Yongjia’s Song of Actualizing the Way Observing the Mind Awakening from a Dream

Notes

1 Majjhima Nikāya III 63; Samyutta Nikāya V 387, quoted in Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (New York: Grove Books, 1959), p 53.

2 Both of the major Mahayana schools, Madhyamaka and Yogâcāra, considered the "middle path" to be the central teaching of Śākyamuni, though their interpretations of this general concept differed.

3 The twelve limbs are analyzed in detail in the seventh chapter of the Kanjin kakumushō; see "VII. Twelvefold Dependent Arising," pp. 127-132.

4 In Buddhist literature the three terms citta, manas, and vijñāna are often considered synonyms that denote mind or consciousness.

5 Namely, the six internal sense bases and the six external sense bases. 6 Note that the Yogâcāra philosophers only oppose what they consider to be nihilistic in Madhyamaka thought; they do not reject the entire śūnyatā doctrine. Indeed, aspects of Nāgârjuna's critique of causes and conditions are palpable throughout Yogâcāra philosophy

7 For a detailed study of the development of the notion of the ālayavijñāna in response to the problems inherent in the Abhidharma model, see William S. Waldron, The Buddhist Unconscious: The Ālaya-Vijñāna in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). For an influential hypothesis on the development of the concept of ālayavijñāna in Buddhist literature from a textual/historical point of view, see Lambert Schmithausen, Ālayavijñāna: On the Origin and the Early Development of a Central Concept of Yogācāra Philosophy IV (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1987).

8 The Dilun philosophical movement was inspired by Vasubandhu's commentary on the Daśabhūmika-śāstra (also included in the Yogâcārabhūmi), which also forms the commentary on one the chapters of the Flower Ornament Sutra, a strongly Tathāgatagarbha-oriented text. 9 Diana Paul, Philosophy of Mind in Sixth-Century China: Paramârtha's "Evolution of Consciousness" (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984), examines the various schools, texts, and thinkers in the interwoven stream of Yogâcāra and Tathāgatagarbha thought at the time, based on her appended translation of a seminal work by Paramârtha.

10 Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogācāra Buddhism and the Ch'eng wei-shih lun (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002), thoroughly examines the relationship between Xuanzang's newer system of Yogâcāra and the 191

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older, more Tathāgatagarbha-influenced systems established by Huiyuan, Paramârtha, and others.

11 Leo Pruden, trans., The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1994), p. 58.

12 Stanley Weinstein titled his revised translation of the text A Compendium of the Teachings of the Hossō Sect (forthcoming from University of Hawai'i Press). 13 Even the modern-day Hossō scholar Tagawa Shun'ei, former abbot of Kōfukuji, felt compelled to defend the five-natures doctrine in Hajimete no yuishiki (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 2002); translated into English and published under the title Living Yogâcāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only Buddhism (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009); see chapter 8.

14 The issue of sudden vs. gradual enlightenment is also one that Ven. Tagawa felt necessary to treat in Hajimete no yuishiki (Living Yogâcāra). 15 Weinstein's revision of his dissertation on "The Kanjin kakumushō" was supplied to me by Paul Groner, and I am deeply thankful to him for passing this on to me. After Prof. Weinstein's death, Prof. Groner has been working to prepare a reprint of this work, to be published by University of Hawai'i Press.

16 18 Referring to Kuiji's Cheng weishilun shuji 成唯識論述記, T. 1830. 17 Cheng weishilun shuji, T.1830:229c28-230a1.

For discussions and listings of the various taxonomical schemes developed in Chinese Buddhism, please see the entry 判教 in the DDB.

19 The full title of the Yideng is Cheng weishi lun liaoyi deng 成唯識論了義燈, T.1832: 661b15-16.

20 The fifth chapter of the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, starting from T.676:693c15 in Xuanzang's translation. 21 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:694b1.

22 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:694b2. Xuanzang's translation of the sutra uses 幻像 instead of 幻事.

23 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:694b4.

24 25 This phrase appears frequently in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra. I am unable to find a matching passage in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra. It seems to be related to the discussion starting from T.676:697a23, which also relates to the ensuing discussion.

26 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:697a28 and following.

27 29 Yuqielun lüezuan 瑜伽論略纂 (Extracts of the Yogâcārabhūmi), T.1829:9b21-22. 28 Correcting 眼 to 相.

"Mind-king" 心王 (Jp. shinnō) is a term used in East Asian Yogâcāra to refer to each consciousness itself (e.g., the sixth consciousness) in distinction to the variety of mental functions that are associated with it.

192

Notes

30 The meaning of manovijñāna, the sixth consciousness, is explained below in its own section.

31 32 I.e., the four primary colors blue, yellow, red, and white. The three modes of karmic moral quality are wholesome (kuśala), unwholesome (akuśala), and indeterminate (avyākṛta).

33 34 The meaning of manovijñāna is explained below.

At present, there is no adequate English translation for the term manovijñāna. Other translators for the BDK Tripiṭaka Series, such as Francis H. Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1999) and John P. Keenan, The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (Berkeley: Numata Center for Translation and Research, 2000) have opted for "thought consciousness" and "thinking consciousness." Weinstein renders it as "discriminative consciousness." Among other modern specialists of Yogâcāra "mental consciousness" is also commonly used. The problem with using "thinking" or "discriminating" to characterize the sixth consciousness is that thinking (or conceptualization, discrimination, etc.) constitutes only one narrow aspect of the broad range of functions possessed by this layer of consciousness, which includes gathering data from the five sense organs, memories of the past, intuition, inference, anticipation of the future, emotional responses, and so forth. The problem with the rendering "mental" is that it is redundant and ultimately tells us nothing, since all of the consciousnesses are in some way mental, and furthermore some scholars like to render the name of the seventh consciousness, manas, as "mental consciousness." I have therefore decided to use the Sanskrit term in this translation.

35 It is not uncommon to interpret dharmas in this context as "concepts," but what is referred to here are not merely concepts but also images, odors, sounds, and anything else that can be treated as a mental object. "Phenomena" comes close to rendering this meaning.

36 Jp. ikon 意根.

37 These are four kinds of undefiled moral indeterminacy that do not hinder liberation: (1) the undefiled indeterminacy of ripening; (2) the undefiled indeterminacy of mode of deportment, referring to the indeterminate (or "neutral") quality of the thoughts that arise in connection with the moving into certain physical positions; (3) the undefiled indeterminacy of the arts and crafts; (4) the undefiled indeterminacy of the transformations, which refers to the moral neutrality of the occurrences that arise through the action of supernormal powers.

38 39 The five omnipresent functions are explained below.

The following section is derived almost verbatim from the Cheng weishi lun, T.1585: 11c4ff. Many other sections also come from the Cheng weishi lun, to the extent that it is too unwieldy and not useful to identify them all.

40 The two ideographs cited here for "kindness" and "caring" are ji 慈 and hi 悲, which usually appear in compound form 慈悲 to translate the notion of compassion (karuṇā). 193

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41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 See Glossary: "seven kinds of pride"; "nine kinds of pride." Kyōke 教誨 (to teach, guide, lead, etc.) is almost always used in a positive sense, and thus other translators render it as a positive teaching that is being obstructed (for example, in Cook's translation of this line from the Cheng weishi lun in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 198; Makio Takemura, in Yuishiki no kokoro: Kanjin kakumushō wo yomu [Tokyo: Shunjusha, 2001], p. 110). These readings makes sense. The problem is, however, that if one renders in this way, it would be the only case in the this portion of text of the formulaically repeated structure of ○○爲業, where ○○ is a term with positive connotations. I am thus inclined to read the notion of "teach" 教 誨 more along the lines of the way it is used in Vinaya texts, where it means to incite, or to mislead someone to commit a crime.

The exact opposite definition from faith, above.

Specifically, the stage of meditation between the basic level 根本定 of the first meditation heaven 初禪天 (the stage having coarse apprehension and fine analysis 有尋 有伺地) and the adjacent stage 近分定 of the second meditation heaven 二禪天 (the stage without coarse apprehension or fine analysis 無尋無伺地). This intermediate level is the stage of fine analysis only 無尋唯伺地.

It might be just as well to translate these five as "organs" rather than "faculties," except that in the Abhidharma/Yogâcāra philosophy of mind what is being referred to here is not simply the physical eyes and so forth, but the invisible cognitive power contained in the eyes, etc. that generates seeing, etc.

Pratibimba 影像 is normally rendered as "image" in English, but since we are talking about sound here, "image" would be odd.

"Unexpressed" refers to the latent energy that remains from verbal or bodily activity that has not achieved fruition or manifestation. Mental activity is invisible and of course is not visibly manifest, but physical and verbal activity also results in expressed karma 表業 and unexpressed karma 無表業. Although expressed karma disappears instantaneously, the effects of the activity continue to exist in latent form. It is thus described as unconscious, unmanifest, latent, subjective. This is internal and not visible to others. It has a "quasi-material" basis called "unexpressed form" 無表色, which has the power to resist evil. This invisible power may serve either wholesome or unwholesome tendencies, and may perhaps be compared to "animal magnetism" or hypnotic powers. It means occult power, whether for higher spiritual ends or for base purposes. For a comprehensive treatment of the two hindrances, which covers all their aspects discussed here in far greater detail, see A Charles Muller, trans., "The System of the Two Hindrances (Yijang ŭi)," in A. Charles Muller and Cuong T. Nguyen, eds., Wŏnhyo's Philosophy of Mind (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2012), Vol II, pp. 45-161. I.e., 所知障 (Jp. shochishō) and 智障 (Jp. chishō). The former translation is that of Xuan zang, which is the primary form used in the works of the Faxiang school. The latter rendering is the earlier form used by Paramârtha, Kumārajīva, Huiyuan, etc., as well as in works of the Tathāgatagarbha tradition and Tiantai. For a detailed explanation, see the DDB entry on the two hindrances 二障 (Jp. nishō). 194

Notes

50 The "noble path" referred to here is not the eightfold noble path but rather the fortyone- or fifty-two-stage bodhisattva path taught in Yogâcāra, Tiantai, Huayan, etc. 51 The most general distinction among practitioners made in regard to the two hindrances is that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are only able to remove the afflictive hindrances, whereas bodhisattvas remove both. Under more careful analysis, this general model features many caveats and exceptions. These are explained in detail in Muller, "The System of the Two Hindrances (Yijang ŭi)."

52 This is only true in a general sense. When scrutinized in detail, there are certain kinds of cognitive hindrances that the adherents of the two vehicles are able to eliminate. See Muller, "The System of the Two Hindrances (Yijang ŭi)," p. 142. 53 Buddhist scriptures indicate that there are sixteen terms used to describe the notion of a self. See the term 十六知見 (Jp. jūroku chiken) in the DDB.

54 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:39b12.

55 56 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:39b13; Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 213. An oft-cited phrase in the Chinese Buddhist commentarial tradition, deriving from a verse in the Zhong lun (*Madhyamaka-śāstra), T.1564:33b11.

57 Substance, quality, and activity are the first three among the six categories (padârthas) taught in the Vaiśeṣika system. See Glossary: "six categories of existence." 58 The Abhidharma-sūtra is not extant in Sanskrit, Tibetan, or Chinese and known only by being cited in Yogâcāra works. Ryōhen's explanation below appears to be derived from the discussion found in the Cheng weishi lun.

59 This is a position found in Huayan literature called "mind-only" 唯心, which on the surface appears similar to that of the Weishi 唯識 school but, as Ryōhen explains here, is somewhat different.

60 The Sanskrit term bimba (本質; Jp. honzetsu) is understood as unprocessed appearance, simple perceptive input—the not-yet-interpreted aspect of something that impinges on our consciousness. It is the original form of something as contrasted to its reflection, a projection 影像 (Jp. eizō; Skt. pratibimba) or a perceived manifestation. Thus, the raw data of things that can't ever be directly perceived but can only be "represented." 61 "Karmic seeds" have clear, potent wholesome or unwholesome moral character, and thus bring about clearly negative or positive effects.

62 The marvelous observing cognition (pratyavekṣājñāna) and the cognition of equality in nature (samatājñāna) are the second and third of the four kinds of purified cognition obtained at the stage of full enlightenment. See Glossary: "four kinds of purified cognition."

63 Ryōhen says this based on the fact that there is a mental factor called "intelligence," written with the ideograph 慧 (Jp. e), but this is considered to be a translation of the Sanskrit prajñā ("wisdom"), while the ideograph 智 (Jp. chi) here is a translation of the Sanskrit jñāna ("knowing").

64 Some translators prefer to render 四智 (Jp. shichi) as "four kinds of wisdom." My reason for choosing "cognition" is based on the fact that the original Sanskrit term 195

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is jñāna, not prajñā, and wisdom is something that one develops over a long period of trial-and-error, while cognition is immediate. Of course, this instance is talking about the Buddha's cognition, but it is nonetheless cognition. 65 See Glossary: "seven differences."

66 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:695a20-22.

67 Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, T.374:569a6.

68 69 Mahāyānasūtrâlaṃkāra, T.1604:591a8. See Glossary: "eight reasons." Explained in the Xianyang shengjiao lun, T.1602:581b5-10. See Glossary: "ten reasons."

70 "Explaining the three, revealing the one" means to explain the three vehicles 三乘 and reveal the reality of the one method of salvation 一乘. The idea taught in Tiantai 天台 that the ultimate teaching of the Buddha is that there is but One Vehicle leading to buddhahood, and the doctrine of the three vehicles was merely a provisional teaching to lead unenlightened people. The first clear exposition of this was done by the scholar Fayun in his Fahua yiji 法華義記, and was later taken up by Zhiyi, who explained this using the first half of the fourteenth chapter of the Lotus Sutra. 71 To concur with the One Vehicle teaching while making a distinction between the five kinds of dispositions of practitioners, a teaching of the Faxiang school that derives from the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra. The Lotus Sutra, the Nirvana Sutra, and so forth teach that there is only the Dharma of the One Vehicle by which all sentient beings become a buddha, not two or three vehicles. The Saṃdhinirmocana says that even though there is only One Vehicle, there are differences in the religious faculties of sentient beings in terms of their being dull 鈍 or sharp 利, and thus five natures are distinguished.

72 From the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:692c22, in which the Buddha says, "The appropriating consciousness is profound and subtle indeed; all its seeds are like a rushing torrent. Fearing that they would imagine and cling to it as to a self, I have not revealed it to the foolish"; Keenan, The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning, p. 29. "Appropriating consciousness" (ādānavijñāna) is an important developmental connotation of the store consciousness (ālayavijñāna), pointing to its role as the stabilizing factor from which a being is congealed. Normally 凡愚 (Jp. bon gu) indicates a single concept, such as "foolish," but since Ryōhen breaks it apart for analysis in the next line, I have translated the two ideographs separately here. 73 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:14c12. "Seeking quiescence" is a reference to the practitioners of the two Hinayana vehicles. 74 Da Tang Daci'ensi sanzang fashi zhuan, T.2053:241b26-27. A more detailed account can be found in the Da Tang xiyu ji, T.2087:930c25-b13.

75 The five aspects of consciousness-only are explained in the Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:39c20-29; translated in Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 215. These five aspects are detailed in the glossary.

76 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:11a6-8; see Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 59. 196

Notes

77 Cheng weishilun shuji, T.1830:320c7-8.

78 In the Cheng weishi lun two kinds of interpretation of consciousness-only are given: (1) the general interpretation 總門唯識, which simply explains that all dharmas are contained in consciousness, and (2) the specific interpretation 別門唯識, which is based on the five aspects. "Consciousness-only in terms of that which is transformed" is the third of the five interpretations; see T.1585:39c24.

79 Puyang (668-723), better known as Zhizhou 智周, was the third patriarch of the Chinese Faxiang school. 80 81 82 Cheng weishilun yanmi 成唯識論演祕, T.1833:859b17-18.

This is the general approach of Tendai and Kegon.

The Chūshū ryakuyō 中宗略要, assumed to be the work of Ryōhen, is not extant. The Middle School is the Faxiang school, which divides the Buddha's teaching into three periods, the first in which he preached existence, the second emptiness, the third, neither existence nor emptiness, citing the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra and the Lotus Sutra. 83 84 The "four derivative afflictions" are parsimony, envy, laziness, and distraction. According to Xuanzang's biography, Da Tang Daci'ensi sanzang fashi zhuan, T.2053: 239b29-c24.

85 The question being raised here is in reference to a competing account of nescience/ affliction and the cognitive and afflictive hindrances elaborated in Tathāgatagarbhaoriented works such as the Śrīmālā-sūtra and the Benye jing, and is discussed in detail in Huiyuan's Erzhang yi and Wonhyo's Ijang ui (System of the Two Hindrances). Nescience entrenchments are a way of describing nescience in its latent aspect as something innate and deeply embedded in the consciousness, which is difficult to remove and which serves as the basis for the production of afflictions categorized within the latter four entrenchments. In the Erzhang yi and Ijang ui it is explained as being a broad category under which the four distinct entrenchments 四住地 (Jp. shi jūji) are subsumed. When the nescience entrenchment is added as a separate item to the previous four, they are spoken of as the five entrenchments 五住地惑 (Jp. go jūji waku). For a full explanation, see these terms in the DDB.

86 The Śrīmālā-sūtra itself does not actually identify the nescience entrenchments 無明 住地 (Jp. mumyō jūji) in terms of the two hindrances. This interpretation is articulated in Huiyuan's Erzhang yi, T.1843:188c5 (also contained as part of his commentary on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, where this entrenchment is equated with the cognitive hindrances). See also my annotated translation of this text, "A Pivotal Text for the Definition of the Two Hindrances in East Asia: Huiyuan's Erzhang Yi Chapter," in Chen-kuo Lin and Michael Radich, eds., A Distant Mirror: Articulating Indic Ideas in Sixth and Seventh Century Chinese Buddhism (Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, 2014), pp. 217-271. The explanation of the entrenchments is developed in further detail in Wonhyo's Ijang ui; see Muller, "The System of the Two Hindrances (Yijang ŭi)." There Wonhyo identifies the four entrenchments as equivalent to the Cheng weishi lun's afflictive hindrances, and the nescience entrenchment as equivalent to the cognitive hindrances. Here Ryōhen provides a description of the 197

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relative functions of the two afflictions based on their characterization given in the Śrīmālā-sūtra and other Tathāgatagarbha-oriented texts. The description of the hindrances provided earlier in the Kanjin kakumushō is based on the Weishi-oriented approach given in the Cheng weishi lun, the Yogâcārabhūmi, etc. 87 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:47c14-15.

88 89 These are number one and number four of the four kinds of causation; see Glossary. She dashenglun ben, T.1594:143a2. See John P. Keenan, The Summary of the Great Vehicle (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1992), p. 65. This story is not contained in a verse as Ryōhen indicates but in the prose portion of the text.

90 I.e., seeing only the empty aspect of things and ignoring the nominal manner in which they exist.

91 92 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:249a27-28.

Ōta, Kanjin kakumushō. Butten kōza 42 (Tokyo: Daizō Shuppan, 2001), suggests 離 to be 雖.

93 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:249a23-24.

94 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:37a9-10.

95 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:38c8.

96 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:38c4-9. Adapted from Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 207.

97 98 99 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:261b5-6.

Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:261b3-4.

The "three categories" is a classification of all factors of existence into the three categories of the five aggregates, the twelve sense bases, and the eighteen spheres. 100 The Tiantai school teaches that each of the ten realms of beings contains the other nine in itself. See Glossary: "ten realms."

101 Also called "thusness of the truth of suffering." Posited thusness is the attempt to teach about the reality of thusness through linguistic discriminations (saṃniveśatathatā). It is an image of reality conveyed by teaching about the noble truth of suffering, and is one of the seven kinds of thusness taught in Yogâcāra texts. See Glossary: "seven aspects of thusness."

102 "Thusness of correct practices" (Skt. samyak-pratipatti-tathatā), another of the seven aspects of thusness (see Glossary), is the aspect of thusness that resides in the full attainment of correct practices, such as the eightfold path. While untainted, the truth of the path is composed of arising and ceasing dharmas and is thus conditioned. 103 Cheng weishilun shuji, T.1830:548b29.

104 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:46b19-21; translation adapted from Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 255.

105 This discussion in the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra is found at T.676:690a28-b29; Keenan, The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning, p. 17. 198

Notes

106 Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, T.676:690b12; see Keenan, The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning, p. 17.

107 This is the Zongliaojian zhang 總料簡章 chapter, the first chapter in Kuiji's Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang 大乘法苑義林章. The Taishō version of the Kanjin kakumushō has a typographical error of the ideograph liao 聊 instead of liao 料. 108 The Southern Temple transmission is one of the two lineages of the Japanese Hossō school (in the four-transmission classification it includes the first two transmissions). It is also known as the Gangōji transmission 元興寺傳 and the Asuka transmission 飛 鳥傳. In 653 Dōshō 道昭, who had traveled to the Tang to study Faxiang with Xuanzang, returned to Japan and established the first transmission. In 658, Chitsū 智通 and Chidatsu 智達 also returned from studying with Xuanzang and established the second transmission, also residing at Gangōji. The third and fourth transmissions were established at Kōfukuji 興福寺 (known as the Northern Temple transmission 北 寺傳). For an overview of these schools see Ronald S. Green, "Early Japanese Hossō in Relation to Silla Yogācāra in Disputes between Nara's Northern and Southern Temple Traditions," Journal of Korean Religions 11/1 (2020): 97-121. 109 The Northern Temple transmission of the early Japanese Hossō school 法相宗 (in the four-transmission scheme it includes the third and fourth transmissions) is also known as the Kōfukuji transmission 興福寺傳 and the Mikasa transmission 三笠傳. In 703 Chihō 智鳳, Chiran 智鸞, and Chiyū 智雄 went to the Tang where they learned Faxiang doctrine from the third patriarch Zhizhou 智周 (this was considered the third transmission). In 716 Genbō 玄昉 entered the Tang and also studied with Zhizhou 智周 (considered the fourth transmission). Members of both these transmissions were residents of Kōfukuji, the "northern temple" of Hossō, while the members of the first two transmissions did their work at Gangōji, the southern temple. 110 That is, the second of the three periods of the teaching (see Glossary), according to the Faxiang/Hossō school.

111 Although not indicated by Ryōhen, many of the passages in this section are found in Kuiji's Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:260a20ff.

112 113 The double negative of 無不 here seems wrong. Ōta reads it with only a single negative. The Foundational Treatise is the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra; the four conventional truths and single ultimate truth are discussed at T.1579:653c-654a. 114 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:48a19.

115 See Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:287b16ff.

116 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:47c13-15. See Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 262.

117 Madhyântavibhāga, T.1600:464b16-17. The full line reads: "There is false discrimination, yet here these two do not exist. Herein there is but emptiness, and that is also existent in this." See the translation of this text by Jeffrey Kotyk, Analysis of the Middle and Extremes (Moraga, CA: BDK America, Inc., 2021), p. 17. 199

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118 "Substance aspect" is 自體分 (Jp. jitaibun). The dictionaries of Buddhist terminology by Nakamura, Ui, Yokoyama, and others define this as a synonym of the self-witnessing aspect 自證分 (Jp. jishōbun), one of the four aspects of cognition, but further study is required. In the Kanjin kakumushō the cognizing aspect and the objective aspect are said to bifurcate from this part (旣自體分轉成相見) and this differs from standard definitions of the self-witnessing aspect, which is said to arise subsequent to the first two parts.

119 Da Tang xiyu ji, T.2087:906c26.

120 I.e., the five limbs of consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and sensation.

121 These two phrases are found scattered throughout the Buddhist canon but I am unable to find them in the Huayan jing (Flower Ornament Sutra). 122 Huayan jing, T.278:465c29.

123 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:260c5 and following. 124 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:259a13. It is in this portion of the text that Kuiji elucidates the five kinds of consciousness-only, the topic here. 125 Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang, T.1861:261a29.

126 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:39c25-27; see Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 214.

127 The sixth chapter of the Cheng weishi lun, starting at T.676:697c13. 128 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:49b29-c3; adapted from Cook, Three Texts on Consciousness Only, p. 272. 129 Cheng weishi lun, T.1585:48b16-20. Adapted from Cook, Three Texts on Conscious ness Only, pp. 264-265. 130 The Taishō has 鏡 here, but I follow Ōta's suggestion of 境. 131 Cheng weishilun shuji, T.1830:558b2.

132 She dasheng lun shi, T.1598:419a8-9.

133 The arousal of the intention for enlightenment is the first of the ten stages of preparation. 134 See Dasheng daji dizang shilun jing, T.411:691c21-23. 200

Glossary

Acclamation of the Holy Teaching (*Prakaraṇâryavāca-śāstra): One of the seminal treatises of the Yogâcāra tradition. A combination of verse by Asaṅga, commented on by Vasubandhu; translated into Chinese by Xuanzang in 645-646 C.E. It is considered to be a further development of the tradition seen in the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra, as it uses the concepts found in that text in a manner that suggests that they have already been accepted. Contained in this treatise are discussions of all the major Yogâcāra topics, such as the eight consciousnesses, the three natures, theories of dharmas, etc. actual sensory ability: Faculties in the proper or ultimate sense. Yogâcāra distinguishes the sense faculties into two aspects: the sensory ability itself, and the physical organ through which the faculty operates, constituted in gross matter (Skt. audārikarūpa), whereas the former is the faculty constituted in refined matter (Skt. rūpaprasāda). adamantine absorption (Skt. vajrôpama-samādhi): A state of deep meditative trance in which all of the most subtle defilements are destroyed; the final stage of bodhisattva practice. Mahayana schools say that this is the highest meditative state attainable in Hinayana, i.e., the highest attainment of the arhat. In Mahayana it is considered to be the same as "virtual enlightenment." In Yogâcāra, this state of concentration occurs in the consummating stage of practice.

afflictive hindrances (Skt. kleśâvaraṇa): The tormenting afflictions of nescience, anger, jealousy, and so forth that prevent the attainment of mental peace. In the Abhidharma kośabhāṣya the afflictive hindrances are defined in contrast to "hindrances to liberation," with the former obstructing defiled wisdom and the latter obstructing undefiled wisdom. In Mahayana schools such as Yogâcāra the afflictive hindrances are postulated in contrast to the cognitive hindrances; the former are seen as removable by the moral and meditative practices of arhats and pratyekabuddhas while the latter require treatment through the compassion and wisdom in regard to emptiness possessed by bodhisattvas. See also cognitive hindrances. Āgamas: Refers to either: (1) The four (or five) Āgama scriptures; or (2) the texts of early Indian Buddhism, as contrasted with Mahayana scriptures. After the appearance of Mahayana Buddhism, āgama became synonymous with Hinayana.

appropriating consciousness (Skt. ādānavijñāna): An important developmental connotation of the store consciousness (Skt. ālayavijñāna), pointing to its role as the stabilizing factor from which a being is congealed.

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Avalokitêśvara: Interpreted as "The One who Observes the Sounds of the World," a prominent bodhisattva in the Mahayana tradition. Avalokitêśvara is considered to be the embodiment of the Buddhist virtue of compassion and as the power of Amitâbha Buddha manifested as a bodhisattva. This bodhisattva is therefore often depicted as the helper of the Buddha of the Pure Land.

avīci hell: The Buddhist hell of incessant suffering. In Buddhism, hell is the lowest of the six realms of existence, and is divided into eight categories; the avīci hell is the last and deepest of the eight hot hells, where the culprits suffer, die, and are instantly reborn to suffering, without interruption.

Bhāviveka (ca. 490-570): An influential Madhyamaka scholar, known for his use of positive dialectic to support the theory of emptiness. Bhāviveka's position forms the basic theme for the branch of Madhyamaka called Svātantrika. He criticized the theories of Asaṅga, Vasubandhu, and Dignāga, and was also critical of the theories of his contemporary, Dharmapāla. Although open debate between Bhāviveka and Dharmapāla apparently did not take place, the controversy between them is called the "Debate regarding Emptiness and Existence." In this argument, Bhāviveka championed the concept of śūnyatā, whereas Dharmapāla stood firmly for the independent existence of external phenomena.

bimba: Raw substance; appearance; unprocessed perceptive input. The not-yet-interpreted aspect of something that impinges on our consciousness; the original form of something as contrasted to its reflection, projection, or perceived manifestation (pratibimba). Bimba is substance as it is before it undergoes the transformations of consciousness, thus, the raw substance of things that can't ever be directly received but can only be "represented." See also pratibimba.

body for the enjoyment for others: The actual manifest body of the Buddha, one of the four bodies of a buddha; the complement of the self-enjoyment body; the reward body of the Buddha that causes other beings to receive and enjoy the Dharma. See also transformation body.

Caoxi: A stream southeast of Shaozhou, Guangdong, also the name of the region where the Sixth Patriarch of Chan Huineng lived. In Chan texts it is often used as a nickname for Huineng.

causation by contributory factors (Skt. adhipati-pratyaya): Auxiliary causes and conditions; additional contingencies. One of the four kinds of causation in Yogâcāra causal theory. The reference here is to the gamut of an unthinkably vast number of contributing factors that contribute to the causation of any single effect. Thus, the term refers to "conditions related to the absence or presence of empowerment," meaning all the auxiliary factors that aid the main causes of the production of existences, or conditions that while not directly contributing to the cause do not impede it. 202

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chiliocosm. (Skt. trisāhasra-mahāsāhasra-lokadhātu): The billion worlds that constitute the domain of the Buddha. A world consists of the world of desire and the first heaven of the world of form. One thousand times one thousand times one thousand equals one billion. In ancient Indian cosmology it is a way of describing the vastness and interwovenness of the universe.

circumstantial retribution: Circumstantial retribution refers to the world, country, family, etc., in which we are born; while directive retribution refers to our body and personality. See also directive retribution.

cognitive hindrances (Skt. jñeyâvaraṇa): The variety of factors that obscure and distort one's awareness of reality. These hindrances to cognition are understood in Yogâcāra to be based on a lack of full penetration into the principle of the emptiness of phenomena (dharmas). In everyday terms, it means to be hindered from attaining enlightenment by nothing other than our own knowledge, our own habituated way of knowing. Definitions of the term vary in their tendency to interpret the obstructions as deriving from subjective function or from known objects. These hindrances are taught along with the afflictive hindrances and are referred to together as the "two types of hindrances." See also afflictive hindrances. concentration of extinction (Skt. nirodha-samāpatti): The meditative attainment of cessation. An extremely deep state of meditative concentration in which sensory and discriminative mental function is completely extinguished; one of the six states of mental inactivity. When this concentration is attained the thinking consciousness is also extinguished, which enables the practitioner to be reborn into the highest heaven. continuity of sameness in the Dharma realm: The skillful interaction between the Dharma realm and the mind of the individual practitioner produces the seeds of the mind focused on supramundane goals. The correct teachings issue forth in a continuous flow from the Dharma realm and perfume the consciousness of practitioners through the sense of hearing.

Deer Park (Skt. Mṛgadāva): A famous park northeast of Vārāṇasī located in the vicinity of modern Sārnāth, a favorite dwelling place of Śākyamuni where he is said to have delivered his first sermon.

degenerate Dharma: The third and last phase in widespread belief in East Asian Mahayana Buddhism of the gradual degeneration of the Buddha's Dharma, which is said to progress through three periods. The first thousand-year (or, in a variant scheme, five hundred-year) period following the death of the Buddha is said to have been the "age of the true Dharma," during which his followers were able to practice in accordance with his teachings and attain awakening. The second thousand-year period is called the "age of the semblance Dharma," in which practice of the Dharma continues and seems stable on the surface but spiritual corruption has set in and true attainment is no longer possible. The third and final period, ten thousand years in duration, is called the "age of the end of the Dharma." See also semblance Dharma.

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dependent arising (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda): The core Buddhist teaching that everything arises from conditions; there is nothing that arises out of nothing, nothing arises of itself, and things do not come into existence through the power of an external creator. Thus, there is nothing that is self-contained, independent, or which has its own separate and independent nature. It is the condition of relationship to something else resulting in arising or production.

Dharma body: A name for absolute existence, the manifestation of all existences—the true body of reality, or Buddha as eternal principle; the body of essence that is pure, possesses no marks of distinction, and is the same as emptiness. The Dharma body is one of the three bodies of the Buddha.

Dharma cloud ground: The tenth of the ten grounds (bhūmis) on the bodhisattva's path; the stage of religious development where wisdom is spread throughout the world like rain from a cloud.

Dharma realm (Skt. dharmadhātu): The underlying principle of reality, sometimes also called the reality realm. In Sinitic forms of Mahayana teaching, it refers to a religious basis or principle of the origin of all things. In this kind of teaching, where the whole universe is taken as phenomena, it is understood as the manifestation of thusness. Dīpaṃkara Buddha: The twenty-fourth predecessor of Śākyamuni, who appears when the Buddha preaches the themes of the Lotus Sutra. In his lifetime as Māṇava Bodhisattva during Śākyamuniʼs second incalculable eon of practice, when Śākyamuni offered him five (or seven) lotus stalks, he assured Śākyamuni that he would attain buddhahood and was thereupon designated as a coming buddha.

direct causal conditions: Within the first of the four kinds of causation, causal conditions, direct causes that produce phenomena. Causes that are able to produce their own effects. directive retribution (Skt. karmâkṣepa): This refers to the body and personality that we receive based on prior karma, while circumstantial retribution refers to the world, country, family, etc., in which we are born. See also circumstantial retribution. direct perception (Skt. pratyakṣa): To have direct awareness of something without interference from conceptualization or predispositions. This is a natural mode of function for the five sense consciousnesses. The other two kinds of cognition are inference (anumāna) and mistaken perception or inference (apramāṇa). See also three means of cognition.

dirty mirror: A metaphor for the untrained mind, filled with affliction and delusion. Mirrors in ancient Asia were not made of glass but of copper or bronze polished until shiny and reflective. Thus, continual polishing was necessary to rid the mirror of corrosion. dragons and elephants: Great saints, buddhas, bodhisattvas; a monk who is superior (in insight); a term of respect applied to a monk.

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dragon-subduing bowl: The Buddhist monk Shegong was invited by Fujian, the king of Jin (338-385), to pray for rain; after he had subdued the dragons and captured them in his bowl, rain began to fall in torrents.

eighteen perfections of purity in a buddha's enjoyment body: (1) The perfect purity of visible color; (2) the perfect purity of visible shape; (3) the perfect purity of extent. The Pure Land where the Buddha abides is limitless and unfathomable; (4) the perfect purity of location. The Pure Land transcends the locations of the three realms and thus is not subject to the truths of suffering or arising of suffering; (5) the perfect purity of cause. The Pure Land is produced by the function of superb supramundane wholesome factors and is thus not subject to causation by the worldly dharmas of suffering and arising of suffering; (6) the perfect purity of effect. The tathāgatas and bodhisattvas have pure unrestricted wisdom as their essence, with no effect from the truth of suffering; (7) the perfect purity of lord. The Pure Land is under the control and protection of the tathāgatas; (8) the perfect purity of the assistants. The Pure Land is the peaceful abode of the great bodhisattvas, who help people advance on the buddha path by providing them with proper teachings and practices; (9) the perfect purity of retinue. The Pure Land is inhabited by the eight kinds of beings who always gather for his sermons; (10) the perfect purity of maintenance. In the Pure Land, bodhisattvas and other associates of the Buddha support and further the taste of the Dharma and nurture the dharma body; (11) the perfect purity of works. The bodhisattvas carry out all kinds of beneficial works for worldlings and adherents of the two vehicles; (12) the perfect purity of benefit. The Pure Land is free from all the afflictions, disasters, and fetters of the three realms; (13) the perfect purity of fearlessness. The Pure Land is free from the harm of all Māras, Yamas, and other evil spirits, and thus there is nothing to fear; (14) the perfect purity of abode. The abode of the Tathāgata in the Pure Land is beautifully adorned; (15) the perfect purity of path. The Pure Land is fully penetrated by the methods of the three ways of attaining wisdom through listening, thinking, and practicing; (16) the perfect purity of vehicle. In the Pure Land, śamatha and vipaśyanā are taken as the orthodox methods of meditation; (17) the perfect purity of approach. In the Pure Land, emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness are taken as the correct approaches to liberation; (18) the perfect purity of bases. In the Pure Land, the Dharma King who gathers immeasurable merit is considered to be the basis. eight kinds of consciousness: According to this doctrine, as taught in the Yogâcāra school, the minds of sentient beings area comprised of eight distinguishable regions of consciousness, which can be broken down into four general types: (1) the first five consciousnesses, which correspond to the sense perceptions; (2) the sixth, manovijñāna, or "thinking" consciousness, which plays many roles, including gathering sensory perceptions, conducting value judgments, calculation, emotion, and intention; (3) the seventh, manas, also referred to connotatively as the "defiled mental consciousness" (kliṣṭa-manovijñāna), hypothesized as the origin of the sense of a self, which it develops based on perceiving the apparent continuity of sameness exhibited by the base consciousness; (4) the eighth, ālayavijñāna (store consciousness), understood 205

Glossary

as being the most fundamental region of consciousness, functioning as the repository of all the impressions from one's experiences.

eight kinds of liberation: Eight stages of mental concentration, which can vary according to the text. One representative set includes: (1) liberation, when subjective desire arises, by examination of the object, or of all things and realization of their filthiness; (2) liberation, when no subjective desire arises, by still meditating as above. These two are deliverance by meditation on impurity, the next on purity; (3) liberation by concentration on the pure to the realization of a permanent state of freedom from all desire; (4) liberation in realization of the infinity of space; (5) liberation in realization of infinite knowledge; (6) liberation in realization of nothingness; (7) liberation in the state of mind where there is neither thought nor absence of thought; (8) liberation by means of a state of mind in which there is final extinction of both sensation and consciousness. eight major derivative afflictions: The final eight derivative afflictions in the standard list of twenty: faithlessness, laxity, indulgence, dullness, agitation, loss of focus, incorrect apprehension, and distraction. See also two middling derivative afflictions. eight reasons: The Mahāyānasūtrâlaṃkāra lists eight reasons why the Mahayana is the authentic teaching: (1) Mahayana scriptures were unwritten. If they are forgeries they would have been previously recorded somewhere, but they were not. (2) Practiced together. The lesser vehicle is neither prior to or after the Mahayana; they are practiced at the same time. (3) Not practiced. The reason they are not practiced by non-Buddhist theoreticians is because of their vast profundity. (4) Accomplishment. Even if the discourse is not given by Śākyamuni, as long it is given by someone who has attained enlightenment, it is acceptable as Mahayana. (5) Essence. One can't claim that one buddha has the essence of Mahayana and another doesn't. (6) Non-essence. The converse of the previous item. (7) Able to counteract. The Mahayana is able to counteract all afflictions. (8) Not a literal teaching. The Mahayana is extremely profound and thus can't be criticized merely on the basis of a superficial reading of a text. eight signs (Skt. aṣṭa-lakṣaṇa): The eight events of the Buddha's life from his birth to his entry into nirvana: (1) descent from Tuṣita Heaven, (2) entry into his mother's womb, (3) birth from his mother's side in Lumbinī, (4) leaving home to engage in religious training, (5) subduing demons and overcoming afflictions; (6) attaining enlightenment after six years of struggle, (7) turning the wheel of the Dharma (or preaching), (8) entering nirvana.

eighth ground: The eighth of the ten bhūmis; the "immovable stage." A pivotal stage on the bodhisattva path mentioned in many Mahayana texts, after which one is not prone to retrogression. In Yogâcāra works, it is the stage in which all remaining active afflictions are eliminated. Extracts of the Yogâcārabhūmi (Yuqielun lüezuan; T. 1829): A commentary on the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra by Kuiji, who presents the varying positions of noted Indian 206

Glossary

Yogâcārins on such matters as the defilement of the store consciousness, the relationship between the store consciousness and the evolving consciousnesses, and so forth. five aggregates (Skt. pañca-skandhas): A term for the division of matter and mind into five categories—form (rūpa), sensation (vedanā), concepts (saṃjñā), physical and mental latent forces (saṃskārās), and cognition (vijñāna). In early Indian Buddhism the framework of the five aggregates is used to explain the notion of no-self; i.e., there is no person apart from the physical factor of form and the four mental factors. five aspects of consciousness-only: As elaborated in the Cheng weishi lun, five senses in which all phenomena are said to exist merely as consciousness—(1) in terms of their own marks, as the eight consciousnesses are the essence of consciousness; (2) in terms of concomitance, as the six categories of mental factors are the concomitance of consciousness; (3) in terms of that which is transformed, since the mind and mental factors are all transformed by the cognizing aspect and objective aspect of consciousness; (4) in terms of derivation, since the nonconcomitant factors are nominally established based on their being derived from the mind, mental factors, and the form dharmas transformed by them; (5) in terms of reality, since they are the actual essence of the unconditioned dharmas, mind, mental factors, form, and nonconcomitant dharmas. five destinies (Skt. gati-pañcaka): Rebirth in the five realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, human beings, and gods. When the category of asura is added there are then six destinies. See also six destinies.

five eyes (Skt. pañca cakṣū): (1) the earthly, physical eye (māṃsa-cakṣus), which sees the material aspects of things; (2) the heavenly eye (divya-cakṣus), possessed by devas (gods), as well as humans in the form realm who are in meditation; this eye can see far and near, past and future, inside and outside; (3) the wisdom eye (prajñācakṣus), possessed by Hinayana sages who can discern the lack of inherent existence in all things; (4) the Dharma eye (dharma-cakṣus), possessed by bodhisattvas, which illuminates all teachings in order to save sentient beings; the Dharma eye sees the impermanence of all things ; (5) the Buddha eye (buddha-cakṣus), which includes all of the prior four.

five natures: A theory of the Yogâcāra school that teaches the discrimination of the innate capacities of the temperaments of sentient beings into five types—(1) the nature predetermined for śrāvaka practices; sentient beings in this group will ultimately attain the state of arhat; (2) the nature predetermined for pratyekabuddha practices; these people will also attain the level of arhat; (3) the nature predetermined for bodhisattvas, who will ultimately attain the full enlightenment of a buddha; (4) the indeterminate nature, whose members inherently possess the potential to attain the goals of two or three of the groups above; (5) the nature lacking capacity for enlightenment (icchan tika), sentient beings who lack any type of untainted seeds and therefore have no prospect of attaining enlightenment in either the Lesser (Hinayana) or Greater Vehicle (Mahayana) and are doomed to pass through cycles of birth and death for eternity. 207

Glossary

five supernormal powers (pañcābhijñā): Five supernatural cognitive powers—(1) supernatural vision, (2) supernatural hearing, (3) the ability to know others' thoughts, (4) the ability to know former lives, and (5) the ability to perform miracles such as appearing anywhere at will. five views (Skt. pañca-dṛṣṭi): Five kinds of mistaken perception—(1) reifying view or identity view (satkāyadṛṣṭi) is the attached view of the reality of the inherent existence of one's own self, coupled with the belief in the objects in one's surrounding world as real entities. This view is thought to operate at the level of both the manovijñāna and the manas (i.e., both consciously and subconsciously), whereas the remaining four views operate at the level of the mano (the level of conscious awareness); (2) extreme view (antaparigraha-dṛṣṭi), attachment to the positions of either eternalism or annihilationism; (3) erroneous view (mithyā-dṛṣṭi), in which one does not properly acknowledge the relationship of cause and effect; (4) view of attachment to views (dṛṣṭi-parāmarśa), i.e., holding rigidly to one opinion over all others; (5) view of rigid attachment to the precepts (śīlavrataparāmarśa), the view that the austerities, moral practices, and vows of non-Buddhist schools can lead one to truth. five viscera: The heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen (or stomach). Flower Ornament Sutra. See Huayan jing.

forms induced by meditative power (Skt. vaibhūtvika): Things produced effortlessly by one in a deep state of meditation. For example, producing fire or water by just imagining them. One of the five kinds of objects of the mind that are included as form dharmas, they are understood to exist both nominally and substantially; the nominally existent lack their own seeds but the substantially existent are produced from their own distinctive seeds.

forthcoming consciousnesses (Skt. pravṛtti-vijñāna): The seven regions of consciousnesses that are generated from the base consciousness, the ālayavijñāna: the manas, the manovijñāna, and the five sense consciousnesses. Some Yogâcāra scholars consider the existence of the afflictions to be limited to these seven, while others theorize afflictive activity in the ālayavijñāna as well.

four data fields (Skt. catur-artha): The sense data fields of form, odor, taste, and tactile sensation.

four elements: The four mahābhūtas of which all physical substances are composed— (1) earth (pṛthivīdhātu), which has the basic quality of hardness and the function of protection; (2) water (abdhātu), which has the function of gathering and storing wetness; (3) fire (tejodhātu), which is the nature of heat and has the function of warming; (4) wind (vāyudhātu), which has the function of giving motion to all living things. four kinds of causation: In Indian scholastic traditions the division of the causal conditions that produce all phenomena into four types—(1) direct internal causes that produce 208

Glossary

a result (hetu-pratyaya); (2) similar and immediately antecedent conditions (samanantara-pratyaya); (3) object as condition (ālambana-pratyaya); (4) contributory causes (adhipati-pratyaya), i.e., contributory factors as causes. This last group includes all kinds of indirect peripheral causes and contingences that lie outside of the three prior, relatively direct types of causation.

four kinds of investigation: Contemplation methods taught in Yogâcāra at the second level of applied practices, which is the eighth of the twelve bodhisattva abodes. These can be mapped to the four kinds of insight into things as they are as taught in the Tattvârtha chapter of the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra, except that (according to the Kanjin kakumushō) the four kinds of investigation are relatively shallow contemplations and the four kinds of insight are relatively deep contemplations. These are (1) the investigation of names (nāma-paryeṣaṇā); (2) the investigation of substances (or "given things") (vastu-paryeṣaṇā); (3) the investigation of the designated intrinsic natures (svabhāva-prajñapti-paryeṣaṇā); (4) the investigation of designated differences (viśeṣa-prajñapti-paryeṣaṇā).

four kinds of purified cognition (Skt. catvāri jñānāni): In Yogâcāra, the four kinds of pure cognition attained upon the full enlightenment of the Buddha, first introduced in Asaṅga's Mahāyānasaṃgraha. The eight consciousnesses are tainted consciousnesses, whereas the four types of cognition are their untainted counterparts. These are (1) The "mirror cognition" (ādarśajñāna), the purified form of the eighth consciousness, the ālayavijñāna, so called because it resembles a great mirror that reflects all things in their true state. In the state of buddhahood the untainted eighth consciousness manifests all phenomena within the three worlds; hence it is considered perfect. (2) The "cognition of equality in nature" (samatājñāna), a purified form of the seventh consciousness, the manas. This cognition is partially realized in the path of seeing, and fully realized at the stage of buddhahood. It perceives the underlying equality identity of all dharmas and of and self and others, thereby making it possible to overcome the feelings of separation self from others. The all-embracing compassion of the bodhisattva has its roots in this cognition. (3) The "marvelous observing cognition" (pratyavekṣājñāna), the purified form of the sixth consciousness, the mano vijñāna. Its function is to perceive all phenomena as they really are, which enables the preaching of the Dharma without doubt. (4) The "cognition with unrestricted activity" (kṛtyānusthānajñāna), the purified form of the five sense consciousnesses. This enables one to work various metamorphoses and produce different manifestations to benefit unenlightened beings and lead them toward enlightenment. four logical positions (Skt. catuṣkoṭi): A tetralemma, four terms of differentiation, e.g., all things are A, not-A, both A and not-A, neither A nor not-A. Or: empty, not empty, both empty and not empty, neither empty nor not empty

Four Noble Truths: The core doctrine of Buddhism; the four truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation.

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fourth level of meditation (Skt. *caturtha-dhyāna): The fourth dhyāna, a degree of contemplation wherein the mind becomes indifferent to pleasure and pain. four vehicles: Refers to the parable of the four carts in the "Chapter of Parables" in the Lotus Sutra. Of the goat, deer, and ox carts and the great white bullock cart, the first three represent the three vehicles, which comprise, respectively, the śrāvaka vehicle, the pratyekabuddha vehicle, and the bodhisattva vehicle. The fourth, the great white bullock cart, represents the One Vehicle, which subsumes them all. See also One Vehicle; three vehicles.

Gomyō (749-834): A monk of the Japanese Hossō school, originally from Mino. He began his study of Yogâcāra at Gangōji in Nara. In 791 he was requested to go to Kyoto, where he often lectured at court. In 834 he was made superintendent of monks, after which he traveled around, taking up residence at Tsubosakadera, Gangōji, and other temples. He wrote prolifically; his works include the Hōengirin shōge sekki, the Yuishiki sūyō gesetsu ki, the Daijō hossō kenjin shō, the Hōke ronshō, and others. heaven without conceptualization (Skt. asaṃjñika-deva): The thirteenth of the eighteen heavens in the realm of form where those who have accomplished the nonconceptualizing meditation are reborn; the fourth of the four dhyānas; also called the "heaven of no thought," as all thoughts are extinguished. Practitioners sometimes mistake this state of concentration for nirvana.

Heroic Giving: A monk mentioned in the Jingyezhang jing 淨業障經 (T. 1494), who fell in love with the daughter of a wealthy man. When her husband became suspicious and tried to kill him, the monk killed the husband instead. His remorse over this deed drove him to practice to attain insight into the nonarising of all existences. higher and lower eight noble truths: As taught in the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra and the Cheng weishi lun, two levels of interpretation of the Four Noble Truths. The eight truths are (1) the truth of suffering of transience, wherein all conditioned existence arises and ceases without interruption; (2) the truth of suffering by destruction, wherein one suffers by the disappearance of desirable objects; (3) the truth of everyday suffering, wherein one meets disagreeable objects; (4) the truth of transmigration, or fragmentary samsara; (5) the truth of the cessation of transmigration, or nirvana; (6) the truth of defilement, or affliction; (7) the truth of purity, where one eliminates afflictions on ascertaining their unconditioned nature; (8) the truth of correct skillful means. The expansion of these into higher and lower categories is based on the higher being those of the form and formless realms, and the lower being those of the desire realm. Huayan jing (Skt. Buddhâvataṃsaka-sūtra; Flower Ornament Sutra): One of the most influential sutras in East Asian Buddhism, of which three Chinese translations were done; the most widely read are T. 278 translated by Buddhabhadra and T. 279 translated by Śikṣānanda. This text describes a cosmos of infinite realms upon realms that mutually contain each other. The vision expressed in this work was the foundation for the 210

Glossary

creation of the Huayan school of Buddhism, which was characterized by a philosophy of interpenetration.

hungry ghost (Skt. preta): One of the three lower destinies, an unpleasant realm of existence that one descends to as retribution for a life of unchecked desire, in which one suffers continuously from hunger.

inexplicit teaching: A teaching that requires explanation, usually a translation of the Sanskrit term neyârtha, which is distinguished from nītârtha, an explicit or definitive meaning or doctrine.

innate cognition (Skt. mūlajñāna): The fundamentally endowed cognitive ability one uses to penetrate to the true nature of reality—ultimate truth. After realizing this form of cognition, bodhisattvas give rise to post-enlightenment cognition (subsequently attained cognition), which they apply in their efforts to save other sentient beings. While innate cognition operates without discrimination, post-enlightenment cognition uses language to communicate truths to ordinary sentient beings. karma: Action and its results as they are manifested in subsequent rebirths. karmas produced by activity and karmas born from fertility: A reference to the two general modes of the production of afflictive karma that binds sentient beings to samsara, karma from present activity, and karma nourished by the activities of prior lifetimes. Kṣāntivādin (or Kṣāntyṛṣi): A ṛṣi (seer) of Vārāṇasī who patiently suffered insults; i.e. Śākyamuni who in a former lifetime suffered mutilation in order to convert Kalirāja. Kuiji (632-682): A Chinese monk (usually referred to in Japanese scholarship simply as Ji) who was a specialist in Yogâcāra, later identified as the founder of the Faxiang ("Dharma character") school, although he himself never identified a tradition by that name. A native of Chang'an, at the age of twenty-five he began to work at Xuanzang's translation center, where he eventually served as the master's main collaborator in the composition of the Cheng weishi lun. While the precise extent of Kuiji's work with and influence on this project is subject to debate, it is clear that he saw himself as the authentic transmitter of Yogâcāra as understood by Xuanzang. Kuiji went on to do further important commentarial work on this text, composing influential commentaries that markedly influence the subsequent tradition of East Asian Yogâcāra. Laṅkâvatāra-sūtra (Sutra on [the Buddha's] Entering [the Country of] Lanka): A text said to have been delivered on Laṅka Mountain (Sri Lanka), probably composed in the fourth or fifth century C.E., of which three Chinese translations are extant. This text held enormous influence among many schools in all regions of East Asia, including such disparate traditions as East Asian Yogâcāra, where it was considered to be one of the six orthodox scriptures, and Chan, where it is associated with some of the early founders of the Chinese tradition. The Laṅkâvatāra contains criticisms of the Sāṃkhya, 211

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Pāśupata, and other Brahmanistic schools, and attempts to explain the points of potential conflation of Mahayana and Brahmanistic philosophy. While discussing a number of characteristic Yogâcāra/Tathāgatagarbha theories, such as the eight consciousnesses and the tathāgatagarbha, the sutra was instrumental in the formation of the Tathāgatagarbha flow of Mahayana thought that exerted so much influence on the development of Chan.

Lotus Store world: Also called the Flower Store world, the Pure Land of Vairocana Buddha; also the Pure Land of all buddhas in their saṃbhogakāya, enjoyment bodies. Mahāyānasaṃgraha: An anthology of Mahayana essays attributed to Asaṅga. This work gives an overview of most of the important categories in the Yogâcāra system, including the eight consciousnesses, consciousness-only, the three natures, afflictions, two hindrances, buddha bodies, and meditative practices that lead to liberation. A seminal text in the Yogâcāra tradition, there are three Chinese translations. An English translation by John P. Keenan was published under the title The Summary of the Great Vehicle (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1992). Mahāyānasūtrâlaṃkāra (Treatise on the Scripture of Adorning the Great Vehicle): This text is attributed to Asaṅga, but according to some traditions the verses were written by Maitreya, and were expanded into prose form by Asaṅga or his brother, Vasubandhu. An important text for the Yogâcāra school, one of the eleven treatises on which the Cheng weishi lun is based, it is comprised of twenty-four chapters, the contents of which are almost exactly the same as the "Chapter of the Bodhisattva Stages" in the Yogâcārabhūmi-śāstra.

manas: The seventh of the eight consciousnesses taught in Yogâcāra. As the consciousness that localizes experience through thinking, its primary function is to perceive the subjective position of the eighth consciousness (ālayavijñāna) and construe it as one's own self, thereby creating self-attachment. It is characterized in the Cheng weishi lun as "continually examining and assessing." Much of its function is similar to the sixth consciousness, manovijñāna, but while the manovijñāna has interruptions, the manas functions continuously, without lapse. The ālayavijñāna, on the other hand, while continuous, does not discriminate. The manas is not consciously controllable and is said to give rise to conscious decisions in regard to individual survival and incessant self-love. man at ease in the way 閒道人: An adept practitioner who no longer needs to rely on conventional modes of practice. maṇi-gem: A magical jewel that manifests whatever one wishes for. According to one's desires treasures, clothing and food can be manifested, while sickness and suffering can be removed, water purified, etc. Used as a metaphor for the teachings and virtues of the Buddha.

manovijñāna: Interpreted variously as "mental consciousness," "discriminating consciousness," "thinking consciousness," "liminal consciousness," etc.; however, none 212

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of these renderings fully express the range of the characteristics and functions of this mode of consciousness, which also handles emotions, intuitions, memories, etc. In Yogâcāra it is the sixth consciousness among the eight consciousnesses, and understood to arise based on the organ of thought, the manas consciousness. It is a form of conscious awareness like the five sense faculties, while the eighth, ālayavijñāna, and the seventh, manas, constitute the subconscious regions of the mind. Māra: The demon who personifies evil, defilement, and destruction in Buddhism; tempter of the Buddha; also, a class of such demons.

Middle School: The Faxiang (Yogâcāra) school, which divides the Buddha's teaching into three periods, the first in which he preached existence, the second emptiness, and the third, neither existence nor emptiness, citing the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra and the Lotus Sutra.

mirror cognition. See four kinds of purified cognition.

neither person nor dharma: "No person" (anātman) is the fundamental Buddhist doctrine of no-self, Śākyamuniʼs radical departure from prior Brahmanistic belief in an eternal soul. "No dharma" goes one step further by declaring that all the objects that exist in our world (not just living beings) have no substantive identity; all things are impermanent and dependently arisen. not a single thing: In a state of deep meditation thoughts do not arise, thus there is no apprehension of objects.

nine kinds of pride: (1) That I surpass others, (2) that I am equal to others, (3) that I am not as bad as others, (4) that others surpass me, (5) that others are as bad as me, (6) that others are inferior to me, (7) that none surpass me, (8) that none are equal to me, (9) that none are worse than me.

Nirvana Sutra: This sutra introduced a number of new doctrines to the Mahayana, the most important of which is that all sentient beings without exception possess buddha-nature. nirvana without remainder: Also called nirvana without residue; a state of total liberation from all physical and mental conditions, contrasted to nirvana with remainder, where the body still exists. One of the four kinds of nirvana in Yogâcāra, in which the afflictive hindrances in the mind are cut off and the body that is composed of the five aggregates is extinguished, and therefore there is nothing remaining on which to depend. Since all afflictive hindrances are destroyed it can be attained by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.

One Vehicle (Skt. ekayāna): The doctrinal position that holds that there are in fact not three vehicles (for śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas) or five vehicles, but only one teaching, which is the skillful means to attract people to the one buddha vehicle. See also three vehicles.

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path of cultivation (Skt. bhāvanāmārga): The fourth of the five stages in the Abhidharma/ Yogâcāra path scheme, second of the three supramundane paths. After the experience of the path of seeing, practitioners renew their efforts based on this new insight, seeking further accordance with reality. In this path one removes the deeply embedded innate afflictions, while in the prior path of seeing one removes the less deeply embedded active afflictions. path of seeing (Skt. darśanamārga): The third of the five stages of attainment in the Abhi dharma/Yogâcāra path system. It is the stage of the clear view of the Four Noble Truths and also the stage at which one enters the level of uncontaminated cognition. After entry into this stage one is considered in the Abhidharma and Yogâcāra to be enlightened. In Abhidharma doctrine it is equivalent to the stage of stream-winner and in the Mahayana it is equivalent to the stage of the first bhūmi (stage) of the bodhisattva path. In the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya it is equivalent to the attainment of the fourth of the four wholesome roots; in Yogâcāra it is equivalent to the stage of proficiency. In this stage the practitioner removes the afflictions created by discriminations in this lifetime. After the consummation of this stage, one moves on to the path of cultivation, where the correct views attained in the path of seeing are thoroughly and repeatedly practiced.

Prajñāpāramitā sutras: A general term for the class of sutras that teach the perfection of wisdom, i.e., emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā). Forty-two Prajñāpāramitā texts are extant in Chinese translation, including the Heart Sutra, the Diamond Sutra, the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, etc.

pratibimba: Projections of consciousness; reflections, images, shadows, etc. that lack their own nature. In Yogâcāra theory, the term refers to the various images manifested in the mind due to discrimination. The complement of raw substance (bimba), which cannot be perceived directly, i.e., colors and shapes, etc. as perceived by the visual consciousness. See also bimba.

pratyekabuddha: Solitary realizer self-enlightened one, individual illuminate, etc. One who lives apart from others and attains enlightenment alone, or for themself only, in contrast with the altruism of the bodhisattva principle. Along with śrāvakas, one of the two kinds of practitioners of the lesser vehicle (Hinayana). See also two vehicles. pudgala-nairātmya: Selflessness of person. The idea that human existence is a result of the combination of the five aggregates (skandhas) and there is no such thing as an eternal subject. See also five aggregates.

ripening consciousness (Skt. vipāka-vijñāna): A way of referring to the ālayavijñāna that emphasizes its function of bringing to ripening prior causes (or seeds); the consciousness that handles the fruitional economy. The fruition of prior karma is itself karmically neutral; if it were not, karma would become hard determinism, since good and bad karma would perpetuate endlessly.

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śamatha: Stabilizing meditation; calming meditation, calm abiding. Stopping the wandering of the mind and focusing it on one object, thus bringing about a condition of quietude.

Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra: The single most important scriptural source for the doctrines of the Yogâcāra school; the rest of the most important texts for this school are treatises. It contains the authoritative discussions regarding the nature of the store consciousness, the meaning of consciousness-only, the three natures of knowing, the two kinds of meditation, the stages of the bodhisattva path, and the bodies of the Buddha. There are two Taishō versions, T. 675 and T. 679, and an English translation by John P. Keenan, The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (Berkeley: Numata Center for Translation and Research, 2000).

seeds (Skt. bīja): Potentiality; a concept used to explain how causes and properties are maintained through the body and mind, despite the Buddhist teachings of emptiness and momentariness. In Yogâcāra the seeds are one phase of the latent potentialities of all mental and physical dharmas that are stored in the ālayavijñāna. Coming into existence as the result of present activities and conditions, the seeds result either in actual effects or in new potentialities, giving rise to continued existence. semblance Dharma: The second of the three periods of the teachings after the passing away of the Buddha, the periods of the correct or true Dharma, the semblance Dharma, and the degenerate Dharma. In this period Buddhists study the teachings that are like those of the true Dharma taught by the Buddha and engage in practice, but the practices do not necessarily lead to the full enlightenment of a buddha. The first period of the true Dharma is said to last five hundred years, the second period of the semblance Dharma one thousand years, and the third period of the degenerate Dharma three thousand years, when Maitreya will appear and restore all things. seven aspects of thusness: (1) The thusness of transmigration, the thusness of the true nature of the arising and ceasing of all dharmas; (2) the thusness of true marks, revealed in the realization of the selflessness of person and dharmas; (3) the thusness of consciousness-only, experienced in the realization that all phenomena are representations of consciousness; (4) the posited thusness, the thusness of the truth of suffering; (5) the thusness of deviant practices, the thusness of the truth of arising; (6) The thusness of purity, the thusness of the truth of cessation; (7) the thusness of correct practices, the thusness of the truth of the path.

seven differences: Seven differences between śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. In the Miaoyin chao (T. 2213) these are given as: (1) śrāvakas meet the Buddha directly, pratyekabuddhas do not; (2) śrāvakas hear the sermons, pratyekabuddhas do not; (3) śrāvakas contemplate the four truths, pratyekabuddhas contemplate the twelve limbs of dependent arising; (4) śrāvakas have dull faculties, pratyekabuddhas have sharp faculties; (5) śrāvakas must pass through all four arhat realizations, pratyekabuddhas go directly to highest realization; (6) śrāvakas teach, pratyekabuddhas do not teach; 215

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(7) śrāvakas eliminate only the afflictions proper, pratyekabuddhas go on to vanquish the habit energies.

seven kinds of pride: (1) Pride in regarding oneself as superior to inferiors and equal to equals (māna), (2) pride in regarding oneself as superior to equals and equal to superiors (atimāna), (3) pride in feeling superior to manifest superiors (mānātimāna), (4) pride in the belief that the aggregates are self and are possessed by self (asmimāna, ātmamāna), (5) pride in possessing the truth or enlightenment (abhimāna), (6) pride in regarding oneself as only a little inferior to those who far surpass one (avamāna, ūnamāna), (7) pride in regarding oneself as possessing virtues such as wisdom and enlightenment, although one lacks them (mithyāmāna).

six categories (padârtha) of existence: Posited by the Vaiśeṣika non-Buddhist Indian school. The six padârthas are: (1) dravya (substance, matter), (2) guṇa (quality, characteristic), (3) karma (activity), (4) sāmānya (universality), (5) viśeṣa (distinctiveness), (6) samavāya (inherence, concomitance, the relation between a whole and its parts, between substance and quality, between the general and the particular). six bowels: The gall bladder, stomach, large intestine, small intestine, bladder, and the three points (the entrance to the stomach, the duodenum, and the entrance to the bladder). six destinies: Six kinds of rebirth (Skt. gati) in cyclic existence undergone by sentient beings in accord with their wholesome or unwholesome activities carried out in previous lifetimes. These are the realms of (1) hell (naraka-gati), (2) hungry ghosts (preta-gati), (3) animals (tiryagyoni-gati), (4) titans (asura-gati), (5) humans (manuṣyagati), and (6) gods (deva-gati). six faculties: The six sense organs of the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and the objectapprehending aspect of the mind. six kinds of causes: The sixfold division of causes of the Vaibhāṣikas, which posits that every phenomenon depends on the union of a primary cause and a conditional or environmental cause. Of the primary causes there are six kinds—(1) effective causes (kāraṇa-hetu) of two kinds: empowering cause, as the earth empowers plant growth, and nonresistant cause, as space does not resist, i.e., active and passive causes; (2) concurrent causes (sahabhū-hetu), cooperative causes, as the four elements in nature, not one of which can be omitted; (3) concomitant causes (saṃprayukta-hetu), mutual responsive or associated causes, e.g., mind and mental conditions, subject with object, such as "faith and intelligence"; (4) causes of the same kind as the effect (sabhāgahetu), e.g., good producing good, etc.; (5) pervasively operating causes (sarvatragahetu), universal or omnipresent causes, i.e., of illusion, as of false views affecting every act; (6) causes that differ from their fruits (vipāka-hetu), differential fruition, i.e., the effect different from the cause, as the hells are from evil deeds. six kinds of supranormal cognition: Six abilities possessed by a buddha, also by arhats through the fourth degree of dhyāna (ṣaḍ-abhijñā)—(1) unimpeded bodily action; 216

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(2) the power of divine vision, wherein one can observe the full course of passage by sentient beings through the six destinies; (3) the power of divine hearing, with which one is able to hear all the sounds of suffering and joy experienced by living beings in the six destinies; (4) the power of awareness of the minds of others; (5) the power of the knowledge of previous lifetimes; (6) the power of the extinction of contamination, whereby one completely extinguishes all the afflictions of the three realms and thus is no longer subject to rebirth in the three realms.

six perfections (Skt. pāramitās): Six practices that ferry one beyond the sea of mortality to nirvana; the pure practices of the bodhisattva, which are all carried out with an attitude of detachment from personal gain, based on the wisdom of emptiness. The six perfections are: (1) charity (dānapāramitā), or giving, including bestowing the truth on others; (2) morality (śīlapāramitā), maintaining moral rectitude; (3) forbearance (kṣāntipāramitā), patience under insult; (4) effort (vīryapāramitā), zeal; (5) meditation (dhyānapāramitā), contemplation; (6) wisdom (prajñāpāramitā), the power to discern reality. sixth consciousness. See manovijñāna.

śrāvaka: Lit., "voice-hearer," originally a direct disciple of the Buddha (those who heard him teach). In later Mahayana texts it is used as a technical term with somewhat negative connotations. While śrāvakas are disciplined monk-practitioners who contemplate the principle of the Four Noble Truths in order to attain arhatship, and thus eventually nirvana, they are also considered a practitioner of the two lesser vehicles, along with pratyekabuddhas, inferior in insight and compassion to the bodhisattva. See also two vehicles.

Śrīmālā-sūtra: Translated into Chinese in 436 C.E. by Guṇabhadra, this sutra is one of the main early Mahayana texts that taught the theories of (1) innate enlightenment in the form of the tathāgatagarbha, (2) the One Vehicle, (3) the possession of permanence, bliss, identity, and purity by the Dharma body. The sutra was delivered by the Indian Queen Śrīmālā, daughter of King Prasenajit. The notion of the tathāgatagarbha as the source of all dharmas is introduced in this text, and subsequently taken up as a central topic in such texts as the Ratnagotravibhāga, the Laṅkâvatāra-sūtra, The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, etc. An English translation by Diana Y. Paul was published under the title The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion's Roar (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2004). stream-enterer (Skt. srota-āpanna): The name for a practitioner who has attained the first of the four realizations of the śrāvaka path, which eventually leads to the level of arhat. The practitioner succeeds in breaking the deluded view of the three worlds, pushing their own karmic flow clearly onto the path of enlightenment. Also rendered as "stream-winner."

subsequently attained cognition (Skt. pṛṣṭhalabdha-jñāna): The knowledge attained as a result of enlightenment that bodhisattvas use for the task of liberating other sentient beings; contrasted with innate cognition. Buddhas and bodhisattvas are able to utilize 217

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their discriminating capacities after attaining enlightenment, but without reifying and appropriating notions regarding their own selfhood or the intrinsic reality of objects. The existence of this clear function means that they understand and take advantage of conventional "realities" and are thus not disconnected from the world. Sutra of the Deathbed Injunction (T. 389, translated by Kumārajīva): A sutra said to have been delivered by the Buddha as he was approaching death, wherein he instructs his disciples to uphold the precepts, guard the five senses, lessen desires, seek equanimity, and cultivate concentration and wisdom after his passing.

tathāgatagarbha. See womb of the Tathāgata.

ten afflictions: The first five characteristics of those with developed religious sensitivity are view of self, extreme view, evil view, view of attachment to views, and view of attachment to the precepts. The second five characteristics of those with undeveloped religious sensitivity are desire, hatred, ignorance, pride, and doubt. ten approaches for contemplating reality: The Madhyântavibhāga lists these as: (1) skillful contemplation of reality through the aggregates, (2) skillful contemplation of reality through the perceptual bases, (3) skillful contemplation of reality through the sense bases, (4) skillful contemplation of reality through dependent arising, (5) skillful contemplation of reality through the appropriate and inappropriate, (6) skillful [contemplation of reality through] the faculties, (7) skillful contemplation of reality through time, (8) skillful contemplation of reality through the truths, (9) skillful contemplation of reality through the vehicles, and (10) skillful contemplation of reality through conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.

ten realms: Ten divisions of the unenlightened and enlightened worlds, categorized into levels. The realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, asuras, humans, gods (devas), śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and buddhas. The first six realms, from the hell realm to the deva realm, are the unenlightened realms; the latter four realms of śrāvaka to buddha are enlightened. They are also classified as follows: the first three, the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals, are the result of unwholesome karma, the next three realms of asuras, humans, and gods are the result of wholesome karma, the realms of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are Hinayana rewards, and the realms of bodhisattva and buddhas are Mahayana rewards.

ten reasons: Ten reasons why the Mahayana is considered to be the Buddha's teaching: (1) The Mahayana texts were previously unwritten. If these scriptures were forgeries then they would have been previously recorded somewhere, but they were not. (2) They were previously unknowable. (3) They handle many tasks. (4) They master the grave hindrances. (5) They are not in the realm of coarse apprehension and scrutiny. (6) They attest to great enlightenment. (7) They do not contain the errors of the three vehicles. (8) Without them there is no omniscience and one makes mistakes. (9) If one studies them and thinks accordingly, one can subjugate all afflictions. (10) They are not confined to literal meanings.

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three bodies (Skt. kāyatraya): The three bodies of a buddha, the dharmakāya, the saṃ bhogakāya, and the nirmāṇakāya. The dharmakāya (Dharma body) is a reference to the transcendence of form and realization of true thusness. The saṃbhogakāya is the "reward body" or "body of enjoyment of the merits attained as a bodhisattva." The nirmāṇakāya is the body manifested in response to the need to teach sentient beings. See also body for the enjoyment of others; transformation body. three incalculable eons: A concept of the incredibly long period of time required for an unenlightened sentient being to attain buddhahood. This concept can be found in early Indian Buddhism in the Āgamas/Nikāyas, as well as in Abhidharmic texts. It is taken up in Yogâcāra teaching as a way of framing the fifty-two stages of bodhisattva practice and other distinctions and milestones in the course of practice. three kinds of objects: In consciousness-only theory the objects of consciousness are divided into three categories according to their properties—(1) Objects as they are in themselves. These are images manifested through transformation based on raw substance, and are correct objects of cognition. They are manifested from seeds in the store consciousness; (2) "image-only" objects are arbitrarily manifested from a subjective view. These are objects that exist purely in the mind and have no relationship to any raw substance. They are images projected on the mind by the power of the attention that the mind has generated on its own, and thus are utterly ungrounded cognitive objects. Illusions are good examples of the objects of this category, but this can also include objects that appear in meditation or objects perceived by devas (gods). (3) Objects that derive from raw substance but which are mistakenly perceived. Despite being grounded in raw sensate appearance they are, according to circumstance, not correctly apprehensible, and thus are the sorts of objects called "mistaken," "misconstrued," or "misidentified." three means of cognition: Three kinds of cognition taught in hetuvidyā and Yogâcāra— (1) direct perception (pratyakṣa), (2) inference (anumāna), (3) mistaken inference (apramāṇa).

three periods of the teaching: According to the Faxiang school, these are the periods of the teaching of existence, the teaching of emptiness, and the teaching of the Middle Way. The teaching of the first period (the period of the teaching of existence) holds that all existence is established due to causes but the elements of this composition are truly existent. This is in accordance with the Āgama sutras and other Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana) sutras. Also called "the turning of the Dharma wheel that allows for the existence of characteristics." The teaching of the second period says that the original nature of all things is empty. This is also called the "negative" period. This is the beginning of the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) teaching, as it diverts from the Lesser Vehicle teaching. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras are cited as examples of this teaching, which is also called the "turning of the Dharma wheel based on the approach of marklessness." The teaching of the third period is that of true emptiness; the Middle Way is explained affirmatively through such texts as the Avataṃsaka-sūtra (Flower Ornament Sutra) and the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra.

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three poisons: The three basic afflictions from which all others are derived: (1) nescience, ignorance, folly (avidyā, moha); (2) desire, craving (rāga); (3) anger, ill-will (dveṣa). three realms: The realms of existence to which living beings transmigrate—(1) the realm of desire (kāmadhātu), which consists of the realms of hells, hungry ghosts, animals, human beings, and the six lower heavens, (2) the realm of form (rūpadhātu) of heavens, and (3) the formless realm (ārūpyadhātu) of heavens.

three unfortunate destinies: Rebirth in the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals. See also six destinies.

three vehicles (Skt. triyāna): The three methods through which living beings are carried across cyclic existence (samsara) to the shores of nirvana. As taught by the Mahayana schools, three programs of practice are considered to be suitable for different capacities of sentient beings: the vehicles of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. The first two, those of the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha, are categorized by the Mahayana schools as lesser vehicles (Hinayana), and are referred to as the two vehicles. See also two vehicles.

thusness of the two kinds of selflessness: The experience of thusness attained upon the eradication of the two delusory views of attachment to self and attachment to phenomena. The thusness of the emptiness of self and the thusness of the emptiness of phenomena.

tiger-separating staff: A monk's staff powerful enough to stop fighting tigers. Meditation Master Chou (480-560) of the Northern Qi is said to have broken up a tiger fight with his staff.

tongue yanked: Among the Buddhist hells is a special hell for liars, in which they suffer the torment of having their tongues pulled out for eons.

transformation body (Skt. nirmāṇakāya): The temporal body of a buddha; the transformation of the Buddha's body into the form of a sentient being in order to teach and save them. In order to teach sentient beings, this kind of buddha manifestation utilizes superknowledges to appropriately discern and respond to the various capacities of beings. In addition to this form, buddhas manifest themselves in the Dharma body (dharmakāya) and the reward body (saṃbhogakāya). See also body for the enjoyment of others; three bodies.

trichiliocosm. See chiliocosm.

true Dharma: The period of the true teaching, as opposed to the latter two periods of the semblance Dharma and the degenerate Dharma. This period of the Buddha's teaching is said to last either five hundred or one thousand years, followed by the thousandyear period of the semblance Dharmaand the ten thousand-year period of the degenerate Dharma, a period of decay and termination of the teaching.

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Glossary

twenty kinds of emptiness: The twenty aspects of emptiness that show the principle of nonsubstantiality in all forms of existence—(1) internal emptiness: the six sense organs are empty of inherent existence; (2) external emptiness: the six objects are empty of inherent existence; (3) internal and external emptiness: both internal and external objects are empty of inherent existence; (4) emptiness of emptiness: nonsubstantiality itself is nonsubstantial; (5) great emptiness: the Four Noble Truths or the twelve links in the chain of causation are empty of inherent existence; (6) lesser emptiness: the four steps of enlightenment are empty of inherent existence; (7) the ultimate is empty, emptiness itself is empty; (8) emptiness of conditioned things: conditional forms are empty of inherent existence; (9) unconditioned emptiness: unconditional elements are empty of inherent existence; (10) absolute emptiness: both conditional forms and unconditional elements are empty of inherent existence; (11) emptiness of the unlimited: unlimited space, unlimited consciousness, etc. are empty; (12) analytical emptiness: emptiness by breaking down—when thoroughly analyzed, all existents arising through conditioned coarising are seen to be empty of inherent existence; (13) unchangeable emptiness: all forms of existence are inconceivable as they are; (14) emptiness of inherent existence, empty by way of its own nature, inherently empty; (15) emptiness of characteristics specific to particular things (svalakṣaṇa): the five aggregates are empty of characteristics; (16) emptiness of general characteristics (sāmānyalakṣaṇa): general categories shared by different particularities are empty of inherent existence; (17) emptiness of all phenomena: all phenomena are originally empty; (18) unobtainable emptiness: all phenomena are unobtainable and have no nature to be grasped; (19) emptiness of lacking a nature: all existence is empty and has no substantiality; (20) empty of self-nature: the emptiness of all forms of existence is actually empty. two kinds of emptiness: Emptiness of self (person) and emptiness of dharmas (phenomena). two kinds of no-self: The two categories of anātman (nonself), the lack of substantial personhood and the lack of a substantial essence in phenomena. This term has the same connotations as the two kinds of emptiness (see above).

two middling derivative afflictions: Shamelessness and lack of conscience. See also eight major derivative afflictions.

two vehicles: The vehicles of the śrāvakas (direct disciples) and pratyekabuddhas (solitary realizers). In Mahayana literature these two kinds of practitioners are usually cast in a negative light as representatives of the so-called Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) tradition, set as foils for bodhisattvas, who represent the third vehicle. They are understood as practitioners engaged in a view toward practice and enlightenment that will permit them to reach the level of arhatship but not the full enlightenment of buddhahood. See also three vehicles.

Upāli: One of the ten principal disciples of the Buddha; a barber of the śūdra caste who became one of the three Sthaviras of the First Council and was reputed to be the principal compiler of the Vinaya; hence his title "Keeper of the Laws." 221