are never completely satisfied. We find, for instance, that

when we are very fond of a particular type of food and eat it

again and again, we soon get bored with it. We try another kind

of food, like it, enjoy it, and still, after a while, we begin to get

bored with it. We go on to look for something else. We even get

tired of our favorite piece of music. We get tired of our friends.

We look for more and more. Sometimes this chase after pleas-

ant experiences leads to very destructive forms of behavior, like

alcoholism and drug addiction. All this is craving for the enjoy-

ment of pleasant experiences. It is said that trying to satisfy our

craving for pleasant experiences is like drinking saltwater when

thirsty: it only increases our thirst.

Not only do we crave pleasant experiences, we also crave

material things. You can see this very clearly in children, although

we all suffer from it. Take any small child into a toy shop and

he or she will want every toy in the shop. Eventually persuaded

by his parents, he will settle for one of the toys. Almost as soon

as he has gotten it, he begins to lose interest in it. Without fail,

within a few days the toy lies neglected in a corner of the room

and the child wants another toy. But are we really very differ-

ent from young children? Almost immediately after buying that

new car, don’t we begin to want another, even better one? When

we move into a good house, don’t we often think, “This house is

51

all right, but it would be still better if I could find a bigger one,

say one with a garden, or one with a swimming pool?” It goes

on and on, whether it is a set of trains, a bicycle, a video recorder, or a Mercedes Benz.

It is said that the craving for acquiring wealth and material

things involves three major problems that cause suffering. The

first is the problem of getting them. You have to work hard, per-

haps skimp and save, to buy the new car you wanted. Next, you

have to look after it and protect it. You worry that someone may

damage your car. You worry that your new house may catch fire

or be damaged by the wind or rain. Finally, there is the problem

of losing possessions, because sooner or later they will fall apart

or we ourselves will die.

Craving for existence or eternal life is a cause of suffering.

We all crave existence, life. Despite all the suffering and frustra-

tion we experience, we all crave existence, and it is this craving

which causes us to be born again and again. Then there is the

craving for nonexistence, that is to say, the craving for annihila-

tion, which we might call a desire for eternal death. This crav-

ing expresses itself in nihilism, suicide, and the like. Craving for

existence is one extreme, while craving for nonexistence is the

other.

At this point you may be asking yourself, “Is craving alone a

sufficient cause of suffering? Is craving alone enough to explain

suffering? Is the answer as simple as that?” The answer is no.

There is something that goes deeper than craving, something

that is, in a sense, the foundation or ground of craving – namely, ignorance.

Ignorance is not seeing things as they really are. It is failing

52

to understand the truth about life. Those who consider them-

selves well educated may find it offensive to be told they are

ignorant. In what sense are we ignorant? Let me say this: with-

out the right conditions, without the right training and the right

instruments, we are unable to see things as they really are. None

of us would be aware of radio waves were it not for the radio

receiver. None of us would be aware of bacteria in a drop of water

were it not for the microscope, or of subatomic reality were it not

for the latest techniques of electron microscopy. All these facts

about the world in which we live are observed and known only

because of special conditions, training, and instruments.

When we say that ignorance is failing to see things as they

really are, what we mean is that, as long as we have not devel-

oped our minds – and, through them, wisdom – we remain igno-

rant of the true nature of things. We are familiar with the fear

that we experience when we see an unidentified shape in the

darkness by the side of the road while walking home alone late

at night. The shape may actually be a tree stump, yet it is our

ignorance that causes us to quicken our steps. Perhaps the palms

of our hands begin to perspire; we may reach home in a panic.

If there had been a light, there would have been no fear and no

suffering because there would have been no ignorance about the

shape in the darkness. We would have seen the tree stump for

what it is.

In Buddhism we are concerned with ignorance about the

nature of the self, soul, or personality. Such ignorance means

regarding the self as real. This is the fundamental cause of suf-

fering. We take our bodies or feelings or ideas to be a self, soul,

or personality. We take them to be a real, independent ego, just

53

as we take the tree stump to be a potential assailant. But once

you assume this conception of a self, there naturally arises the

conception of something apart from or other than your self. And

once the conception of something different from your self occurs,

you automatically regard it as either helpful to and supportive of

your self or as hostile to it. Thus elements of the reality that you

assume is different from your self are either pleasant or unpleas-

ant, desirable or undesirable.

From the conceptions of self and something other than the

self, craving and aversion naturally arise. Once we believe in the

real existence of the self – in the real, independent existence of

the soul or personality apart from all the objects we experience

as belonging to the external world – we then want those things

we think will benefit us and shun those things we think do not

benefit us or may even be harmful to us. Because of the failure to

understand that in this body and mind there is no independent

or permanent self, attachment and aversion inevitably thrive.

From the root of ignorance grows the tree of craving, attach-

ment, greed, aversion, hatred, envy, jealousy, and the rest. This

entire tree of emotional afflictions grows from the root of igno-

rance and bears the fruit of suffering. Ignorance is the underly-

ing cause of suffering, while craving, attachment, aversion, and

the rest are the secondary or immediate causes of suffering.

Having identified the causes of suffering, we are now in a

position to reduce and eventually eliminate suffering. Just as

identifying the causes of a physical pain puts us in a position to

eliminate that pain by means of eliminating its causes, so when

we identify the causes of mental suffering, we are then able to

reduce and eventually remove that suffering by removing its

54

causes – ignorance, attachment, aversion, and so on. This brings

us to the third of the Four Noble Truths, the truth of the end of

suffering.

When we begin to talk about the end of suffering, the first

obstacle we must overcome is the doubt that exists in some

minds about whether or not the end of suffering is really possi-

ble. Can suffering really be ended? Is a cure really possible? It

is in this context that confidence, or faith, plays an important

role. When we speak of confidence or faith in Buddhism, we do

not mean blind acceptance of any particular doctrine or creed.

Rather, we speak of faith in the sense of admitting the possibil-

ity of achieving the goal of the end of suffering.

Unless we believe that a doctor can cure us of a physical pain,

we will never seek his advice, never undergo the appropriate

therapy, and may consequently die of an illness that could have

been cured had we only had sufficient confidence to seek help.

Similarly, confidence in the possibility of being cured of men-

tal suffering is an indispensable prerequisite to effective prac-

tice. Here, too, you may say, “How can I believe in the possibil-

ity of nirvana – the complete end of suffering, supreme happi-

ness – if I have never experienced it?” But as I remarked earlier in

this chapter, none of us would be able to hear radio waves were

it not for the development of radio receivers, or see microscopic

life were it not for the invention of the microscope. Even now,

most of us have never observed subatomic reality, yet we accept

its existence because there are those among us with the special

training and appropriate instruments to observe it.

In this case, also, the possibility of attaining the complete

end of suffering – namely, nirvana – ought not to be rejected sim-

55

ply because we have not experienced it ourselves. You may be

familiar with the old story of the turtle and the fish. One day

the turtle left the pond to spend a few hours on the shore. When

he returned to the water, he told the fish of his experiences on

dry land, but the fish would not believe him. The fish could not

accept that dry land existed because it was totally unlike the

reality with which he was familiar. How could there be a place

where creatures walked about rather than swam, breathed air

and not water, and so on? There are many historical examples

of this tendency to reject information that does not tally with

what we already are familiar with and believe. When Marco

Polo returned to Italy from the East, he was imprisoned because

his accounts of his travels did not corroborate what was then

believed about the nature of the world. And when Copernicus

advanced the theory that the sun does not circle the earth but

vice versa, he was disbelieved and ridiculed.

Hence we ought to be careful not to dismiss the possibility

of a complete end of suffering (the attainment of nirvana) just

because we have not experienced it ourselves. Once we accept

that the end of suffering is possible, that a cure for our ills does

exist, we can proceed with the steps necessary to achieve that

cure. But unless and until we believe that a cure is possible, there

is no question of successfully completing the needed therapy.

Therefore, in order to realize progress on the path and – gradu-

ally, eventually – the complete end of suffering, we must at least

have initial confidence in the bare possibility of achieving our

goal.

When we refer to the third noble truth, the truth of the ces-

sation of suffering, we have in mind this goal of the Buddhist

56

path. The Buddha once said that, just as the ocean, although vast,

is of one taste, the taste of salt, so also his teaching, although

many-faceted and vast as the ocean, is of one taste, the taste of

nirvana. As you will see, there are many facets to the teaching

of Buddhism – the Four Noble Truths, the three ways of prac-

tice, interdependent origination, the three characteristics, and so

on – but all have one goal in view, and that is the cessation of suf-

fering. This is the goal that gives all the various facets of teach-

ing that we find in Buddhism their purpose and direction.

The end of suffering is the goal of Buddhist practice, and

yet the cessation of suffering is not exclusively transcendental or

supra mundane. The point at issue here is an interesting one. If

we consider, for instance, the question of the final goal of other

faiths, such as the Semitic religions, Christianity, Judaism, and

Islam, we find that there are two goals. One has its expression in

this life and this world, in terms of building a kingdom of love,

prosperity, and justice here and now; the other, higher goal con-

sists of attaining heaven in the afterlife. In Buddhism, in con-

trast, the conception of the goal of practice is more comprehen-

sive. The cessation of suffering of which the Buddha spoke is

very broad in scope. When we speak of the end of suffering in

Buddhism, we can mean (1) the end of suffering here and now,

either temporarily or permanently; (2) happiness and good for-

tune in future lives; and/or (3) the experience of nirvana itself.

Let us see whether this can be explained in greater detail.

Suppose we happen to be in dire poverty, with insufficient food,

shelter, clothing, medicine, education, and so forth. Such condi-

tions constitute suffering just as surely as do birth, old age, sick-

ness, death, separation from what we love, and so on. When we

57

remedy the situation here and now, through greater prosper-

ity and improved standards of living, our suffering is reduced.

Buddhism teaches that the particular happiness or suffering that

we experience in this life is the consequence of actions we have

done in the past. In other words, if we find ourselves in fortunate

conditions now, these advantages are the result of good actions

done in the past. Similarly, those who find themselves in less

fortunate conditions are suffering the consequences of unwhole-

some actions done in the past.

What does Buddhism offer in the way of the end of suffer-

ing? Practicing Buddhism in the short term results in relative

happiness in this life. This happiness can be of a material nature,

in the sense of improved physical conditions; it can be of an inner

nature, in the sense of greater peace of mind; or it can be both.

All this can be achieved in this very life, here and now. This is

one dimension of the end of suffering. Being of this life, it might

be roughly equated with what Christianity calls “the kingdom

of God on earth.”

In addition to this, the end of suffering in Buddhism means

happiness and good fortune in the next life. This implies rebirth

in fortunate circumstances, where we enjoy happiness, prosper-

ity, health, well-being, and success, whether as a human being

on this earth or as a celestial being in the heavens. We can liken

this dimension of the end of suffering to the heaven of which

the monotheistic religions speak. The only difference is that, in

these religions, heaven once attained is permanent, whereas in

Buddhism one’s right to enjoy happiness has to be sustained

and renewed. The goal offered by Buddhism does initially mean

happiness and prosperity in this life and in future lives. But it is

58

also more than that, and here it differs from the other religions

in question. Not only does Buddhism promise happiness and

prosperity in this life and the next, it also offers liberation – nir-

vana, or enlightenment. This is the total cessation of suffering.

It is the ultimate goal of Buddhism and it is also attainable here

and now.

When we speak of nirvana we encounter certain problems

of expression, because the exact nature of an experience cannot

be communicated merely by speaking about it – rather, it must

be experienced directly. This is true of all experience, whether

it be the experience of the taste of salt, sugar, or chocolate or

of one’s first swim in the ocean. All these experiences cannot

be described exactly. To make this point, suppose I have just

arrived in Southeast Asia and am told of a very popular local

fruit called durian. I can question people who live in the area

and who regularly eat and enjoy durian, but how can they ever

explain to me precisely what it is like to eat it? It is simply not

possible to describe accurately the taste of a durian to someone

who has never eaten one. We might try comparison or, alter-

natively, negation; we might say, for instance, that durian has

a creamy texture or that it is sweet and sour, and add that it is

something like jack fruit and not at all like apple. But it remains

impossible to communicate the exact nature of the experience of

eating durian. We find ourselves confronted with a similar prob-

lem when we try to describe nirvana. The Buddha and Buddhist

teachers through the ages used similar devices to describe nir-

vana – namely, comparison, and negation.

The Buddha said that nirvana is supreme happiness, peace.

He said that nirvana is immortal, uncreated, unformed; beyond

59

earth, water, fire, and air, the sun and moon; unfathomable

and immeasurable. Here we can see the various devices that

Buddhism used to describe nirvana, such as the sort in which

nirvana is likened to something we experience in this world. For

example, occasionally we are lucky enough to experience great

happiness accompanied by profound peace of mind, and might

imagine that we are experiencing a faint glimpse of nirvana. But

a jack fruit is not really like a durian, and nirvana is not really

like anything in this world. It is not like any everyday experi-

ence; it is beyond all the forms and names we might use, and in

terms of which we experience the world.

The point is that, to understand what nirvana is really like,

you must experience it for yourself, just as to know what durian

is really like, you must eat it. No number of essays or poetic

descriptions of durian will ever approach the experience of eat-

ing one. Similarly, we have to experience the end of suffering for

ourselves, and the only way we can do this is by eliminating the

causes of suffering – the afflictions of attachment, aversion, and

ignorance. When we have eliminated such causes of suffering, then we will experience nirvana for ourselves.

How, then, can we remove these causes of suffering? What

are the means by which we can remove the afflictions that are the

causes of suffering? This is the path taught by the Buddha – the

Middle Way, the path of moderation. You will recall that the

life of the Buddha before his enlightenment falls into two dis-

tinct periods. The time before his renunciation was one in which

he enjoyed every possible luxury; for example, the accounts tell

us that he had three palaces, one for each season, filled with

sources of pleasure to an extent scarcely imaginable in his day.

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This period of enjoyment was followed by six years of extreme

asceticism and self-mortification, when he did without the basic

amenities of normal life, lived out in the open, wore the poor-

est garments, and fasted for long periods of time. In addition to

such deprivations, he tormented his body through various prac-

tices like sleeping on beds of thorns and sitting in the midst of

fires under the cruel heat of the midday sun.

Having experienced the extremes of luxury and depriva-

tion – and having reached the limits of these extremes – the

Buddha saw their futility and thereby discovered the Middle

Way, which avoids both the extreme of indulgence in plea-

sures of the senses and the extreme of self-mortification. It was

through realizing the nature of the two extremes in his own life

that the Buddha was able to arrive at the ideal of the Middle

Way, the path that avoids both extremes. As we shall see in the

chapters to come, the Middle Way is capable of many significant

and profound interpretations, but most fundamentally it means

moderation in one’s approach to life, in one’s attitude toward all

things.

We can use the example of the three strings of a lute to illus-

trate what we mean by this attitude. The Buddha had a disciple

by the name of Sona who practiced meditation with such zeal

that he encountered nothing but obstacles. Sona began to think

of giving up his vows and abandoning the life of a monk. The

Buddha, who understood his problem, said to him, “Sona, before

you became a monk, you were a musician.” Sona replied, “That

is true.” Then the Buddha said, “Being a musician, you should

know which string of a lute produces a pleasant and harmonious

sound: the string that is overly tight?” “No,” replied Sona, “the

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overly tight string produces an unpleasant sound and is likely to

break at any moment.” “Then,” said the Buddha, “is it the string

that is slack?” “No,” replied Sona, “the slack string does not

produce a pleasant and harmonious sound. The string that pro-

duces a pleasant and harmonious sound is the string that is not

too tight and not too loose.” In this case, a life of indulgence and

luxury may be said to be too loose, without discipline or appli-

cation, whereas a life of self-mortification is too tight, too hard

and tense, and likely to cause a breakdown of the mind and body, just as the overly tight string is likely to break at any time.

More specifically, the path to the Buddhist goal of the ces-

sation of suffering is like a medical prescription. When a com-

petent doctor treats a patient for a serious illness, his or her pre-

scription is not only physical but also psychological. If you are

suffering, for instance, from a heart condition, you are not only

given medication but are also asked to control your diet and

avoid stressful situations. Here, too, if we look at the specific

instructions for following the Buddhist path to the end of suf-

fering, we see that they refer not only to one’s body – actions and

words – but also to one’s thoughts. In other words, the Noble

Eightfold Path, the path leading to the end of suffering, is a

comprehensive path, an integrated therapy. It is designed to cure

the disease of suffering through eliminating its causes, and it

does so by means of treatment that applies not only to the body

but to the mind as well.

Right understanding is the first step on the Noble Eightfold

Path. It is followed by right thought, right speech, right action,

right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right con-

centration. Why do we begin with right understanding? We

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do so because, to climb a mountain, we must have the sum-

mit clearly in view. In this sense, the first step on our journey

depends on the last. We have to keep the goal clearly in view if

we are to travel a path which can take us surely to that goal. In

this way, right understanding gives direction and orientation to

the other steps of the path.

We can see here that the first two steps of the path, right

understanding and right thought, refer to the mind. Through

right understanding and right thought, ignorance, attachment,

and aversion can be eliminated. But it is not enough to stop

there because, to achieve right understanding and right thought,

we also need to cultivate and purify our minds and bodies, and

the way to do this is through the other six steps of the path. We

purify our physical being so that it will be easier to purify our

minds, and we purify and develop our minds so that it will be

easier to attain right understanding.

For the sake of convenience, the Noble Eightfold Path has

been divided into the three ways of practice: (1) morality, or good

conduct (2) mental development, and (3) wisdom. The eight steps

of the path are divided into these three ways of practice as follows:

(1) right speech, right action, and right livelihood belong to the

way of morality; (2) right effort, right mindfulness, and right con-

centration belong to the way of mental development; and (3) right

understanding and right thought belong to the way of wisdom.

Because it is necessary to purify our words and actions

before we can purify our minds, we begin our progress along

the path with morality, or good conduct. And because the Noble

Eightfold Path is the means of reaching the goal of Buddhism, I

will devote Chapters 5, 6, and 7 to these three ways of practice.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Morality

In Chapter 4 we discussed the Four Noble Truths, our last topic

being the fourth truth, which consists of the Noble Eightfold

Path to the end of suffering. There we used the analogy of climb-

ing a mountain, where the very first step depends on keeping

the summit firmly in view, while the last step depends on being

careful not to stumble at the outset. In other words, each part of

the way depends on the other parts, and if any part of the path is

not completed, the summit will not be gained. In the same way,

in the case of the Noble Eightfold Path, all the steps are interre-

lated and depend on one another. We cannot do away with any

one step.

Nonetheless, as mentioned at the end of Chapter 4, the eight

steps of the path have been divided into three ways of practice:

(1) morality, (2) mental development, and (3) wisdom. Although,

conceptually and structurally speaking, the first step of climb-

ing a mountain depends on the last and the last depends on the

first, practically speaking, we do have to climb the lowest slopes

first. We may be attracted to the summit, but to get there we

must cross the lower slopes first; only then can we proceed to the

higher reaches. It is for this very practical reason that the steps

of the Noble Eightfold Path have been divided into these three

ways of practice.

The first of these three ways of practice is morality. Morality

forms the foundation of further progress on the path, of further

personal development. It is said that, just as the earth is the basis

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of all animate and inanimate things, so morality is the basis of

all positive qualities. When we look around us, we can see that

everything rests on the earth, from buildings to bridges, ani-

mals to human beings. The earth supports all these things; in

the same way, morality is the foundation of all qualities, all vir-

tues, all attainments, ranging from the mundane to the supra-

mundane, from success and good fortune to skill in meditation

and, ultimately, wisdom and enlightenment. By means of this

analogy, we can easily understand the importance of good con-

duct as a fundamental prerequisite for following the path and

achieving results on it.

Why do we take the trouble to stress the importance of good

conduct as the foundation of progress on the path? The reason

is that there is a tendency to think of good conduct as rather

dull and boring. Meditation sounds more exciting and interest-

ing, and philosophy and wisdom, too, have a kind of fascina-

tion about them. There is a dangerous temptation to neglect the

importance of morality and want to go straight on to the more

exciting parts of the path. But if we do not create this founda-

tion of good conduct, we will not succeed in following the other

steps of the path. It is necessary to understand how the rules of good conduct,

or the precepts, are established in Buddhism, because there are

different ways in which moral or ethical codes can be presented.

If you look at the moral teachings of the major religions of the

world, you will find that there is a surprising degree of agree-

ment among them. If you look, for instance, at the moral teach-

ings of Confucius or Lao Tzu, at those of the Buddha and of

Hindu teachers, and at those of Jews, Christians, and Muslims,

65

you will find that the basic rules of good conduct are almost

identical. However, although the rules in most cases correspond

almost exactly, the attitudes toward these codes and the ways

they are presented, understood, and interpreted differ consider-

ably from faith to faith.

In general, there are two ways moral codes can be estab-

lished – what we might call the authoritarian way and the demo-

cratic way. A good example of the former is God handing down

the tablets of the Ten Commandments to Moses on the moun-

tain. By contrast, in Buddhism we have what I think we can call

a democratic way of establishing the basic rules of good conduct.

You may wonder why I say this when, after all, we do have rules

of morality laid down in scriptures. You might ask, “Isn’t this

similar to God handing down the commandments to Moses?”

I think not, because if we look more closely at the meaning of

Buddhist scriptures, we can see what lies behind the rules of good

conduct – namely, the principles of equality and reciprocity.

The principle of equality holds that all living beings are the

same in their basic orientation and outlook. In other words, all

living beings want to be happy, to enjoy life, and to avoid suffer-

ing and death. This is just as true of other living beings as it is

of us. The principle of equality is at the heart of the universality

of the Buddha’s vision. Understanding the principle of equality,

we are encouraged to act in light of the additional awareness of

the principle of reciprocity.

Reciprocity means that, just as we would not like to be

abused, robbed, injured, or killed, so all other living beings

are unwilling to have such things happen to them. We can put

this principle of reciprocity quite simply by saying, “Do not act

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toward others in a way you would not want them to act toward

you.” Once we are aware of these principles of equality and reci-

procity, it is not hard to see how they form the foundation of the

rules of good conduct in Buddhism.

Let us now look specifically at the contents of morality in

Buddhism. The way of practice of good conduct includes three

parts of the Noble Eightfold Path: (a) right speech, (b) right

action, and (c) right livelihood.

Right speech constitutes an extremely important aspect of

the path. We often underestimate the power of speech. As a

consequence, we sometimes exercise very little control over our

faculty of speech. This should not be so. We have all been very

greatly hurt by someone’s words at some time or other in our

lives, and similarly, we have sometimes been greatly encouraged

by the words someone has said. In the area of public life, we can

clearly see how those who are able to communicate effectively

are able to influence people tremendously, for better or for worse.

Hitler, Churchill, Kennedy, and Martin Luther King were all

accomplished speakers who were able to influence millions with

their words. It is said that a harsh word can wound more deeply

than a weapon, whereas a gentle word can change the heart and

mind of even the most hardened criminal. Perhaps more than

anything else, the faculty of speech differentiates humans from

animals, so if we wish to create a society in which communi-

cation, cooperation, harmony, and well-being are goals to be

attained, we must control, cultivate, and use our speech in help-

ful ways.

All the rules of good conduct imply respect for values founded

on an understanding of the principles of equality and reciprocity.

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In this context, right speech implies respect for truth and respect

for the well-being of others. If we use our faculty of speech

with these values in mind, we will be cultivating right speech,

and through this we will achieve greater harmony in our rela-

tionships with others. Traditionally, we speak of four aspects of

right speech – namely, the avoidance of (a) lying, (b) backbiting

or slander, (c) harsh speech, and (d) idle talk.

Some of you may already be familiar with the Buddha’s

instructions to his son Rahula about the importance of avoid-

ing lying. He used the example of a vessel. The vessel had a lit-

tle bit of water in the bottom, which he asked Rahula to look

at, commenting, “The virtue and renunciation of those who are

not ashamed of lying is small, like the small amount of water in

the vessel.” Next, the Buddha threw away the water in the vessel

and said, “Those who are not ashamed of lying throw away their

virtue, just as I have thrown away this water.” Then the Buddha

showed Rahula the empty vessel and said, “Just as empty is the

virtue and renunciation of those who habitually tell lies.”

In this way the Buddha used the vessel to make the point

that our practice of wholesome actions, our good conduct and

character, are intimately affected by lying. If we are convinced

that we can act in one way and speak in another, then we will not

hesitate to act badly, because we will be confident that we will

be able to cover up our harmful actions by lying. Lying therefore

opens the door to all kinds of unwholesome acts.

Slander is divisive. It creates quarrels between friends, and it

creates pain and discord in society. Therefore, just as we would

not like to have our friends turned against us by someone’s slan-

derous talk, so we ought not to slander others.

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Similarly, we ought not to abuse others with harsh words.

On the contrary, we should speak courteously to others, as we

would like them to speak to us.

When we come to idle talk, you may wonder why we can-

not even engage in a little chitchat. But the prohibition against

idle talk is not absolute or general. The kind of idle talk meant

here is malicious gossip – that is, diverting ourselves and others

by recounting people’s faults and failings.

In short, why not simply refrain from using the faculty of

speech – which, as we have seen, is so powerful – for decep-

tion, creating divisions among others, abusing others, and idling

away time at their expense? Instead, why not use it constructive-

ly – for communicating meaningfully, uniting people, encourag-

ing understanding between friends and neighbors, and impart-

ing helpful advice? The Buddha once said, “Pleasant speech is as

sweet as honey; truthful speech is beautiful, like a flower; and

wrong speech is unwholesome, like filth.” So let us try, for our own

good and the good of others, to cultivate right speech – namely, respect both for truth and for the welfare of others.

The next part of the Noble Eightfold Path that falls into

the category of morality is right action. Right action implies

(a) respect for life, (b) respect for property, and (c) respect for

personal relationships. You will recall what I said a moment

ago about life being dear to all. It is said in the Dhammapada

that all living beings tremble at the prospect of punishment, all

fear death, and all love life. Hence, again keeping in mind the

principles of equality and reciprocity, we ought not to kill living

beings. You might be ready to accept this for human beings but

demure with regard to some other living creatures. Here, how-

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ever, some of the developments in recent years in the fields of

science and technology ought to give the most skeptical free-

thinker food for thought. For instance, when we destroy a par-

ticular strain of insect, are we absolutely certain of accomplish-

ing the greatest, long-term good of all, or do we, more often

than not, instead contribute unwittingly to an imbalance in the

ecosystem that will create even greater problems in the future?

Respect for property means not to rob, steal from, or cheat

others. This is important because those who take what is not

given by force, stealth, or treachery are guilty of breaking this

precept. The employer who does not pay his employee an honest

wage, commensurate with the work performed, is guilty of tak-

ing what is not given; the employee who collects his salary but

shirks his duties is equally guilty of lack of respect for property. Finally, respect for personal relationships means, first of all,

to avoid sexual misconduct. Put most simply, it means avoiding

adultery. Beyond that, it means avoiding sexual liaisons with

people who are liable to be harmed by such relations. More gen-

erally, it means avoiding abuse of the senses. You can easily see

how, if these guidelines are followed in a given community, such

a community will be a better place in which to live.

Right livelihood is the third step of the Noble Eightfold

Path included in the way of practice of morality. Right liveli-

hood is an extension of the rules of right action to our roles as

breadwinners in society. We have just seen that, in the cases of

right speech and right action, the underlying values are respect

for truth, for the welfare of others, and for life, property, and

personal relationships. Right livelihood means earning a living

in a way that does not violate these basic moral values.

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Five kinds of livelihood are discouraged for Buddhists: trad-

ing in animals for slaughter, slaves, arms, poisons, and intox-

icants (drugs and alcohol). These five are not recommended

because they contribute to the ills of society and violate the val-

ues of respect for life and for the welfare of others. Dealing

in animals for slaughter violates the value of respect for life.

Dealing in slaves violates both respect for life and right action in

personal relationships. Dealing in arms also violates the value of

respect for life, while dealing in poisons or intoxicants also does

not respect the lives and welfare of others. All these trades con-

tribute to insecurity, discord, and suffering in the world. How

does the practice of good conduct, or morality, work? We have

said that, in the context of society at large, following the rules

of good conduct creates a social environment characterized by

harmony and peace. All our social goals can be achieved within

the rules of good conduct based on the fundamental principles

of equality and reciprocity. In addition, each person benefits

from the practice of good conduct. In one of his discourses, the

Buddha said that someone who has observed respect for life and

so forth feels like a king, duly crowned and with his enemies

subdued. Such a person feels at peace and at ease.

The practice of morality creates an inner sense of tranquil-

lity, stability, security, and strength. Once you have created that

inner peace, you can successfully follow the other steps of the

path. You can cultivate and perfect the various aspects of mental

development. You can then achieve wisdom – but only after you

have created the necessary foundation of morality both within

and without, both in yourself and in your relationships with

others.

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Very briefly, these are the origin, contents, and goal of good

conduct in Buddhism. There is just one more point I would

like to make before concluding our review of Buddhist moral-

ity. When people consider the rules of good conduct, they often

think, “How can we possibly follow them?” It seems to be ter-

ribly difficult to observe the precepts. For instance, even the

prohibition against taking life, which is the most fundamental,

appears very difficult to follow absolutely. Every day, as you clean

the kitchen or putter about the garden, you are very likely to kill

some insect that happens to get in your way. Also, it appears very

difficult even to avoid lying in all cases. How are we to deal with

this problem, which is a genuine one?

The point is not whether we can observe all the rules of

morality all the time. Rather, the point is that, if the rules of

morality are well founded (i.e., if the principles of equality and

reciprocity are worth believing in, and if the rules of morality

are an appropriate way of enacting them), then it is our duty to

follow these rules as much as we possibly can. This is not to say

that we will be able to follow them absolutely, but only that we

ought to do our best to follow the way of practice indicated by

the rules of good conduct. If we want to live at peace with our-

selves and others, then we ought to respect the life and welfare

of others, their property, and so on. If a situation arises in which

we find ourselves unable to apply a particular rule, that is not the

fault of the rule, but simply an indication of the gap between our

own practice of morality and the ideal practice of it.

When, in ancient times, seafarers navigated their ships

across the great oceans with the aid of the stars, they were not

able to follow exactly the course indicated by those heavenly

72

bodies. Yet the stars were their guides, and by following them,

however approximately, mariners reached their destination. In

the same way, when we follow the rules of good conduct, we do

not pretend that we can observe all of them all the time. This is

why the five precepts are called “training precepts”; it is also why

we renew them again and again. What we have in the rules of

good conduct is a framework through which we can try to live

in accord with the two fundamental principles that illuminate

the teaching of the Buddha: the principle of the equality of all

living beings, and the principle of reciprocal respect.

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CHAPTER SIX

Mental Development

In this chapter we will look at the steps of the Noble Eightfold

Path that fall into the group known as mental development.

We have already noted the interdependent nature of the steps

of the path, and in this context it is particularly important to

understand the position of mental development. Placed as it is

between good conduct and wisdom, mental development is rel-

evant and important to both. You may ask why this should be so.

Indeed, people sometimes think simply following the precepts of

morality is sufficient for leading a good life.

There are several answers to this question. First of all, in

Buddhism there is more than just one goal of the religious life.

Besides the goal of happiness and good fortune, there is also the

goal of freedom. If you want to attain freedom, the only way is

through wisdom, and wisdom can only be gained by means of

mental purification, which is achieved through meditation. But

even for the sound practice of good conduct, mental develop-

ment is helpful if not necessary. Why? Because it is relatively

easy to follow the rules of morality when things are going well.

If you have a good job, live in a stable society, and earn enough

to support yourself and your family, it is relatively easy to observe

the moral precepts. But when you find yourself in situations of

stress, instability, and uncertainty – when, for instance, you lose

your job, find yourself in circumstances where lawlessness pre-

vails, and so forth – then observance of the rules of good conduct

comes under attack.

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In such circumstances, only mental development can safe-

guard your practice of good conduct. By strengthening the

capacity of the mind and by attaining control over it, mental

development serves as a guarantor of the observance of the pre-

cepts, and at the same time it assists in the real objective of see-

ing things as they really are. Mental development prepares the

mind to achieve wisdom, which opens the door to freedom and

enlightenment. Mental development therefore has a distinctly

important role in the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path.

Buddhism’s emphasis on the importance of mental devel-

opment is not surprising when we remember the importance of

mind in the Buddhist conception of experience. Mind is the sin-

gle most important factor in the practice of the Noble Eightfold

Path. The Buddha himself put this very clearly when he said

that the mind is the source of all things and that all things are

created by the mind. Similarly, it has been said that the mind is

the source of all virtues and other beneficial qualities. To obtain

these virtues and qualities, you must discipline the mind. The

mind is the key to changing the nature of experience. It is said

that, if we had to cover the whole surface of the earth with some

soft yet resilient substance to protect our feet from being hurt

by sticks and stones, it would be a very difficult undertaking

indeed. But merely by covering the soles of our feet with shoes,

it is as if the whole surface of the earth were thus covered. In the

same way, if we had to purify the whole universe of attachment,

aversion, and ignorance, it would be very difficult indeed, but

simply by purifying our own minds of these three afflictions, it

is – for us – as if we had purified the whole world of them. That

is why, in Buddhism, we focus on the mind as the key to chang-

75

ing the way we experience things and the way we relate to other

people.

The importance of the mind has also been recognized by sci-

entists, psychologists, and even physicians. You may be aware of

a number of visualization techniques now being used by thera-

pists in the West. Psychiatrists and physicians are successfully

employing methods very similar to well-known techniques of

meditation to help patients overcome mental disorders, chronic

pain, and diseases. This approach is now an accepted practice

within the therapeutic community.

We can all appreciate the influence the mind has on our own

state of being by looking at our experience. We have all experi-

enced happiness and know how it has a beneficial influence on

our activities. When in such a state of mind, we are efficient,

we respond appropriately, and we are able to function in the

best possible way. On other occasions, when our minds are dis-

turbed, depressed, or otherwise pervaded by harmful emotions,

we find that we cannot even discharge simple tasks with care. In

this way, we can all see how important the mind is in whatever

sphere of our lives we care to consider.