T2125 Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia

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19. Regulations for Ordination

The rules for becoming a monk in the western country of India were all laid down by the Holy One, and are extensively related in the Mulasarvastivada-nikaya-ekasata-karman. Here I shall just sketch them in brief. Anyone who has the intention of becoming a homeless monk may go of his own free will to a teacher whom he likes and inform him of his wish. The teacher then makes in an expedient way the necessary inquiries as to whether the applicant [has committed] patricide or matricide, etc. After having found that he has committed none of the serious crimes that would bar him from entering the community of monks, the teacher agrees to accept him. Having been accepted, the applicant is permitted to relax and rest for ten days up to one month. Then the teacher imparts to him the five precepts, whereupon he is named an updsaka (a male lay devotee). Before that he is not counted among the seven groups of Buddhist disciples; this is the basic step for entering the teachings of the Buddha. The teacher then prepares for him a stripeless robe, a samkaksika, and an undergarment, as well as an alms bowl and a strainer, before he makes a statement to the assembly of onks, informing them that a candidate wishes to become a monk. With the consent of the assembly of monks, the teacher, on behalf of the candidate, asks a monk to be the candidate's deary (instructor). At a secluded place a barber shaves his hair and beard, and cold or warm water is prepared according to the season for him to take a bath. After that the teacher helps him to put on the undergarment and conveniently ascertains that he is not a eunuch, etc. Then the teacher gives him the outer garment, which he receives by putting it over his head. Having put 93

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219b on the religious robe, the candidate is given the alms bowl. This is known as the ceremony of home-leaving. Next, in the presence of the teacher, the âcârya imparts the ten precepts to the candidate, either by reciting them or reading from a text. After having received the ten precepts, he is known as a srâmanera (novice). (Yijing's running note: This is translated as "seeker of uietude," meaning he who aims to seek the condition of erfect quietude of nirvana. The old transliteration was sha-mi, which is too short and the pronunciation is incorrect. It was translated as one who has entered the life of rest and shows loving kindness to all. The meaning is accurate, but without authority.)

The regulations, the disciplinary rules, the asking for instruction, and the solicitation of permission from the Sangha are the same in substance for all qualified candidates who proceed to receive ordination. According to the Vinaya texts, a srâmanera is not considered guilty if he has committed any of the twelve particular offenses, but for a siksamânâ (probationary female novice) there are some modifications of he rules. What are the twelve offenses? 1. Failure to distinguish between (legal and illegal) robes. 2. Sleeping without wearing a garment.

3. Touching fire.

4. Eating to excess.

5. Injuring living things.

6. Discarding filth upon green grass.

7. Climbing up a tall tree without purpose.

8. Touching jewels.

9. Eating leftover food.

10. Digging in the ground.

11. Refusing to accept offerings of food.

12. Damaging growing sprouts.

For the two lower grades of members of the Sangha (male and female novices), the commission of these twelve offenses does not incur guilt, but for the siksamânâs the nonobservance of the last five rules incurs guilt. All of these three lower-grade members should observe the summer retreat. The six major rules and six 94

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auxiliary ones (for siksamanas) are spoken of elsewhere. If they can observe these rules, they may be considered in concordance with the Dharma and counted among the five groups of Buddhist disciples, being worthy to receive the material advantages offered to them. How can a teacher not impart the ten precepts to one who has left home to become a monk, out of fear that he might break them, and thus he could not receive full ordination? In such a case the novice would merely bear the false name of being a sramanera and vainly assume the title of a monk. He seems to have enjoyed a small advantage, but actually he suffers a great loss. It is said in a scripture, "One who has not received the ten precepts, though counted as a member of the Sangha, has a seat only temporarily, and how can he hold it for long? In the Divine Land of China one becomes a monk and leaves his home by public registration. After shaving his hair with government permission, he goes to live with a teacher for some time. The teacher does not take care to make any of he inquiries of he disciple, nor does the disciple request the impartation of the ten precepts. Before receiving full ordination, such a person commits all sorts of guilty actions unscrupulously. On the day of receiving full ordination, he is simply led to the altar without previous knowledge of he rites laid down in the Vinaya. How can he behave properly at the time of he ceremony? This is not right for maintaining the Way. He is neither fit to be a resident monk of a monastery, nor is there any doubt about the debt he incurs by receiving the alms given to him. He should act according to the teachings for the salvation of himself and others.

One who becomes a monk by permission of the government should ask a monk beforehand to be his teacher, who will first make the inquiries and then, if e is found pure of he impedimental crimes, teach him the five precepts. After seeing him having his hair shaved, the teacher then dresses him in a stripeless robe and imparts to him the ten precepts.

When the novice has become acquainted with the religious rites, has reached the required age, and wishes to receive full 95

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ordination, the teacher, having seen that the disciple is capable of keeping the disciplinary rules with resolution, may prepare the six requisites for him and invite nine other monks [to be witnesses], The ceremony may be legitimately performed on a small terrace, in a large enclosure, or within a natural boundary. Inside the limited area for the function, mats belonging to the Sangha may be used or each monk may bring his own mat for a seat. Some incense and flowers may be prepared in an inexpensive way. The candidate is taught to pay respect three times to each of the monks, or sometimes to approach each of them and touch his feet as a sign of homage. Both ways are proper manners of salutation taught by the Buddha.

After having paid homage to the monks, the candidate is instructed to beg for ull ordination. When he has done so three times, his teacher gives him the robes and an alms bowl in the presence of the monks assembled for the occasion. The bowl should be carried around and be shown to each of the monks. If it is proper in mode, all of them should say, "A good bowl!" If they did not say anything, they would incur the fault of infringing the Dharma. After that the ceremony of ordination is conducted according to the Dharma. The karmacarya (chief ceremony officiant) holds a text and reads it aloud, or recites it from memory, both being allowed by the Buddha. The one who has received the disciplinary rules is known as an upasampanna. (Yijing's running note: Upa means "near to" and sampanna, "completeness," indicating nirvana. Having received full ordination, one is near to nirvana. The old translation is "fullness," which gives a general idea of he term.) As soon as the ceremony is completed, one should immediately measure the shadow of he sun and note down distinctly the name of one of the five seasons.

The shadow of the sun is measured in the following manner. Take a fine stick, about the size of a slender chopstick one cubit long. Bend it at a point four finger-widths from one end and make it into the shape of carpenter's square, but mind that the shorter part of the stick is not broken away from the longer section. Let 96

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the shorter part stand erect under the sun, and place the longer section on the ground, overlaying the shadow cast by the shorter part of the stick. Then measure the shadow with four fingers. A length of fully four finger-widths is called one purusa. Thus we have so many purusas of ime, or sometimes one purusa and one finger-width or half a finger-width, or simply one finger-width of time, etc. In this way time is measured and calculated by adding or reducing the number of finger-widths. (Yijing s running note: The word purusa is translated as "man." The length of four finger-widths of shadow is called one purusa, because when the shadow of he vertical stick, which is four finger-widths long, casts a shadow of he same length on the ground, the shadow of a man standing under the sun will measure the same as his height. When the shadow of the vertical stick is eight finger-widths long, the man's shadow on the ground is double his height. Such is the case with a man of medium height; it is not necessarily so with all persons. Other measurements of time are also made by the same method.) But it must be made clear whether it is before or after the [midday] meal. When the weather is cloudy or at night, the measurement should be made in an appropriate way as one thinks fit.

According to the method adopted in China, we put a ruler vertically under the sun at midday to measure the shadow of he sun, or to mark the twelve two-hour periods of a day and night. The five seasons are counted in various ways in different regions, and the number of months in the year is sometimes odd and sometimes even. Thus it is difficult to know them with certainty, unless they are explained with reference to a specific matter. The first season is winter, which consists of our months, from the sixteenth day of the ninth moon to the fifteenth day of the first moon. The second season is spring, which also consists of our months, from the sixteenth day of the first moon to the fifteenth day of the fifth moon. The third one is the rainy season, which lasts only one month, from the sixteenth day of the fifth moon to the fifteenth day of the sixth moon. The fourth one is the final 97

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220a season, which lasts only one day and night on the sixteenth day of the sixth moon. The fifth one is the long season, which lasts from the seventeenth day of the sixth moon to the fifteenth day of the ninth moon. This system laid down by the Buddha for dividing the seasons is found only in the Vinaya texts, and there is evidently a deep significance in it. According to the usages of different localities, the year is divided into three, four, or six seasons, as is mentioned elsewhere.

In India or on the islands of the South Seas, when one monk meets another one for the first time, he asks the other one, "Venerable One, how many times have you done the summer retreat?" The other one answers, "So and so many times." If they have done the same number of summer retreats after ordination, the inquirer asks the other one in which season he was ordained. If they were ordained in the same season, the inquirer again asks the number of days left in that season when he was ordained. If the number of ays left in that season is also the same, the one asks the other whether he was ordained before or after the meal on that day. In case both of hem were ordained in the forenoon, then they inquire about the length of the shadow under the sun at the moment of ordination. If there is any difference in the length of the shadow, the seniority of the two is determined. If there is no difference, the two of them are of qual standing. In that case, the order of seats is arranged according to the principle of priority of arrival, and the duty-distributor may allow either of them to take precedence over the other in performing religious duties. Those who go to India must be acquainted with these points. It is unlike in China, where the monks ust inquire about the date of rdination. But in Nalanda Monastery the monks often receive full ordination when the [first] morning of the long season has just dawned. They mean to claim seniority over most of he monks ordained in the same summer. It corresponds with the dawn of the seventeenth day of he sixth moon in China. They do not want the ordination to fall on the date of commencement of the second summer retreat. (Yijing's running note: This is according to the 98

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method of bserving the summer retreat in India. If e follow the old practice in China, the date would fall on the seventeenth day of the fifth moon.) One who receives ordination when the night is drawing to the end on the sixteenth day of the sixth moon is the most unior monk among all monks ordained in the same summer because he is ordained in the second summer retreat. After having received ordination, the disciple does not have to make offerings to others, but if is teacher has the means, he may prepare on behalf of his disciple some gifts, such as a girdle, a strainer, and the like, for the monks whose presence is required for the performance of the ceremony at the altar of ordination, in order to express his mind of ratitude. Then the upadhyaya (spiritual teacher) gives the Text of the Disciplinary Rules to the disciple and teaches him the character of offenses and how to recite the rules. When the disciple is well learned in the rules, he will read the full text of the Vinaya-pitaka (Collection of Books on Monastic Discipline), which he recites every day and tries to observe from morning to morning. If he does not live up to them constantly, he might lose his mental power. When he has studied the Vinaya-pitaka, he begins to learn the sutras and sastras. Such is the way a teacher instructs his disciple in India. Although a long period has passed since the time of the Sage, this method of instruction still prevails unaltered. Therefore, these two teachers are likened to one's parents. Is it right for a monk to undergo unusual toil and fatigue because of desire to receive ordination, yet pay no heed to the disciplinary rules when he has been taught to observe them? It is a pity that one should have started a good cause, but failed to carry it through to the end! There are some people who desire to be ordained at the moment when they first meet their teachers, but once they are ordained, they come to study under their teachers no more. They neither read the book on the precepts nor do they open the texts of the Vinaya, but unworthily enjoy the advantages of eing among the ranks of monks, doing harm to themselves as well as to others. Such people will cause the downfall of the Dharma. 99

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220b According to the practice of ndia, after a monk has received full ordination, he is called a dahara (junior monk), which is translated into Chinese as "small teacher." When he has passed ten full summer retreats, he is known as a sthavira (an elder), which is translated as "abiding position. " As a monk often years'standing he is in a position to leave his teacher and abide by himself. He may also act as an upadhyaya (officiant at the ceremony of ordination).

In writing letters or exchanging communications, a monk should style himself Sramanera so-and-so, or Dahara Bhiksu soand-so, or Sthavira Bhiksu so-and-so, as the case may be. If he is well versed in both Buddhist learning and worldly lore and is a man of high virtue and noble character, he may call himself Bahusruta (well-learned) Bhiksu so-and-so. But one must not designate oneself angha so-and-so, because the term Sangha means a group of no less than four persons. How can one individual use an appellation indicating a group of persons to denote one man? In India there is no such custom as calling oneself a Sangha. One who becomes an upadhyaya must be a sthavira, having passed ten full summer retreats. There is no seniority requirement for the karmacarya who acts as a private tutor and the other monks who serve as witnesses, but they must be well learned in the Vinaya and pure in observing all the disciplinary rules. It is said in the Vinaya that to call one an upadhyaya who is not an upadhyaya, or to call one an acarya who is not an acarya, or vice versa, defiling the name of upadhyaya, incurs the guilt of evil-doing. If a man inquires, "What is the name of your upadhyaya?" or "Whose disciple are you?", or when one is obliged to mention the name of one's teacher, one should say, "In the circumstances, I am obliged to tell the name of my upadhyaya, whose name is so-and-so. In India and on the islands of he South Seas, it is not haughty to use the word "I." It is also not a rude form of address if one says "you. " It is simply meant to distinguish one person from another, without a mind of contempt towards others. This is not like in China, where it is considered 100

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despicable to use such pronouns. If one dislikes using the word "I," one may say "this person" instead of "I." These points were taught by the Buddha, and it is fitting to put them into practice. One should not echo what others have said, making no distinction between right and wrong.

When laymen who are dressed in white come to the residence of bhiksus to study Buddhist texts exclusively, with the intention of having their hair and becoming monks clad in black robes, they are called "children of men." Those who come to seek secular learning without the mind to relinquish the world are known as "students." These two classes of pupils have to provide food for themselves. (Yijing's running note: In the monasteries of India there are in most cases students who have come to learn secular literature from the bhiksus. They may serve, on the one hand, as attendants to their teachers, and, on the other hand, they may cherish pious aspirations because of the instructions imparted to them. As this is beneficial to both sides, there is no harm in keeping these students. Each of them should keep only one alms bowl like an ascetic, so as not to cause any trouble to others. But if ractional alms are given to them, it is also permitted. Let them distribute tooth wood to the monks and serve at meals. To supply them with sufficient timely requirements is not detrimental to the principle of compassion.) To let them partake of the food of the permanent Sangha is totally banned by the holy teachings. But if they have done some hard work for the community, they may be given either ordinary food or food purposely prepared for them beforehand by donors, which they may take without committing a misdeed.

The brilliance [issuing from the Buddha] at the Nairanjana River has faded away, and his radiance on Vulture Peak has disappeared. How many arhats have survived to transmit the

Dharma? Thus it s said n a sastra: "Since the Great Teacher closed his eyes, those who have realized sainthood have also passed away one after another. In this time when moral defilements are on the increase, we should be more diligent and never relax our spiritual 101

the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas efforts. All the virtuous monks should work together to safeguard the Dharma. If e are listless and inert and give the reins to selfconceit, whither shall we guide men and heavenly beings? It is said in the Vinaya: "So long as the disciplinary rules are observed, my Dharma will not perish. If here is no one observing the rules, my Dharma will come to an end." It is also said: "When the precepts exist, I exist. " These are not empty words; they imply a deep meaning and are truly worthy of our respect. Let me repeat it:

The shadow of the Great Teacher has faded, With it the Dharma will perish.

Lofty is the mountain of heresy, The hill of isdom has collapsed. The reillumination of he sun of Buddha Depends upon men of good virtue. If e follow the small path,

Who will propagate the great Way? Let us pray that the well-learned masters Do their best to bring about its spread. We hope the Way will thrive without fail, Passing through endless ages with good fame. Where rests the good fame?

In the active waves in the sea of recepts. Thus the teaching will not perish, though near the end. Actions will not go astray, even on the verge of error. This coincides with the right words spoken at Rajagrha. One's deeds will not break the rules of the Jeta Grove. 20. The Times for Taking a Bath

The customs egarding taking baths in India are different from those m China. In India the climate is temperate with slight variations in different regions. There are flowers and fruits throughout the year, even in the twelfth month. Snow and ice are unknown, except for 102

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a thin layer of frost. Although the weather is hot at most times, the heat is never unbearable. Even in hot weather, people do not suffer from prickly heat, and in the cold season, their feet are not chapped. Because of his [moderate climate], the people take baths frequently and set store by bodily cleanliness. Every day they do not eat before having washed themselves. There are ponds full of water in all places, and the people consider it a meritorious deed to dig ponds. If e travel from one post house to another, we may come within sight of twenty or thirty bathing ponds along the way, which measure one to five mu (one mu equals one-fifteenth hectare) in size. On all four sides of the ponds, there are planted tala trees (palmyra trees) growing to a height of orty or fifty feet. Rainwater is collected in the ponds, which are as limpid as a clear river. At the eight caityas, there are the ponds in which the Worldhonored One bathed himself. The water in these ponds is so clear and serene that it looks different from that in other ponds. At Nalanda Monastery there are more than ten large bathing pools, and every morning an instrument is sounded to call the monks to take baths. Every one of them brings his bathing skirt, and hundreds or thousands of monks go out of the monastery in all directions to the pools to bathe themselves. The bathing skirt is worn in the following manner. Take a piece of soft cotton cloth five forearms in length and one and a half orearms wide. Wrap it round the body, and then draw off the undergarment beneath it. Both ends of the bathing skirt are pulled to the front. Then take hold of the upper corner of the left end with the right hand and stretch it down to the waist to touch the body. The right end is twisted with the left one, and both are pressed in between the waist and the skirt itself. This is the way of wearing a bathing skirt. The skirt worn at bedtime is also put on in the same way. At the time of oming out of he bathing pool, one should shake one's body and emerge from the water slowly, for fear that some insects may cling to the skirt and be taken out of the water. How to come up to the bank is described in detail in the Vinaya texts. If a monk does not go to a bathing pond but takes a bath in the 103

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221a monastery, the bathing skirt is also put on in the same way, and someone is asked to pour the water for him. A screen may be put up anywhere at any time.

The World-honored One taught us how to build a bathroom, or construct an open-air pool with bricks, or make a medical bath for the treatment of isease. He also taught us to anoint the whole body, rub the feet with ointment every night, and dab the head with oil every morning. Doing so is very good for keeping clear eyesight and warding off the cold.

Furthermore, one should take a bath before eating food. There are two benefits derived from eating food after taking a bath. First, the body is pure and empty, without any dirt. Second, one will have a good appetite, as one's phlegm and mental depression are dissolved after taking a bath. Bathing after taking a square meal is forbidden by the science of medicine. Thus we may know that the saying about "washing one's hair when one is hungry and taking a bath with a full stomach is not the opinion of an all-round scholar. Using a bathing wrapper three feet long, too short to cover the body, or taking a bath naked without wearing anything, is incongruous with the teachings of the Buddha. One should use a bathing skirt four times as long as it is wide, big enough to cover the body in a decent manner. This is not only compatible with the holy teachings, but also causes no shame in the presence of men and heavenly beings. One should also know about other things that are unwise. Even when taking a bath at night, one should not be unbecoming in appearance. How can one uncover oneself before people's eyes?

21. The Cloth for Sitting On

To spread the sitting cloth [or mat] on the ground for worshiping is not the practice in the five parts of ndia. Nor is it mentioned in the rules of he four schools that one should crouch down and stand up three times in salutation. How worshipers pay homage will be described in other chapters.

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To make a cloth for sitting, a piece of cloth is cut [in two], one part being placed upon the other and stitched together. There is no time for me to give a full description of its measurement. The cloth is needed to preserve the mattresses of others when one intends to sleep thereon. In case one has to use anything belonging to others, whether old or new, one must cover it with one's own sitting cloth. If it is one's own property and is old, one need not cover it with the sitting cloth. One must not soil or spoil the gifts presented by donors.

The sitting cloth is not used for worshiping. The monks [of he islands] in the South Seas keep a cotton kerchief, three or five feet long and folded like a napkin, which they place under their knees as a pad when paying homage. When they are walking, they carry it on their shoulders. All bhiksus coming from India smiled at them [because of their curious custom].

22. Rules Concerning Sleeping and Resting

In India, as the living quarters [of the monks] are narrow and limited, where there are many residents, the beds are lifted up after the monks have arisen [in the morning]. The beds are put together at one side of the rooms, or removed and stored away out of doors. A bed is two cubits (one cubit equals eighteen to twenty-two inches) broad and four and a half cubits long, with a mattress and a mat of the same size, both of hich are light and not heavy. The ground is then wiped clean with dry cow dung, and sitting couches, blocks of wood, small mats, etc., are arranged. The monks take their seats in accordance with their seniority and perform their usual duties. All the utensils for their sustenance are placed on shelves. There is no rule that the bed must be screened with a piece of robe. If one is not qualified to sleep in the monks'quarters, one should not do so, and if one is qualified to sleep there, why should one hide oneself behind a robe screen?

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221b Before using a bed belonging to the Sangha (community of monks), one must put a covering on it first. The sitting cloth is suitable for this purpose. If one does not do so, one is apt to suffer the grief of having a black back. This was taught by the Buddha, and one must not be negligent about it.

In the ten islands of he South Seas, as well as in the five parts of India, people do not use wooden pillows to support the head. This is a custom prevalent only in China. The pillows used in India are all similar in style. Silk or cotton, dyed in any color according to one's liking, is sewn into a straight bag, one and a half cubits long and half a cubit wide. It is stuffed with material produced everywhere, such as wool, hemp fiber, cattail pollen, willow catkins, kapok, reed catkins, vines of the great trumpet flower, soft leaves, dry moss, cassia tora, ramie, or spotted peas. It may be high or low according to whether the season is cold or hot, just to make it comfortable and restful for the body, without feeling hard or stiff. But a wooden pillow is rough and strong, and as wind may pass below the neck, it often causes headaches. Customs, however, differ in various lands, and different things are appreciated. I am just narrating here what unusual things I have heard, and it is up to the reader to decide what customs he should adopt. But things of a warm nature tend to keep off cold, and ramie and peas are good for brightening eyesight. All these things are beneficial and may be used without fault. If one exposes the head to cold in a chilly country, one is liable to suffer from febrile diseases, and catarrh m the winter season is also due to the same cause. If one keeps the head warm properly, one may be free from such diseases. The saying "keep the head cold but keep the feet warm" is not always trustworthy.

A holy image [of he Buddha] is sometimes placed in a monk's room, either on a windowsill or in a niche specially made for it. When sitting down to take a meal, the monks screen off he image with a cloth curtain. They bathe it every morning and offer incense and flowers to it regularly. Every day at noon, the monks offer food to it when taking a meal. The case for storing scriptures 106

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is placed at one side. At sleeping time they stay in a separate room. In the various islands of the South Seas, the custom is the same. Such is the way the monks venerate the Buddha at ordinary times in their private rooms. The holy images of a monastery are all installed in a special shrine hall. How can an image, after having been made, never be washed and wiped during its lifetime? If t is not a festival day, why should one offer food frequently to an image? To speak from this point of view, what is the harm in living in the same room with an image [of he Buddha]? When the Great Teacher was living, he permitted the monks to live in the same room with him. An image is but a representation of the real person. Logically speaking, there is no harm in doing so. This is a long-standing tradition practiced in India.

23. Walking Up and Down for Good Health

In the five parts of ndia, both monks and laymen are in the habit of taking a walk, going straight forward and coming back along the same route at proper times when they feel like it, but they do not take walks in noisy places. First, it cures diseases, and second, it helps digestion. When noontime is approaching, or when the sun is to the west, it is time to take a walk. They may either go out of the monastery for a long walk, or just stroll slowly in the corridor. If one does not do so, one is liable to suffer from illness, being often troubled by swelling of the legs and of the stomach, or pain in the elbows or in the shoulders, or with phlegmatic symptoms which will not dissolve. All these ailments are caused by our sedentary posture. If ne can take this exercise, one will have a healthy body and increase one's spiritual cultivation.

So there are paths on which the World-honored One used to take walks at Vulture Peak, under the bodhi tree, at Deer Park, in the city of Rajagrha, and at other holy sites. They are about two cubits wide, fourteen or fifteen cubits long, two cubits high, and built with ricks. On the surface [of ach of he paths], there are 221c

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fourteen or fifteen limestone sculptures of blooming lotus flowers about two cubits high and one foot in diameter, symbolizing the footprints of the Holy One. At both ends of the paths, there are small caityas, equal to a man's height, in which standing statues of Sakyamuni are sometimes installed. One goes round a caitya just as one goes round a temple, with one's right shoulder towards the venerated object. As this is a special meritorious deed, one should perform it with piety and respect.

Taking a walk for exercise is a way to stimulate digestion and relieve boredom. It is meant to preserve good health or to cure illness. It was formerly known &sxing-dao (walking along the Way) or as jing-xing (taking a walk), both of hich have the same meaning, without any difference. But this health-preserving exercise has been lacking in China for a long time. It is said in a scripture, "They walked while looking at the trees." I have seen the path used [by the Buddha] for taking walks beside the Diamond Seat, but I did not see any of he round pedestals.

24. The Junior Worshiping the Senior

The rites of salutation should be practiced according to the Buddha s teachings. A monk whose seniority is determined by the measurement of a shadow [with a sundial] at the time of receiving full ordination is entitled to be saluted by his uniors. The Buddha said, "There are two kinds of men who are worthy to be saluted. First, the Tathagata (one who has attained Buddhahood), and second, senior bhiksus." Since this is the golden word of the Buddha, why should we take the trouble to be humble and timorous? When a junior monk sees a senior one, he should express respect in a polite manner, uttering the word "Vande" ("I salute") while he worships the senior monk. When a senior monk is worshiped by a unior^me, he may ust sit up straight with his hands in front and say "Arogya" ("May you be healthy!"). (Yijing's running note: This is a form of blessing, meaning "May you be free from illness. ") If hey do not say these words, both of hem are at 108

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fault. [The one who is saluted] may remain standing or sitting as he is, without changing his posture. Since he is entitled to receive salutation, he need not salute in return. Such is the rule for the monks of the five parts of India.

How can a junior monk expect a senior one to stand up when the salutation is about to take place? Nor should the senior monk, while receiving salutation, fear that he might displease or annoy the junior one. If so, the honored one would get hold of the junior monk to prevent him from paying homage, while saying, "Don t take the trouble!" Thus the junior monk would try hard to salute the senior one, but he could not reach the ground [to prostrate himself]. If they did not behave so, they would be criticized as acting against etiquette! Alas! They disregard the holy teachings to satisfy their human feelings. Both the one who is paying respect and the one who is respected are acting against the rules. We should make a deep study of this point. A long stream has been overflowing for a long time, and who would try to bring it under control with a dam?

25. Behavior between Teacher and Pupil

The instruction of upils is an important factor for the prosperity [of the Dharma], If e do not pay attention to it, the extinction of the Dharma may be expected. We must take precautionary measures about the matter, and must not let it slip off [as a fish slips off] the net.

It is said in the Vinaya: "Early every morning, a pupil should first chew tooth wood, and then come to his teacher to offer him tooth wood, gleditsia [used for soap], water, and a towel, which are put at the sitting place. When these things are properly arranged, he goes to worship the holy image of the Buddha, walks round the shrine hall, and then returns o his teacher's place, where he, having tidied up his robe, makes a salutation without standing up. Putting his palms together, he touches the ground with his head three times, and while kneeling on the ground with his 222a 109

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head bowed down and his hands joined together, he inquires of his teacher, 'May my upadhydya be attentive!"' (Yijing's running note: Upa means "near to," and adhyaya, "a teacher." In India well-learned people are generally called wu-she, which is not a classical term [but a corrupt abbreviation]. According to Sanskrit scriptures and disciplinary texts, the word upadhydya, meaning a personal teacher, is used. In the various northern countries, the word is pronounced as he-she, and the translators adopted it [to indicate a monk] erroneously.) Or the pupil may say, May my dcarya be attentive!" (Yijing's running note: Acarya is translated as "instructor. " He is competent to instruct the pupil in religious rites. Formerly it was mistransliterated as a-sheli.) "Now I beg to inquire whether the upadhydya has slept well last night, whether his four elements [of the physical body] are in peace and harmony, whether he is easy and agile in movement and has a good digestion, and whether he is ready to take his morning meal." These inquiries may be lengthy or brief according to circumstances.

The teacher answers the inquiries according to whether he is at ease or not, as the case may be. Then the pupil goes to the adjoining rooms to salute his seniors. Next, he reads a short section of a scripture and memorizes what he has learned before. He studies new lessons every day and reviews his old acquirements each month, without wasting a single moment. He should wait after daybreak, and then ask permission of is teacher to take the morning meal, if he has a good appetite for it. He need not take the trouble to seek porridge before dawn, in such haste as not to ask permission of his teacher, without chewing tooth wood, nor having time to ascertain that the water [for his daily use] is free from insects, and even without having washed and cleansed himself. Does he not know that for the sake of ne bowl of orridge, he is acting against the four points of the Buddha's teaching? The causes of errors and degeneracies come from this violation. I wish that those who maintain and support the Dharma will consider the matter well. (Yijing's running note: The above-mentioned inquiries 110

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are according to the rules taught in Aryadesa [the holy land], ary meaning "holy," and desa, "land," that is, the western country of India. Saints and sages emerged there one after another, hence the name commonly used by the people. It is also known as Madhyadesa [the Midland Country], as it is in the middle of millions of countries. Owing to this fact, the name is known to all. In the countries of the Hu tribes of the north, the holy land is only known as Xi-du [Sindhu], which is not a popular name, but a dialectical appellation without any special meaning. When this name is heard in India, most people do not know where it is, and so it is fitting to call India the Holy Land, which is a suitable name. Or, it is said by tradition that the word Indu is translated as "moon," which is correct, but it is not a popular designation. It is just like the Land of Great Tang being known in India as Cina, which is simply a name without special meaning. Furthermore, we should know that the five parts of India are collectively known as the Brahmanic Country, while the country of Suri in the north is included in the territory of the Hu tribes. They should not be mixed up and called by one and the same name.)

When one has received full ordination, after having shaved one's hair and put on the plain robe of a homeless monk, one has to ask permission of ne's teacher to do anything, with the exception, according to the Vinaya, of five things; otherwise one will incur fault. The five things are (1) chewing tooth wood, (2) drinking water, (3) excreting stools, (4) passing water, and (5) performing a caitya-vandana (going round a temple) within forty-nine fathoms inside a consecrated boundary.

For instance, when it is time to take a meal, the pupil should go to ask permission of is teacher, whom he should salute according to the rules of salutation, and then say to him, May my upadhydya be attentive! Now I ask your permission to wash my hands and alms bowl to take a meal." The teacher should say, "Be careful about it!" The permission required for doing other things is asked in the same way. After considering the matter and the time for doing it, the teacher then gives his permission or disallowance. Ill

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222b If the pupil has many things to do, he may ask permission to do all of them at one time.

When, after five summers, the pupil has mastered the Vinaya, he may leave his upadhyaya to travel in the world to pursue other subjects of study. But wherever he goes, he must depend on a teacher. It is only after the completion of ten summer [retreats] that he may cease to depend on a teacher. The Great Sage was so thoughtful and considerate as to have laid down this rule. If a monk is not conversant with the Vinaya, he will have to depend on a teacher till the end of his life. If there is no senior teacher available, he may stay with a junior one and do all duties, except salutation, to him. [In that case,] the pupil does not inquire after [his teacher's] health every morning and ask whether he has not lived up to the Vinaya rules. Whenever he has anything to do, he should ask for his teacher's permission. Or he may ask for instructions in the morning and in the evening, but the admonition given at the moment may not be congruent ith the intent of he Vinaya. If he pupil who asks for instructions cannot make his point clear, how can the teacher who responds to his request give him any good consultation? This is not the way of asking for instructions. Since such a habit has been handed down for a long time, who would care to take the trouble to make a point-by-point examination of it? If we practice in accordance with the teachings of the Buddha, the Dharma will be maintained without interruption. If one thinks that this is an insignificant matter, what else is important? Thus, it is said in a Vinaya text, "Better to be a butcher than to give full ordination to others and leave them untaught! According to the manner of erving one's teacher handed down m India, a pupil should go to his teacher at the first watch and the last watch of the night. The teacher first invites him to sit down comfortably, and then teaches him a passage from the Tripitaka (the three collections of the Buddhist canon) that is suitable for the time, leaving no fact or theory unexpounded. He examines his pupil s moral conduct to prevent him from committing defects and violating the disciplinary rules. Whenever he finds that his pupil 112

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has committed any fault, he advises him to repent and confess. Then the pupil massages the body of is teacher and folds his robes tidily, or sometimes sweeps the room and the courtyard, and inspects the water to see that no insect is in it before it is sent to the teacher. Whatever is to be done, the pupil does for his teacher. This is how a pupil respects his teacher.

If pupil alls ill, the teacher personally attends him ith edicine and feels such anxiety as he would feel if the pupil were his own child. But according to the guiding principles of the Buddha's teaching, instruction and edification are first and foremost, just as a cakravartin (a universal monarch) pays great attention to fostering and educating his eldest son. This is clearly laid down in the Vinaya, and there are no grounds for us to hold it in contempt. As regards the above-mentioned caitya-vande or caityavandana, it is said that when the Great Teacher, the World-honored One, had entered nirvana, men and gods assembled to cremate his remains. They collected fragrant firewood and built a big funeral pile. That place was known as citi, meaning a pile, which gave rise to the name of caitya. There are other explanations. First, it is an object which inspires one to meditate that all the virtues of the World-honored One are accumulated here, and second, it is built by piling up bricks and earth. The meaning of the word is handed down as such. Or it is called a stupa, which has the same meaning as caitya. Formerly, it was generally called ta (pagoda) or zhi-ti (a corruption of caitya). Both of hese terms are incorrect, but both may be used, because people understand what is actually implied without delving into their meanings.

Briefly speaking, there are two ways of explaining a term in India: first, for a term with a meaning, and second, for a term without a meaning. A term that has a meaning has a reason for its coinage, which is interpreted according to its meaning, and the term and its substance are always coincident with each other. For instance, the interpretation of he name Shanru ("well-entering into truth") is that it was first invented according to a man's deeds of irtue, and so it is a name coined according to its meaning. When 222c

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it becomes familiar to the people, they will not delve into its meaning, but call the man "well-entering into truth," simply because the world calls him so. The name becomes thus a term without a meaning.

Vandana means salutation. When one wishes to go out to worship the Buddha's image, if someone inquires, "Where are you going?" one may reply, "I am going to such and such a place to worship the caitya." Salutation is a manner of paying respect to one s superiors with a sense of umility. When one is going to pay homage or to ask permission [of one's teacher], one should first adjust one's religious robe to drape over the left shoulder, and press the robe under the left armpit to make it fit tightly to the body, while stretching one's left hand downwards to get hold of the left side of the robe. The right hand follows the robe down to cover the body. When the skirt becomes lower, the robe should be rolled up to the knees, so that both knees are well covered, without exposing the body. The edge of he robe at the back is quickly made to stick to the body. Both the robe and the skirt are held in such a way as not to touch the ground. [When one is kneeling down] the two heels are pointing upwards, with the back and neck in a straight line. The ten fingers are spread on the ground before one bows one's head down, with no part of he robe or anything else used as padding under the knees. One should again oin one's hands palm to palm and touch the ground with one's head once more. In this manner one piously makes salutation three times. At ordinary times, one salutation is suflicient; there is no rule that requires one to stand up and then to kneel down again. Should the people of India see one saluting and standing up consecutively three times, they would marvel at it.

If one fears that there might be dust on one's forehead, one may rub it off with one's hand and then wipe it clean. Next, one should wipe away the dust on one's knees. After adjusting one's robe, one should sit at one side or stand for a while. The elder monk should ask him to take a seat, but if he pupil is being reprimanded, it is harmless for him to remain standing. Such is the tradition 114

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uninterruptedly handed down from teacher to pupil from the time of the Buddha up to the present age of degeneration. It is said in the scriptures and the Vinaya texts that when one approached the Buddha, one should worship him at his feet and sit down at one side, but it is never mentioned that one should spread the sitting mat, worship three times, and stand at one side. Such is the teaching. In the place where an elder is, many seats should be prepared, so that when people come they may sit in a proper manner. When one sits down, one's feet touch the ground. There is no custom of sitting down with one's knees resting on the ground. It is said in the Vinaya that one should first assume the utkutaka posture, which is translated as "a squatting posture," with both feet placed flat on the ground and both knees pointing upwards, the robes being tightly wrapped on the body without falling on the ground. This is the regular posture for performing the ceremony of keeping surplus robes, etc., as pure (legitimate) alms, or making a confession in the presence of other monks, or expressing respect to an assembly, or asking for pardon when one is being reprimanded, or worshiping the monks when receiving full ordination. In all such cases, the posture is the same. Or one may kneel down on the ground, keeping the back erect with hands joined palm to palm. This is the posture to praise and gaze with reverence at the Buddha's statue on an altar. But worshiping on a couch is not done in any country [except China], nor does one see the custom of spreading a felt mat [for worshiping]. Is it justifiable to be so insolent while one intends to be respectful? When one is on a couch or a mat, one should not pay respect to others even at ordinary times, let alone when worshiping one s honored teacher or the Great Master. How can such a thing be permissible?

In the lecture halls and dining rooms [of the monasteries] in India, no big couches are provided, but there are a large number of blocks of wood and small chairs prepared for the monks to sit on while listening to a lecture or having a meal. Such was the original custom. In hina, the onks ave ong een sed o sitting ross-legged 115

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on big couches. Although customs may be changed according to circumstances from time to time, one should know what was the original tradition and what are later derivatives. 26. Conduct towards Visitors and Friends

In the days when the Great Teacher, the founder of the religion, was living in the world, he used to say "welcome" whenever a visiting bhiksu arrived. The monks of he monasteries in India follow the rule that when they see a newcomer arriving, whether he is a visitor, an old friend, a disciple, a pupil, or an acquaintance, they go forward to greet him with the utterance "Suagata, which is translated as "welcome." Should the newcomer be a guest, the word Susvagata, translated as "hearty welcome," must be pronounced. If one does not say these words, one infringes upon the monastic regulations and is also guilty according to the rules of the Vinaya. No matter whether the newcomer is a senior or a junior monk, this is done all the same.

Then [the host] takes off he visitor's water ar and alms bowl, hangs them up on pegs fixed on the wall, and prepares a seat in a proper place for him to rest. If the visitor is a junior monk, he is led to a secluded place, and if e is a senior one, he is invited to sit m the front chamber. If the host is junior to the guest, he should, in honor of is senior, massage his calves up to the whole body. If the host is senior to the guest, he only repeatedly strokes the guest's back, but not down to his waist and feet. If oth of hem are of he same age, then there will be no difference in the matter. When [the newcomer] has recovered from fatigue, he washes his hands and feet and proceeds to the superior, whom he worships only once. While kneeling on the ground, he touches the superior's feet. The superior stretches his right hand to stroke the shoulders and back of the guest. But if t has not been a long time since they have seen each other, the superior need not stroke the guest with his hand. Then the teacher inquires after his health, and the disciple answers according to circumstances. After that 116

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the guest withdraws to one side and sits down with due respect. There is no custom of standing at one side. The general rule in India is to sit on small blocks of wood, and everybody is barefoot. Since this is not the custom in China, the etiquette of holding another person's feet is not practiced there. It is said in the scriptures that men and gods came to the Buddha, bowed their heads down to his feet, and then withdrew to sit at one side in the manner as mentioned above.

At the chosen time, hot water or other drinks are offered to the guest. Ghee, honey, and granulated sugar may be taken at will. As for the other eight kinds of syrup, they must be filtered and made clear before one drinks them. If they are thick with dregs, they are definitely not allowed [to be taken as beverages]. As the juice of apricots and the like is thick, it is reasonable that it should be totally banned as a beverage. It is said in the Vinaya: "Syrup must be strained until the color becomes as yellowish as the reed." Such are the rites of hospitality for receiving guests in India, whether they are teachers, pupils, visitors, or ac- quaintances. It is improper for one to perform he-nan (salutation) in haste when one has ust put down one s garments and cap after arriving at a place, having traveled through severe cold weather or under the scorching sun, with perspiration all over one's body, or with hands and feet benumbed with cold. Such heedless behavior is deeply against the rules of ecency.What is more, the teacher allows the guest to stand there gossiping about irrelevant matters. How can such a man of xcessive impetuosity be able to make the Dharma continue and prosper?

The word he-nan is derived from the Sanskrit vande or vandana (worshiping), translated as "paying homage." As the transliteration is incorrect, it is pronounced he-nan. Since the old transliteration cannot be altered, people still say he-nan. If we adopt the correct pronunciation, it should be said as vande. When one is on the road, or in a crowd, it is unsuitable to make salutations; one may just join the hands palm to palm, lower the head, and utter the word vande. Thus it is said in a scripture, "Putting the hands together palm to palm, or even lowering the 223b

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head a little, is also a way of aying homage. " People of he south do not know that their behavior seemingly conforms with the regulations. If hey could change their unawareness into saying vande, their behavior would be perfect, as is ordained in the Vinaya. 27. The Treatment of Disease

As I have said before, one should consider whether one is feeling light or heavy-that is, see whether one's four physical elements are strong or weak—before one takes breakfast. If one feels light and brisk, one may eat the meal as usual, but if nything is wrong, one must find out the cause. When the cause of discomfort has been found, one should rest. When one is feeling light and healthy, one will feel as hungry as if a fire were burning inside, and then one may take food at breakfast time. Daybreak is usually called the time of hlegm," when the remnant fluid of ood taken before the night is still crammed in the chest and has not yet dispersed; food taken at this time is a cause of rouble. It is ust like throwing fuel into a blazing fire. The fuel will be consumed by the flames, but if traw is placed on a fire not yet brightly burning, the straw will remain there, while the fire will not burn. Breakfast is specially permitted by the Buddha. Whether it is porridge or cooked rice, the meal is taken according to one's physical condition. If ne can subsist on porridge alone in order to practice the Way, one may just eat it without taking anything else. If one wishes to eat cooked rice for the nourishment of he body, it is harmless to take cooked rice in the morning. If any food causes discomfort to the body, it is a source of llness. Do not say that one is ill when one only has a headache or is lying in bed. When no other medicine is curative, a physician may prescribe "untimely food for the patient, and the Buddha said that it might be served in a secluded place. No monk is allowed to take food at irregular hours except by the prescription of a physician. According to the lore of edicine, one of he five lores of ndia, a physician should first examine the voice and countenance of is 118

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patient, and then prescribe for him in accordance with the eight branches of medical knowledge. If he does not understand the secret of this knowledge, he will cause adverse effects though he intended to produce advantageous results. The eight branches of medical knowledge are: (1) the treatment of all kinds of lcers; (2) the treatment of ilments of he head by acupuncture; (3) the treatment of diseases of he body; (4) the treatment of llnesses caused by demons; (5) the treatment of sickness with agada (antidotal) medicine; (6) the treatment of children's diseases; (7) the art of longevity; and (8) the method of strengthening the legs and body. Ulcers are of wo kinds, internal and external. Ailments of he head are those illnesses that trouble only the head. Diseases below the neck are called bodily diseases. Discomfort caused by demons is a complaint induced by evil demons. Agada is a panacea for counteracting all kinds of poison. The word "children indicates infants from the stage of an embryo up to the age of sixteen years. Longevity means to keep the body healthy so as to live long. When the legs are energetic, the body will be strong and healthy. These eight arts of ealing were formerly contained in eight books. Lately they have been abridged into one bundle [of palm leaves]. In the five parts of India, [all physicians] practice medicine according to this book. The physicians who are well learned in it are all paid with official salaries. Therefore, physicians are greatly honored in India. Merchants and traders are also held in esteem, as they do not injure life but benefit themselves and help others at the same time. I have also spent some time in studying the lore of medicine, but as it was not my proper duty I abandoned the pursuit at last.

Moreover, we should know that the medicinal herbs of India are different from those of China. What is found in one country may not be found in the other, and so they are not the same in the two countries. For instance, such herbs as ginseng, tuckahoe, Chinese angelica, polygala, aconite, monkshood, Chinese ephedra, asarum, and the like are the best medicinal herbs in China, but I did not see any of them when I made inquiries about them 223c

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in India. In India there is abundant harltaki (yellow myrobalan), and in the northern part one may sometimes find turmeric, while the western frontier is rich in ferula. A small quantity of amphor is produced in [the islands of] the South Seas. All three species of cardamom are grown in Dvarapati, while the two kinds of loves are produced in the country of un-lun. Only these herbs are needed in China; all other medicinal herbs are not worth gathering. When the body, which is made up of the four elements, is ill, the illness is caused in all cases by overeating or fatigue, or by taking a meal early in the morning when the food taken before the night has not been discharged, or by eating again at noon when breakfast has not been digested. For these reasons, cholera develops. One belches consecutively for several nights, and the belly is swollen for more than ten days. Then one seeks expensive medicines to cure the kidneys and tries to get costly Gentiana macrophylla. A rich man can afford to do so, but a poor man can live only as long as the morning dew. What can one do to save the life of such a poor man when he is attacked by illness? Even if a good physician came in the morning to offer pills and medicinal powder, they would be of no effect. Even if Bianque [the highly skilled physician] visited him in the evening with medical decoctions and plasters, he could not save his life. Moxibustion and acupuncture applied to him are just as if put on wood or stone. He could only shake his legs and head; otherwise he would be no different from a corpse.

All this is due to ignorance of the causes of illness and not understanding how to take good care of oneself so as to recuperate. It is like trying to stop a stream without damming up its source, or cutting a tree without removing its roots, so that the current will spread and the branches will sprout again without being extirpated. The result is that those who engage in studying the scriptures and commentaries only gaze at the Tripitaka with ceaseless sighs [over their enfeebled bodies], and those who practice meditation can only imagine the mental state of the eight kinds of samadhi (intent concentration) with long lamentations. Lay scholars who aim at 120

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achieving the Doctorate of Classics curb their bridles at the Gate of he Golden Horse [being prevented by illness from entering that government house], and those who are trying to compete for the position of Advanced Scholar halt outside the Shi-qu-ge (the Imperial Library). Is it not a great hindrance that impedes one from cultivating the Way and performing good deeds? It is not, indeed, a small matter to lose one's good repute and glory. So I have made this narration—I hope that my readers will not deem it prolix and repetitious—so that chronic complaints may be cured without the treatment of physician. When the four elements [of he physical body] are well regulated, one will never be affected by any kind of disease. Is it not beneficial to do good for oneself as well as others? If one is poisoned to death [in the course of taking medicine], it is the result of one's deeds done in a previous life. Yet, in our present life, it is necessary to avoid [what is undesirable] and take [what is beneficial].

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28. Rules for Taking Medicine

All living creatures without exception are liable to suffer from ailments caused by disorders of he four elements; and the eight seasonal changes, coming one after another, may induce illness at no fixed time. Whenever one is ill, one should rest at once. Therefore, the World-honored One said when delivering the Sutra on Medical Prescriptions: "The disorders of the four elements are as follows: (1) guru (indigestion), (2) kapha (phlegm), (3) pitta (bile), and (4) vata (wind)." The first is an increase of the element of earth, which causes the body to feel heavy; the second is an accumulation of the element of water, which causes excessive snivel and saliva; the third is the burning of the element of fire, which makes the head and chest strongly feverish; and the fourth is a great agitation of he element of ind, which makes one pant with a striking and rushing breath. These four correspond with what are known in China as serious heaviness, phlegmatic illness, 121

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yellow fever, and the bursting of reath. But if e discuss disease according to popular pathology, there are only three kinds of illness, namely, ailments caused by wind, feverish maladies, and phlegmatic sickness. Serious heaviness is substantially identical with phlegmatic illness, without being separately elucidated as pertaining to the element of earth.

In order to find out the cause of disease, one should examine oneself early in the morning. If one feels that the four elements are abnormal or out of order, one should first refrain from eating. Even if ne is very thirsty, one must not drink any juice or water. This utmost abstinence should be observed for one or two days, or sometimes for four or five days, until the disease is cured. This is the right thing for one to do, but there is no fixed duration for it. If one feels that there is food remaining undigested in the stomach, one should press the navel and the chest with one's fingers stretched like a fork. It is good for one to drink a large quantity of hot water and thrust a finger into the throat to cause the food to eject out. One should drink water again and vomit once more, till the stomach is completely emptied. Drinking cold water is also harmless. Hot water with dry ginger soaked in it is a wonderful cure. On that day food must be cut off, and one may break the fast on the following morning. If it is difficult for one to fast for a day, temporary adjustments may be arranged according to circumstances. If ne is having a high fever, one should particularly avoid taking a cold shower bath. If ne feels seriously heavy and is shivering with cold, it is good for one to remain near a fire, but this is inapplicable in the hot and damp places south of he Yangzi River and in the Five Ranges. It is the local custom of these places to take a cold shower bath when one is having a fever. In the case of acute rheumatoid arthritis, ointment may be applied, and it is also good to use a hot ball of cloth to heat the affected part of the body. The application of heated oil will produce an immediate effect.

One may feel phlegm filling the chest, with saliva oozing incessantly out of he mouth, and clear mucus flowing from the nose. 122

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Breath may accumulate in the pharynx. The throat is sometimes choked when the mouth is overfull with food so that one cannot speak properly, and food and drink become tasteless for as long as some ten days. Merely by fasting, such complaints may be cured without taking the trouble of auterizing the head, nor is it necessary to resort to massaging the throat. Such are the general principles by which medicine can cure a disease without using medical decoctions.

I conjecture that when undigested food is removed, high fever will abate, and that when the flowing saliva is exhausted, phlegmatic disease will be cured. If the internal organs remain quiet, and evil air is dispersed, violent wind will cease by itself. Nothing will go wrong if one regulates the physique in this manner. One need not trouble a physician to feel one's pulse, nor is it needful to consult a witch doctor. Each person is then a king of physicians, and everyone becomes a Jivaka [a well-known physician at the time of the Buddha].

As regards the method of the Dharma master Tanluan, who could cure his own ailments by regulating his breath, it could be practiced only by hermits. The Dhyana master Huisi could extract evil influences from his body by composing his mind in abstract meditation, but this is unknowable to common people. If t is necessary to consult a reputable physician in the eastern capital of Luo-yang, a poor man will be stopped at the ford [for want of oney to pay the boatman]. When it is necessary to seek the best herbs in the western suburbs, the solitary and childless will lose their way. The fasting mentioned above costs no money and is wonderful as a treatment. As it can be applied by both the rich and the poor, is it not an important remedy?

With the abrupt appearance of arbuncle or acne, hot blood will rush up all of a sudden, and both the hands and feet will feel irritated and painful. At the moment when such diseases as the plague, punishments sent by heaven, bodily wounds caused by a sword or an arrow, fractures resulting from stumbling and falling, typhoid fever, acute gastroenteritis, half-day 224b

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diarrhea, headaches, angina pectoris, sores around the eyes, toothaches, and the like, have begun to arise, one should start fasting. A pill made of three components will cure various diseases, and it is not difficult to obtain. Take harltakl bark, dry ginger, and granulated sugar, all equal in quantity. Pound the first two into powder, and then mix the powder with the sugar in a few drops of water to knead the mixture into pills. About ten pills in the morning is the limit, and one is not to abstain from eating. No more than two or three doses will be sufficient to cure a patient with diarrhea. It will break up gas in the stomach, disperse cold, and help digestion. As it is widely useful, I have mentioned it here. If no granulated sugar is available, maltose or honey will do. If one could chew one piece of harltaki and swallow the juice every day, one would be free from disease throughout one's whole life. This medical lore was handed down by Indra. As one of the five sciences, it is practiced in all of he five parts of ndia. Among its methods of treatment, the most important one is fasting. The old translators said that when a patient was not cured after having fasted for seven days, he might invoke the aid of Avalokitesvara. In China, most people do not understand this method and think of it as a separate system of religious fasting; thus they do not care to study it. This is because the translators did not understand the art of healing. Those who suffer from illnesses caused by taking cinnabar and crystal [for immortality], or from a chronic disease, such as a lump in the belly, may also apply this method. (Yijing's running note: But I fear that it might be unsuitable for those who take cinnabar and crystal to go hungry. The cinnabar drug that enables one to levitate is not found in any other country, and the eating of [pulverized] crystal is practiced only in China. But some kinds of crystal or moonstone may produce fire, and if they are taken, the body will explode. As people of the present day cannot distinguish them, numerous men have died in vain [of his bad practice], Thus we should be deeply aware of the harmfulness of this.) Poisoning caused by snakebite or scorpion sting cannot be cured by this treatment [fasting]. When one is fasting, roaming about 124

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and doing hard work should be strictly avoided. A long-distance traveler may go on his way without harm even if e is fasting, but he should rest after his recuperation, and eat newly cooked rice or drink any amount of well-boiled mung bean soup, seasoned with fragrant giant hyssop. If he feels chilly, he may add pepper, ginger, and Piper longum to the soup. If he knows that it is a cold, scallion andNepeta aponica should be put into the soup. It is said in a work on medicine that all pungent things are liable to promote cold, with the exception of dry ginger, and so it is also good to add them to the soup. On days of fasting, one should regulate one's breath and abstain from drinking cold water. Other abstentions are just the same as taking regular medicine, but if one is sure to be suffering from cold, one may take porridge without harm. In the case of suffering from fever, it is good to drink well-boiled decoctions of he root of itter ginseng (Sophora flavescens). Tea is also good. For more than twenty years after I left my native country, I only drank this as a medicinal beverage to preserve my health, and I scarcely suffered from any disease. The medicines in China, including the stone needle for acupuncture, amount to more than four hundred kinds of herbs consisting of roots and stalks of different plants, most of which are fine and rare in color and have a fragrant flavor. They are effective for curing diseases and can invigorate one's spirit. Acupuncture and the skill of feeling the pulse [in China] are never surpassed by any country in Jambudvipa, and the drugs for long life are found only in China. Because our hills are connected with the Himalayas and our mountains are linked with the Gandhamâdanas, many strange and precious things are produced here in abundance. On account of the natural disposition of her people and the quality of her products, China is known as the Divine Land. In all the five parts of India, who does not esteem China, and who within the four seas does not hold her in respect? It is said that Manjusri is now living in that country. Wherever a monk goes, if the people hear that he is a monk from the Devaputra, they will worship him with great honor. Deva means heaven, 224c

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225a and putra "a son," denoting that he is coming from the place of the Son of Heaven in China.

The medicinal herbs and the acupuncture [used in China] are really wonderful, but recuperative measures and the discovery of the causes of isease are very much neglected. So I am here giving a rough description of ow to meet the need in time. If asting fails to alleviate one's ailment, one may then resort to medical treatment according to a prescription. A decoction of itter ginseng is a specific remedy for feverish diseases, while ghee, honey, and fruit juice are particularly good for curing colds. In the country of ata in West India, people who are ill abstain from food for a fortnight, or a full month, and will take food only after they have been cured of heir illness. In Central India the limit for fasting is seven days, and in the South Seas it is but two or three days. This is because of different local conditions and variant physical constitutions. So the number of days for fasting is more in one place and less at another, without a uniform limit.

I do not know whether or not fasting is suitable to be practiced in China. Most people die after abstaining from food for seven days, but this is because one is not afflicted with any illness. But if ne is infected with illness, one will not die even [after fasting] for many days. Once I saw a sick man who fasted for thirty days and recovered afterwards. So it is not surprising to see one fasting for many days. How can one force a man to drink hot porridge in spite of is sickness, simply on seeing that he is attacked by a burning fever, without examining the cause of his illness? Such an act is deeply dreadful! If by any chance one is cured by such a treatment, it is after all not to be taught to the laypeople. It is strictly prohibited to do so in the lore of medicine.

Furthermore, the people of resent-day China mostly eat raw fish and vegetables, but the Indians never eat anything uncooked. All sorts of egetables are well cooked and mixed with ferula, ghee, and spices before being eaten, and they never eat pickles or mincemeat made of ickles. I remember once I ate some of hese things, and they caused me to suffer from a painful lump in the abdomen, 126

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which hurt my belly, clogged my intestines, induced sore eyes, and enfeebled me all the more. That is why the Indians do not eat them. Wise people should consider the matter well as to what is useful and practicable, and what should be abandoned or be kept in mind. If one has heard the advice of a physician, but does not act accordingly, is the physician to be blamed? If ne acts in accordance with medical advice, one will live at ease and be able to follow the Way in a perfect manner, benefiting both oneself and others. If one abandons good advice, one will have a weak body and be feeble-minded, while all one's efforts to do good for oneself and others will be lost.

29. Avoidance of Evil Drugs

At certain places where the vulgar custom has long been prevalent, the people take feces and urine in time of llness, and when a disease comes on, the dung of pigs or cats is used. Such things, entitled "dragon decoctions," are kept in an urn or ajar. In spite of their nice name, they are the worst of all filthy things. Even after eating onion or garlic, which are permissible for a monk to eat, one has to stay in a side room to purify oneself by washing and bathing for seven days before joining others. When one's body is not yet purified, one should not enter the assembly of monks, nor is it fitting for one to walk round a stupa. One must not worship [an image of the Buddha]. Owing to their offensive smell, a monk is not allowed to eat these things, unless he is ill. What is called "putrid-discharged[-medicine]," which is one of the four dependences, is the medicine which is putrid and discharged [by a cow]. It is meant to save trouble and get what is merely for the preservation of the body. Costly medicine is, of course, allowable, and there is no harm in taking it. In the Sanskrit term puti-mukti-bhaisajya, puti means "putrid, mukti is "discharged," and bhaisajya is translated as "medicine." (Yijing s running note: Thus we have "putrid-discharged-medicine.") 127

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225b The Vinaya permits feces and urine to be used as medicine, but the dung of a calf and the urine of a cow are meant. In India, the body of ne who is condemned to capital punishment is smeared with [human] feces and discarded in the wilderness outside human habitation. Night-soil removers and scavengers strike sticks to distinguish themselves while going about. If anybody touches them accidentally, he has to wash himself nd his garments thoroughly clean.

It was the principle of the Great Teacher to act according to circumstances and take precautions against people's derision and slander. How could he have asked others to take such things against the customs of is time? The reasons for his disallowance are fully explained in the Vinaya. It is really despicable for one to give such things to others for their use. We should not allow vulgar customs to become a regular practice. If oreigners heard about it, it would be detrimental to the good name of ur morals and manners. Moreover, we have plenty of ragrant medicinal herbs, and why should we not use them? Why should one give others what one does not take for oneself? To counteract the poison of snakebite, we have such minerals as sulfur, realgar, and orpiment, and it is not difficult to get pieces of them and take them with us. If one is suffering from miasma fever, there are such febrifuges as the decoction prepared with licorice, [the wild tea of] Mount Heng, and bitter ginseng, which may be kept in large or small quantities and are easily obtainable. Colds can be completely cured by taking some ginger, pepper, or Piper longum in the morning. Rock candy and granulated sugar, when eaten at night, may satiate hunger and thirst. If nothing is laid aside to meet the cost of medicine, one will certainly be short of oney in time of eed. If ne acts contrary to the teaching [of the Buddha] and does not put the teaching into practice, how can one be free from committing faults? When money is squandered aimlessly, one will be in a tight corner in an emergency. Who can have a direct understanding of this, if I do not explain it in detail? Alas! People do not utilize good medicine but, in order to save trouble, they use the "dragon decoction"!Although 128

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they have some small benefit in mind, they are not aware that it is a great offense against the holy teaching. Followers of the Sammitiya School speak of the putrid-discharged-medicine, but as it is a different school from ours, we should not follow its example. Although it is mentioned in the Vinaya-dvavimsatiprasannartha-sastra, this is not a work studied by the adherents of the Sarvastivada School.

30. On Turning to the Right and the

Observation of Time

Turning to the right is pradaksina in Sanskrit. The prefix ro has various meanings, but here in this word it denotes going round. Daksina means "the right side," generally signifying what is respectable and dexterous. Thus my contemporaries [in India] call the right hand the daksina hand, meaning that it is on the right side and is respectable and dexterous. It is, therefore, in conformity with the rites of walking round [a respectable person or object]. Daksina also means a donation to the monks, and in this case it is different in meaning from what is mentioned here, as I have explained before. In all the five parts of India, the east is called the front, and the south is at one's right side, but this is not the point by which to decide what is right and left [when going round a respectable person or object].

In the scriptures it should be said that one walked round [the Buddha] three times towards the right side, but it is wrong to say that one walked beside the Buddha. In some scriptures it is said that one walked round three times towards the right side, and this is in conformity with the rites. It is an abridgment to say that one walked round a hundred or a thousand times without saying "towards the right.

It is somewhat difficult to decide which is walking round towards the right and which is towards the left. Shall we deem walking towards one's right hand to be towards the right, and walking 129

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towards one's left hand to be towards the left? Once a Chinese scholar elucidated the point, saying that when one's right hand is towards the interior of the circle in going round an object, it is called right side circumambulation, and when the left hand is towards the interior of he circle, it is called left side circumambulation. He argued that one can complete right side circumambulation only by walking round an object towards its left side. This is merely his conjecture. It is irrelevant to the correct theory, and it misguided ignorant people. Even some men of reat virtue and erudition are so puzzled as to echo that scholar's opinion. What shall we do to make a compromise according to reason? We should depend upon only the Sanskrit texts and stop up our personal feelings. To walk round towards the right side [of a person or an object of eneration] is right side circumambulation, while to walk towards the left side is left side circumambulation. This is the rule laid down by the Holy One, and there is no doubt about it. As regards what are [proper] and what are improper times, there are various implications according to different circumstances' as is explained in the Scripture on Proper Times and Improper Times. But in the Vinaya texts of the four schools, it is unanimously affirmed that noontime is the proper time [for taking a meal]. If he shadow of he needle on a sundial has passed even as httle as a thread, it is considered an improper time. If a person wishes to determine the cardinal points in order to guard himself against committing the fault [of eating at an improper time], he should measure the north star and observe the southern constellation at night, so as to fix the correct line [between the south and the north poles], and to find out when noontime is approaching. Again, he may also build a small earthen mound, one foot in diameter and five inches in height, at a key position. At the center of the mound a slender stick is inserted. Or a nail is sometimes fixed on a piece of stone. It is as slim as a bamboo chopstick, four finger-widths in length. A line is to be drawn over the shadow of he nail at the moment of igh noon. If he shadow has passed the line it becomes improper or one to eat food. In India such a sundial, known 130

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as a velacakra, translated as a round instrument for marking time, is set up in most places. The purpose of measuring the shadow is to find out when it is at its shortest, which marks the moment of the meridian.

But in Jambudvipa the midday line varies in measurement at different locations. For instance, in the region of Luo there is no shadow at all, and this is different from other regions. Again, in the country of Srlbhoja, the shadow on the sundial is neither long nor short in the middle of the eighth moon. At midday a man, or any object under the sun, casts no shadow on the ground. Such is also the case in the middle of spring. The sun passes overhead twice a year. When the sun is traveling in the south, the shadow [of a man] falls northwards and is two or three feet m length. When it is in the north, the shadow is the same towards the south. In China, the shadow towards the south and that towards the north are different [in length], and doors with the north at the back always face the sun. When it is midday on the eastern coast of hina, it is not yet noontime in the western part of he country. Since it is difficult to hold one principle for all matters, it is said in the Vinaya. "When time is to be determined, one should do so according to the [local] zenith, and then the time is fixed."

All homeless monks should behave according to the holy teaching. As taking food is absolutely necessary every day, one should be mindful about measuring the shadow before eating. If one neglected this rule, how could one observe the other precepts? Therefore, those eminent monks who are engaged in propagating the Dharma and making it prosperous never complain of the minute and complicated [disciplinary rules]. Even when they are traveling on the sea, they carry the sundial with them; will they go without it when they are on land? In India, tradition says that one who inspects the water [to ensure that it is free from insects] and affirms that it is high noon is a master of Vinaya. Furthermore, clepsydras are kept in all the large monasteries in India. They are gifts donated by successive generations of ings, together with watchers, to keep the monks informed of he hours. 131

226a A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas The lower part of he device is a copper vessel filled with water on which a copper bowl is floating. The bowl is thin and delicately made, capable of holding two shengs (one sheng equals one liter) of ater, with a hole as tiny as a pinhole at the bottom, from which water leaks in. It is an accurate device for the measurement of time. When the bowl is full of ater, it sinks, and a drum is sounded. Commencing at dawn, one stroke of the drum is sounded at the first sinking of the bowl, two strokes at the second sinking, and three strokes at the third sinking. After the four strokes of the drum at the fourth sinking, a conch is blown twice, ending with one more stroke of the drum, indicating the first hour, when the sun is rising in the east. After the second round of the bowl sinking four times and the drum being beaten four times with the conch being blown once more, the drum is sounded twice to indicate the second hour; this marks the exact moment of high noon. When the drum has been struck twice, the monks should stop eating. If nyone is found eating, he is expelled [from the community of onks] according to monastic regulations. In the afternoon, there are also two hours, announced in the same way as in the forenoon. The four hours of he night are similar to those in the daytime. As a whole, one day and one night consist of eight hours. At the end of the first watch, the director of duties strikes a drum in a loft of he monastery to announce the time for the monks Such is the way of sing the clepsydra in Nalanda Monastery. At dusk and dawn, a drum is beaten for one stretch at the gate. These miscellaneous affairs are performed by servants or porters. From sunset to dawn, the ordinary monks are not obliged to sound the ghanta (bell), nor is it the duty of servants; the director of duties has to do it himself. There is a difference between beating four or five strokes [on the ghanta], and it is fully explained elsewhere. The clepsydras are somewhat different in the monasteries in Mahabodhi and Kusinagara, where the bowls sink sixteen times between dawn and midday. In the country of u-lun in the South Seas, a copper cauldron filled with water is used, and the water leaks down through a tiny hole at the bottom. When the water is 132

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drained away, the drum will be sounded. Each time the cauldron is emptied, the drum is beaten once, and when the drum has been beaten four times, it is midday. This process is repeated till sunset. At night there are also eight hours as in the daytime, and there are sixteen hours altogether [in a day and a night]. These clepsydras are also gifts presented by the king of that country. It is due to the use of he clepsydra that one is never perplexed about noontime even on a dark day with thick clouds overhead, and that during a night of ontinuous rain there is no doubt about the watches. We should also present a memorial to the [Chinese] emperor, asking for the installation [of clepsydras in our monasteries], as it is an important piece of equipment for monks. In making a clepsydra one should first divide a day and a night in such a way as to let the bowl sink eight times from dawn to noontime. If it is to sink fewer than eight times, the hole in the bowl should be drilled bigger. A skillful mechanic is required to regulate the device correctly. When the day or night gradually becomes shorter, half a spoonful of water is added to the device. When they become gradually longer, half flagon of ater is taken out. But this is done within the limit of ncrements or decrements of time. It is reasonable for the director of duties to keep a small bowl [to mark the time] in his chamber ithout ncurring any fault. In China there are five watches [in the night], and in India there are four parts, but according to the teaching of he Buddha, the Tamer of en, there are three hours in the night, i.e., a night is divided into three parts. During the first and third parts, one should recite [the holy texts], and only during the second part may one sleep with a concentrated mind. One who deviates from this rule incurs the fault of violating the Buddha s teaching, unless he is ill. If one puts this into practice with a mind of veneration, one will ultimately benefit oneself and others.

End of Fascicle Three

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