T2125 Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia

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10. The Requirements for Raiment and Food

It may be observed that the corporeal body depends upon food and clothing for its maintenance, while the perfect wisdom of no rebirth is manifested through the truth of voidness. If one makes use of food and clothing in a way contrary to proper manners, one will incur blame on oneself step by step; and if the concentrated mind loses its proper course, one will get into perplexity thought after thought. Therefore, those who wish to realize spiritual liberation in the course of sing food and clothing should use them in accordance with the holy words of the Buddha, and those who try to practice the truth with a concentrated mind should conform with the teachings of former sages in order to concentrate their minds. Looking down upon the life below, one sees that it is but a dungeon for those who have gone astray. Gazing up to the shore of nirvana, one beholds the open gate of enlightenment and tranquility. Only by doing so may one pull the boat of Dharma to the shore in the sea of suffering and hold up the torch of wisdom during the long period of darkness. As regards the regulations about wearing robes and how to eat and drink, observance and violation are expressly prescribed in the Vinaya texts; even a beginner in the Dharma knows what is a grave offense and what is a light one. This is, however, a matter, whether meritorious or demeritorious, that concerns only individual persons, and we need not take the trouble to argue about it here. There are some who behave against the Vinaya rules and yet guide others in their conduct. There are some others who hold that usage gives rise to practices, that, whether they are right or wrong, are considered regular and 53

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faultless. Some others argue that the Buddha was born in the west, where the monks follow the custom and manners of he west, while as we are monks living in the east, we should follow the rules and regulations of the east. "How can we, they would say, "change the elegant dress of he Divine Land of hina and accept the peculiar customs of ndia?" It is for people holding such views that I have made this rough statement, so that they can weigh the matter by themselves.

As the regulations concerning clothing are the guiding principles of homeless monks, it befits me to give a full description of the style of heir clothing. This should never be neglected or overlooked. The laps of he three robes worn by monks in all five parts of India are sewn together; only in China are they open without being stitched up. I myself have made inquiries in the northern countries of India where the Vinaya of the Dharmagupta School is prevalent and found that the openings of the robes are sewn together; nowhere are they left open. If a monk of India has obtained a Chinese religious robe, he would probably sew up the openings before he would wear it. The Vinaya texts of all the schools mention that the laps of the robes should be sewn and fastened together. There are strict rules about the six requisites of the monks, and the thirteen necessities are fully explained in the Vinaya texts. The following are the six requisites: 1. The samghati, which is translated as "double robe." 2. The uttarasariga, which is translated as "upper robe." 3. The antarvasa, which is translated as "inner garment." (These three garments are known as the civara. In the northern countries they are generally called the kasaya from their reddish color. However, this is not a technical term used in the Vinaya texts.)

4. The patra, a begging bowl.

5. The nisidana, a cloth or mat for sitting or lying on. 6. The parisravana, a filter.

A candidate for ordination must possess these six requisites. 54

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The following are the thirteen necessities: 1. The samghatl.

2. The uttarasanga.

3. The antarvasa.

4. The nisidana.

5. An undergarment.

6. A substitute undergarment.

7. The samkaksika (a side-covering vest). 8. A substitute samkaksika.

9. A towel for wiping the body.

10. A towel for wiping the face.

11. A pinafore used when shaving one's hair. 12. A piece of cloth for covering itchy places. 13. A garment worn when decocting medicine. A verse says:

Three robes and a sitting cloth,

A couple of skirts and two side-covers, Towels for wiping body and face, a pinafore for shaving, A cloth to cover itches and a garb for decocting medicine. These are the thirteen kinds of lothes which a monk is permitted to possess. Since there are established rules concerning clothing, one must use them in compliance with the Buddha's teaching. These thirteen articles should not be classed with other surplus belongings of a monk, but should be separately listed, clearly counted, and well preserved. When one receives any of hese things, one may keep them, but one should not take the trouble to possess all that is given to one. As regards the surplus robes, a monk may dispose of them in different ways according to circumstances, but as for such things as woolen mattresses, blankets, mats, and the like, he may accept and use them only with the understanding that they are purposely committed to him by the givers. Sometimes people speak of three robes and ten necessities, but it was the idea of some translators to divide the thirteen 55

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necessities into two groups; it is not in accordance with the Sanskrit texts. They speak separately of the three robes and list the ten articles apart from the robes. But they cannot give a full list of the ten articles, and thus cause groundless conjecture and guessing. If hey nterpret the word shi (meaning ten) as "miscellaneous, this is not the original meaning.

The garment for decocting medicine which the Buddha permitted the monks to keep should be made of a piece of silk about twenty feet long, or a whole roll of it. As one may fall ill at any time, it would be difficult to obtain such a garment in a hurry, and so a monk is permitted to make one beforehand and keep it. As this garment is needed in time of illness, it must not be used at random times.

The purpose of he gate of piritual cultivation and benefiting living beings is universal salvation. Since men are of hree grades of intelligence, they cannot be limited to only one way. The four dependences, the four actions, and the twelve ascetic practices are ordained for men of superior intelligence. Keeping a room for one's own use and accepting gifts of the thirteen necessities are good for monks of oth medium and inferior intelligence, so that those who have fewer desires will be spared the embarrassment of having surplus daily requisites, and those who wish to have more will not fret at deficiency. Great is the compassionate father who skillfully answers the needs of men of all grades of intelligence and is a good teacher for human and heavenly beings, with the title of Guide of Men.

The assertion that one hundred and one things may be offered to meet a monk's physical needs is not found in the Vinaya texts of the four schools. Although allusions to it are made in some scriptures, it was mentioned only on special occasions. Even a wealthy layman does not possess more than fifty household articles. How can a monk, who is detached from worldly entanglements, be allowed, on the contrary, to own more than a hundred things? One may judge by reason to know whether it is permissible or not.

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As regards the use of ine and tough silk, it is permitted by the holy Buddha. Why should one forcibly prohibit the use of it to make things knottier? I udge that the intention to simplify things rendered matters more complicated. In all five parts of ndia, monks of the four schools wear [silk robes]. Why should we reject silk, which is easy to procure, and try to obtain fine cotton, which is difficult to seek? Isn't it a hindrance that obstructs the Way to the utmost? Such a rule belongs to the class of rohibitions that were not laid down by the Buddha but were enforced by others. This caused some meddlesome observers of the Vinaya rules to swell their self-conceit and look down upon others.

Those venerable ones who seek nothing and have few desires, being humble-minded inwardly and modest outwardly, would say that theirs is the best way to cover oneself; what else would it be? They mean that silk is produced by injuring life, which hurts the mind of compassion extremely. Out of pity for living beings, it is logical to not use silk. If that is so, then the clothes we wear and the food we eat are in most cases produced by injury to life. If we did not pay attention to mole crickets and earthworms, why should we be specially mindful of hrysalises and silkworms? If ne wishes to protect all animate beings, then there will be no means of sustaining oneself, and why should one forsake life without a good reason? From logical inference, we may conclude that such an idea is impractical. Those monks who refrain from eating ghee and curds, and from wearing leather shoes and silk or floss robes, are people of the class mentioned above.

Regarding the question of killing, if a life is destroyed intentionally, it is then considered a karmic deed [that will produce its due effect], but if t is done unintentionally, the Buddha said, it is not considered an evil deed. The three kinds of pure meat are designated as to be eaten without incurring blame. If one does not act in conformity with the spirit of this rule, one commits but a slight offense. [To argue it by means of a syllogism, we may raise the proposition that] eating pure meat is guiltless, for the reason, which is accepted by both parties to the argument, 57

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that the act is done without the intention of killing. If we add an example to the syllogism, the statement will be clear and manifest. Since the reason and example indicate that the act is guiltless, the proposition becomes self-apparent. The syllogism has made the statement perspicuous, and moreover, it is the golden saying of the Buddha. Why should we then take the trouble to give it more strained interpretations? They simply made people as confused as the miswriting of "five hundred" for "five days" through a slip of the author's pen and the erroneous reading of "three pigs" for "earth-pig," which was transmitted by those who believed the words to be true.

Such an action as begging for live cocoons and witnessing the destruction of he silkworms is something that even a lay scholar would not do, let alone a monk, who aspires to gain liberation from the world. To quote this as a proof, I consider it utterly inadmissible. If a donor comes with a pure mind to present a silk robe to a monk, the monk should utter the word "Anumoda" and accept it to clothe his body so that e ay cultivate virtue, without incurring any lame. In the five parts of ndia, the religious garment may be stitched or sewn at one's discretion, disregarding whether the threads of the cloth are lengthwise or crosswise. The time for making it does not exceed three or five days. One bolt of silk can be cut into one garment of seven stripes and another of five stripes. The inside patches are three fingers wide, while the peripheral edges are one inch broad. These edges have three rows of stitching, and the inside patches are all sewn together. As these garments are used for performing daily duties or holding ceremonies, why should we make them look fine and exquisite?

The intention of hose who wear rag robes is to simplify things. They may either gather cast-off rags from rubbish heaps or pick up abandoned clothes at a cemetery. Whenever they have obtained such rags, they sew them up into robes to protect themselves against cold and hot weather.

Some people say that what is mentioned as sleeping articles in the Vinaya texts is included in the category of the three robes. 58

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When they see that the use of silk from wild cocoons is prohibited [for making sleeping articles], they hold the view that the robes also should not be made of silk. Thus they try hard to seek cotton cloth, not knowing that in the original texts "sleeping article" actually means a mattress and that the word kauseya is the name for silkworm. When the silk fiber is woven into silk cloth, it is also known by the same name. As it is costly material, making it into a mattress is not allowed.

There are two ways of aking a mattress. One way is to sew a piece of cloth to make a bag and fill it with wool. Another is to weave silk thread into a mattress which is something like a carpet. It is two cubits wide, four cubits long, and may be thick or thin according to the season. Begging for a mattress is forbidden, but if it is given as alms, it may be accepted without incurring blame. If it were completely banned, it would be a grave matter, and a strict rule should have been laid down against its use. Such mattresses are not the same as the three robes.

Again, what is mentioned in the Vinaya as right livelihood mainly concerns the procurement of ubsistence. The plowing and weeding of fields should be done in the proper way, while sowing and planting must not be done in a manner which violates the guiding principles of he religion. If ood is taken according to the regulations, it will not give rise to any blame. Only then may one say that by building up the body one can increase happiness. According to the teaching of the Vinaya, in the cultivation of paddy fields, the Sangha (community of monks) must share the crops with the monastic servants and may also share them with other families, all of hom may get one-sixth of the produce. The Sangha provides farm cattle and land only, and is responsible for nothing else. The division of crops may be appropriately adjusted according to circumstances.

Most of the monasteries in the west follow the system mentioned above. There are some avaricious monks who do not share the produce in proportion with others, but employ male and female slaves and personally manage the farming business. Bhiksus 2i3b

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who abide by the disciplinary rules refuse to eat the food produced by such monks because they think that such monks, by personally running a farm, support themselves by improper livelihood. By ordering about the hired men who work in the fields, they inevitably arouse their resentment, and digging the earth to plant seeds as well as plowing land are liable to injure ants and other insects. One's daily ration is no more than one sheng of grain; who can make it stand for a hundred evil deeds? Hence an honest and upright monk is disgusted with the cumbersome task of farming. He abandons it and goes far away with his pot and bowl to sit alone in a quiet forest and takes pleasure in the company of irds and deer. Being away from the hubbub of ursuing fame and gain, he cultivates the calm of irvana.

If monk manages a business to gain profit for the Sangha, it is permitted by the Vinaya, but he is not allowed to cultivate land and injure living things. Nothing is more harmful to insects and more obstructive to good deeds than the cultivation of land. The guilt and wrong livelihood related to the cultivation of ten qing (one qing equals 6.6666 hectares) of land have not been enumerated in any books, but people have repeatedly taken the trouble to waste pen and ink in writing about the rules concerning the three faultless and rightful robes. Alas! I can tell this matter only to those who have faith; it is difficult for me to discuss it with those who are skeptical because I fear those who transmit the Dharma may still persistently adhere to their own views. When I arrived at Tamralipti for the first time, I saw a square field outside the monastery. Some laymen suddenly came there to fetch vegetables, which they divided into three portions, giving one portion to the Sangha and taking two away for themselves. I did not understand what was going on, and inquired of he Venerable Mahayanadlpa about their intention. He said in reply, "The monks of this monastery are mostly observers of the disciplinary rules. As they are not allowed by the Great Sage to cultivate land themselves, they rent the land to others and take a share of the crops for food. In this manner they could sustain their lives by 60

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right livelihood without involving themselves with worldly connections, as they were free from the fault of estroying living things through plowing and irrigating the fields. I also saw a bhiksu (mendicant), who was the director of monastic affairs, inspect the water from a well every morning. If there was no insect in the water, it was used. Once life was found in it, it had to be filtered before being used. I also saw that whenever anything, even as small as a piece of a vegetable, was given by outsiders, the monks had to ask the permission of the Sangha before they might use it. I also saw that no controller was appointed in the monastery; when anything happened, a meeting was convened to make a decision. If a monk acted according to his own will and made decisions as he pleased, or treated others favorably or unfavorably regardless of the opinion of the Sangha, he was called a kulapati (layman) and expelled by the Sangha.

I also saw that when the nuns had to go to a monastery, they had to make an announcement before they started to proceed there. When the monks had to go to a nunnery, they had to make an inquiry before going there. When monks wished to go out of the monastery, they had to go out in twos, and when they had to go to a layman's house on business, they might, with the permission of the Sangha, go in a company of four. I also saw that on the four fast days of each month, the monks of the whole monastery assembled in the evening to listen to a recitation of the disciplinary rules, which they observed with deep deference. I also witnessed the following incident: Once a junior monk ordered his boy attendant to send two sheng of ice to the wife of servant because of the junior monk's illicit relations with the woman. This matter was reported to the Sangha, and the monk was summoned to answer questions. In the course of interrogation, the three admitted their misbehavior. Although the junior monk did not commit the evil act, he was ashamed of himself, withdrew his name from the list of monks, and went away from the monastery forever. His teacher asked somebody to send his clothing and other things to him. Such is the clerical law which all 61

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the monks observed. They need not take the trouble to go to a secular court of ustice for a settlement.

I also saw that once a woman came to the monastery, but she did not enter the chambers. She just spoke with the monks in the corridor for a short moment and went away. I also saw that in the monastery there was a bhiksu by the name of Rahulamitra, who was then about thirty years old. His conduct was unusually perfect and his fame was high and far reaching. Every day he read the Ratnakuta-sutra, which consisted of seven hundred stanzas. He was well versed in the Buddhist texts of the Tripitaka, and was thoroughly conversant with those secular books, the four Vedas. He was honored as an elder in the eastern part of he Land of aints. Since he was fully ordained, he had never spoken face to face with a woman; even when his mother or elder sister came, he would come out just to have a look at them. When I asked him why he behaved like that, since it was not the holy teaching, he said in reply, I am a man of uch carnal passion by nature, and if I did otherwise, I could not stop its source. Although [to speak with women] is not prohibited by the Holy One, what is wrong if my behavior is meant to prevent evil desires?"

I also saw that learned monks who were well versed in the holy texts of any one of the three collections were lodged in the best chambers and provided with servants to wait upon them. They gave lectures regularly and were exempted from routine monastic duties. When they went out, they mostly rode in palanquins, but never on horseback. I also saw that when a guest monk came to the monastery for the first time, the Sangha would provide him with good food for five days, so that he could rest and recover from fatigue. After that he lived like other ordinary monks. If e was a good person, the Sangha might invite him to stay and allow him to spend the summer retreat that year with a supply of bedding. If he was not a learned man, he would be treated like the other regular monks. Only those who were well learned were treated with the arrangements mentioned above, with their names written in the monastic register just like the original resident monks. 62

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I also saw that when a man came with a good mind, he would be asked his purpose, and if he came to become a monk, the Sangha would shave his hair. His name would have nothing more to do with the king's census register, as the monks kept their own registration books. Afterwards, if he violated the Vinaya rules and committed misdeeds, he would be expelled with the sound of a ghanta (bell). Thus the monks would examine each other and see to it that faults were nipped in the bud and not allowed to grow up gradually in the course of time.

I should say with a sigh that when I was in the Divine Land of China, I thought of yself as knowing the Vinaya well, and little imagined that after coming here to India, I should have found myself ignorant of the subject. Had I not come to the west, how could I have seen such correct rules and regulations? Some of hese rules are laid down by the monks of the monastery and some are specially made for the rectification of he mind, while the rest are found in the Vinaya texts, which are important for the maintenance of the Buddha's teachings in this period of the decay of the Dharma. All these are the rules of he Balaha Monastery at Tamralipti, but at Nalanda Monastery the regulations are still stricter. Thus over three thousand monks lived there, with a fief of more than two hundred villages, which were offered to them as alms by the kings and monarchs of successive dynasties. The uninterrupted prosperity of the monastery is due to nothing else but the observance of the Vinaya rules by the monks.

I have never seen [in India] that a secular official would sit in the middle of the audience hall of his yamen, while the monks stand aside in a row, bullied, slighted, called and shouted to just like ordinary laymen. The monks [in China] run about, seldom feeling tired on the way, to see off a leaving official and welcome the new one. If the imperial inspector does not visit the monastery, they go to the government house to seek a livelihood, without regarding whether it is in the cold or the hot season. A man becomes a homeless monk ecause he wishes to free himself from worldly entanglements, so as to give up the hazardous 63

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way of he five fears and follow the safe thoroughfare of he eightfold right path. Why should one be again involved in mundane affairs and be caught once more in the net of immorality? If so, how can we fulfill our wish of achieving perfect calm? It may be said that in that way we are acting entirely in contradiction to spiritual emancipation and not in concordance with quietude. It is only reasonable that we should practice the twelve dhuta (ascetic ways of living) and own only the thirteen articles of necessity to sustain our lives according to circumstances. We should wash away old habits, repay the great bounty of ur teachers and of he Sangha and our parents, and requite the heavenly beings and nagas, as well as the lords and emperors, for their deep compassion. In this way we may well follow the laws of the Guide of en and become rightly fit for the path of spiritual cultivation and exhortation. In the course of iscussing the preservation of ife, I have mentioned actual practices. I hope my virtuous readers will not feel that my discussion is dull and tedious.

The distinctions between the four schools are marked by the way the monks wear their undergarments. The monks of the Sarvastivada School double-fold their undergarments outwards on both sides, while the monks of he Mahasamghika School stuff the right piece of the undergarment into the left side and press it in tightly, so that it will not get loose. The women of India in the west wear their skirts in just the same way as the monks of the Mahasamghika School. The way that the monks of the Sthavira and Sammitiya Schools wear their undergarments is similar to that of the Mahasamghika School, except that they turn the edge outwards and press it to one side. The make of girdle is also different. The nuns wear their robes in the same manner as the monks of their respective schools, with no difference at all.

But the Chinese monks'samkaksikas (outer garments), which are worn over only one shoulder, and their square skirts, trousers, leg sheaths, loose gowns with huge sleeves, and short jackets are all contrary to the original rules. Not only do their robes have 64

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sleeves similar to those on laymen's clothes and cover the whole back closely, even their manner of earing them is not in concordance with the Vinaya rules. Both wearing and using such garments are blameworthy. Some Chinese monks attired in such dress came to India in the west, and the local people laughed at them. As they were ashamed of themselves, they tore their clothes to pieces for miscellaneous use, because it is unwarranted for a monk to wear any such garments. If I kept silence without saying anything, people would not be able to know about it. Although I wished to speak outright, I feared that my hearers would bear resentment towards me. Hence, I tried to express my superficial views in this composition of ine, but I hesitated to proceed or hold back. I wish that the wise ones will make a careful study so as to know about the original rules concerning clothing. In India the garments worn by the laypeople, officials, and noblemen of higher castes consist of only two pieces of fine white cotton cloth, while the poor and low-caste people merely have one piece of cotton cloth. The homeless monks possess only the three robes and the six requisites, and only those who take delight in owning more things use the thirteen necessities. In China the monks are not allowed to wear garments with two sleeves and a whole back, but the fact is that they follow Chinese customs and talk falsely about things Indian.

Now I will give a brief description of the people and their costume in Jambudvipa and the various islands on the border of the sea. From Mahabodhi eastward to Lin-yi, there are more than twenty countries extending up to the southern boundary of uanzhou. If we proceed to the southwest, we reach the sea. In the north, Kasmira is the limit, while in the South Seas there are more than ten countries, including the island of Simhala. In all these countries the people wear two pieces of kambala. (a woolen loincloth), which is neither cut nor sewn up, without a girdle. It is simply a wide piece of cloth about two fathoms long, put around the waist to cover the lower parts. Beyond India at the edge of he great sea are the countries of the Persians and the Tajiks, where 2i4b

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the people wear shirts and trousers, while in the country of the naked, the people wear no dress at all, both men and women being stark naked. Further away from Kasmira, the various Hu peoples, such as the Tibetans and the Turks of Suli, dress in roughly the same way. They do not wear kambalas, but use felt and fur, and have little karoasa (cotton), which is used only occasionally. As it is a cold region, shirts and trousers are regularly used. Among these countries, except those of the Persians, the naked people, the Tibetans, and the Turks, where no Buddhism was known originally, all follow the Buddha's teachings. Even in the lands where shirts and trousers are used, the people do not bathe themselves clean; hence the people of the five parts of India are proud of their own cleanliness and sublimity. But so far as cultural personality and refinement, etiquette in meeting friends, the culinary art, magnanimity of indness, and righteousness are concerned, no country excels China in the east. The monks in China, however, do not preserve the purity of food, and neither do they wash after going to the latrine, nor chew willow twigs to cleanse their teeth. In these matters they are different from the western regions. Some monks hold that it is faultless to wear improper garments and quote a passage from the Samksipta-sasana-vinayasutra which says, "What is considered impure in this place, may be regarded as pure in other places, where it may be practiced without fault. This passage is mistranslated and the correct meaning is not so, as I have pointed out elsewhere.

For a bhiksu in China, garments other than the three robes are not allowable by the sacred rules. Since it is faulty to put on extra garments, it is reasonable not to use them. In a warm country like India one may use only one unlined garment through all the seasons of the year, but in a cold country with snowy hills, how could one live in health if one wished to discard [warm clothes]? It is the sincere word of the Buddha that we should keep our body in ease and our work in progress, while the practice of self-torture and immoderate exertion is the teaching of heretics. Now what should we take or reject?

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The Buddha permitted the use of the repa garment, which is commonly worn in cold countries and is sufficient to keep the body warm. How can it be said to be a hindrance to the practice of the Way? The Sanskrit word repa may be interpreted as "abdomen covering cloth." I will give a brief description of how it is made. Cut a piece of cloth so as to make it without a back, leaving one shoulder bare. No sleeve is attached to one side. It is only one piece of loth, just big enough to put on. The shoulder sleeve, which is not wide, is on the left side, and it is not fitting to make it wide and large. It is tied up on the right side with strings so that no wind will waft into the garment. It may be stuffed with a large quantity of cotton wool to make it thick and warm. Sometimes the right side of this sort of underwear is sewn right up to the armpit, so that it has to be slipped on over the head. Such is the proper way of making this garment which I have seen in the west. Most of the monks coming from the Hu regions brought along and wore this kind of arment, but I never saw such clothes at Nalanda, because it is in a hot country where the people do not use them. From this we may know that monks are allowed to wear this kind of garment in cold countries. The old clothes, which are bare at the back, originally followed the example of this garment. But an extra piece of cloth added to the right side makes the garment lose its former style. If one does not make a garment according to the established rules, one is sure to commit an offense against the Dharma.

As regards the repa garment, it is for wrapping the abdomen to protect it in the severe cold season, while the thick mantle which is worn over the whole body is warm enough to prevent frostbite. When worshiping the Buddha's image in a shrine hall, or in the presence of a senior monk, one should always keep one shoulder bare; to cover it incurs guilt. As it is for the sake of getting rid of encumbrances that one becomes a homeless monk, and moreover, as a charcoal fire is always kept burning in the living quarters during the winter season, there is no need for a monk to put on superfluous clothes. In case of llness, when it is necessary to wear 2i4c

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more clothes, one may do so at one's own discretion, but one should not act against the rules.

In China, however, the severe cold may pierce the body, and if one did not put on warm clothes, one would certainly die of enervation. Since we are all alike involved in suffering, it is reasonable to extend salvation to all people. The square skirt and the robe that leaves one shoulder bare distinguish a monk from a layman, but the repa garment is to be worn only temporarily during the cold season of winter. From this we may know that it was not originally designed for monks to wear, but that for the sake of protecting our lives we are permitted to use it, as the wheels of a cart need oiling. We should feel deep shame at being obliged to do so, and the best thing is not to wear it. Other clothes, such as loose gowns, leg sheaths, trousers, and shirts should by no means be allowed for regular use. As soon as the severe cold season is over, it is not fitting to wrap the whole body in such clothes. One should change them for a robe that leaves one shoulder uncovered, as it is actually not permissible for a monk to wear them. In this way we may get the gist and be rid of the superfluities of the matter, acting according to the true teachings of the Buddha. One may act freely only for oneself; if one teaches in that way, I fear one will mislead others.

If e could change the old course and strike out on a new path, we might then continue the line [left by Bodhidharma] at Shaoshi Mountain and be as lofty as Vulture Peak. We might sit side by side [with the sages] in the city of Rajagrha and transmit the Dharma to the country of he Emperor so that we might protect it together. Thus the Yellow River might mingle its pure water with the Lake of Mucilinda. The slender-leaved willow would shine simultaneously with the bodhi tree, which would thrive until the field of ulberry trees changes [into the sea]. The glory would last until the kalpa-stone is completely wiped away. How marvelous it would be! Let us strive to attain this goal!

But now the Sun of the Buddha has sunk and only his teaching is left behind in this period of termination. If we practice his 68

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teaching, it is just as if we are living in the presence of the Great Teacher, but if we act against his teaching, various faults will be perpetrated. The Buddha, therefore, said in a sutra, "If my precepts are followed, it shall be just as if I am living m this world. Someone may say that since the virtuous people of old did not say anything about such things, why should we, men of a later time, change the convention? It is not correct to say so. For it is the Dharma, and not any man, upon which we depend; this point has been extensively expounded n the Buddha's doctrine. Research into the Vinaya texts will show that monks may take only sue clothing and food as are not tainted by violations of the precepts. It is not hard to know a thing, but to practice it is difficult. If a man fails to practice what he has learned, why should the teacher be blamed?

Let me repeat it:

For all living beings,

Food and clothing are most important. They are the cangue and shackles Keeping us in the field of rebirth. By following the holy word and rules, One may get freedom from the world. To act in one's own way

Involves trouble and faults.

Let the wise men know

Retribution is instant.

One should be unstained like jade in mire Or a lotus growing out of muddy water. When the eight airs have left the body, The five fears give no more trouble. Clothing is only for covering the body; Food is merely for sustaining life. Fix your mind on attaining emancipation, Never wish to be reborn as a man or a god. Practice austerities to the end of ife; 2i5a

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Spend your years saving all living beings.

Give up the unreality of the nine happy abodes;

Aspire to the perfection and firmness of the ten stages. Try to be qualified to receive alms fit for the five hundred arhats

And competent to give benefit and welfare to the three thousand worlds.

11. How to Wear the Robes

Now I will give a description, according to the Vinaya, about how to wear the three robes and make loops and fasteners. Take a religious robe that is five cubits long, and fold it into three layers. A patch of loth about five finger-widths square is fixed at the pleat on the shoulder about four or five finger-widths within the border of he robe. The four sides of he patch are stitched on the robe. A small hole is made with an awl in the center to fix the loop, which is made of silk braid or a piece of silk cloth and is about the size of the loops of an ordinary shirt. It is two fingers long, tied into a love knot. The remainder should be cut off. One end of the loop is then put into the hole and drawn out to the other side of the robe. It is pulled back crosswise to form two loops. The inner part of the fastener is at the pleated part of the robe in front of the chest. The fasteners at the border of he robe are fixed in the same way as those fixed on a shirt. Such is the method of ixing fasteners on a robe. This is only a rough description which I am submitting to my readers for the time being. If one wishes to know the actual method in detail, one has to learn about it face to face from a teacher. Loops and fasteners are also fixed at the lower part of he robe. As the monks are permitted by the Buddha to wear their robes upside down at will, a loop and a fastener are fixed separately at the two lower corners, about eight finger-widths from the border of he robe. Monks are required, at mealtime, to fasten the reversely folded corners together before the chest. This is an essential point.

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When one is in a monastery or in the presence of an assembly of onks, one must not use the strings and fasteners, or cover both shoulders with the robe. But when one is going out of the monastery or entering a layman's house, one must tie up the fasteners. At other times one may just cover the shoulders. When one is in seclusion or performing monastic duties, one may put on the robe inside out at will. But in the honored presence of an image of the Buddha, one must dress properly and tidily, putting the right corner of he robe loosely over the left shoulder so that it hangs behind the back without falling on the arm. If ne wishes to use the fastenings, one should cover both shoulders with the robe and then turn the fastenings inside to fall in back of he shoulder; one must not let them get loose. When the corner is put over the shoulder, the robe may go round the neck, and both one's hands may come out beneath the robe with the corner hanging in front. A lovely statue of King Asoka, depicting him in a procession with an umbrella over him, is dressed in this manner. This is the way to wear the upper robe in an orderly manner according to the teaching of he Buddha. The umbrella may be woven out of slender bamboo sticks, as thin as a bamboo vessel of only one layer. The size may be two or three feet in diameter at one's option. The center is made doubly thick to hold the handle, the length of which is in proportion to the circumference of the cover. The cover of the umbrella may be painted with a thin layer of acquer. It may also be woven of eed. If aper is pasted inside the cover, in the way that rattan hats and the like are manufactured, it is made strong.

Although umbrellas have not been used in China before, it is desirable to make them. In a sudden shower, it protects our robes from getting wet, and in the heat of the blazing sun, it keeps us cool under its shade. To use an umbrella is in concordance with the Vinaya as well as beneficial to our bodies, and there is no harm in holding one. Many of the necessary things we have discussed here have not been used in China before.

One corner of the kasaya hangs in front like the trunk of an elephant. All Indian monks who came to China wore the robe in 2i5b

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this fashion, because fine silk is so smooth that a robe made of t is liable to slip down the shoulder. Thus the correct way of dressing was replaced by a wrong manner. Afterwards, when the Tripitaka master of he Tang dynasty (Venerable Xuanzang) came back from India, he introduced wearing the robe with one corner hanging over the shoulder, but many of the elderly monks still disliked it. A bias towards persistence in old practices exists everywhere. With regard to the three robes, if hort fastenings are fixed on them instead of ong ribbons, it is not considered a fault. Wearing a whole piece of cloth sideways as a skirt without a waist piece will save one the trouble of sewing and stitching. The water pot, the alms bowl, and all other belongings should be hung on the shoulders ust below the armpits so that the strings will not intertwine. The strings should not be too long, just long enough to hang the objects over the shoulders. If the strings crossed before the chest, they would cause one to pant for breath. One must not do so, as it is not the original way of carrying things. I shall talk about the bag for carrying the alms bowl later.

The people of Suli and other places in the north often carry things crossing one another. This is a regional modification and was not a rule laid down by the Buddha. If ne has an extra robe, one may first put it lengthwise over one shoulder and then cover both shoulders over the robe one is wearing and the alms bowl one is carrying.

When going to a monastery or repairing to a layman's house, one must go into the premises to put down the umbrella, and then untie the strings to hang up one's [extra] robe and alms bowl. The wall before a house is usually fixed with ivory hangers, so that visitors will not be in want of a place to hang their things. Other relevant matters will be related in Chapter Twenty-six on how to meet an old acquaintance.

As a kasaya made of hin silk is very slippery, it cannot easily stay on the shoulder, and when one is worshiping an image of he Buddha, it often falls to the ground. So it is better to use some less smooth stuff, such as rough silk or fine cotton cloth. As regards 72

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the samkaksika, i.e., the side-covering garment, it should be more than one cubit long in order to comply with the original rules. Then wearing this kind of arment, the right shoulder is bare and only the left one is covered. In the chamber one always wears this garment and a skirt, but when going out to salute honored ones, one has to put on other robes in addition.

As for how to wear the skirt, I will just give a brief account. According to the rules for making a skirt adopted by the 2i5c Sarvastivada School, the skirt is a piece of ine silk or cotton cloth, as the case may be, five cubits across by two cubits long. In India it is made unlined, while in China it may be lined as one pleases, and the length and width are as desired. After having put it around [the lower part of] the body, you pull it up to cover the navel. Hold the upper corner of he left flap of the skirt with your right hand, and pull it from the inside to reach the right side of he waist. The left flap of the upper robe is taken to cover the left side. (Yijing's running note: The right flap is the one near the right hand; the left flap, the one near the left hand.) Raise both ends of the skirt to make them even and twist them right in the middle into three folds. Then press them with both hands into the waist with all three folds turned back and twisted beneath. The two corners are raised three fingers higher and inserted inwards about three fingers down to the skirt itself. When the skirt is worn in this manner, it will stick to the body and will not fall off ven if t is not tied with a belt. Then hook up the middle of the skirt with a waistband about five cubits long, and raise it up below the navel. Bind the skirt at the upper edge and stretch it to the back in double layers which are folded one upon the other and drawn to the front at the left and right sides. Hold both ends of he band, one in each hand, and press them fast on both sides. Then bind the waist three times with the two ends of he band. If t is too long, cut it short, and if t is not long enough, add some more to it. The ends of the band should not be stitched or adorned. This is the all-round way of wearing the skirt, [known in Sanskrit as parimandala-nivasa, translated into Chinese as the all-round way of earing the skirt] 73

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which is the distinctive mark of he Sarvastivada School. The width of he waistband is about that of finger. As regards the bootlace, the garter, and the like, they may be square or round. It is harmless to use them doubled up, but to use such a thing as hempen string is not allowed by the Vinaya texts.

When one sits in a small chair, or on a block of ood, one should hold up the lower corners of the skirt and press the edge of the skirt under the thighs with a quick movement just to cover the knees. It is harmless to leave the shins uncovered. The upper part of he skirt should cover the navel, and the lower part should reach the point four fingers above the ankles. Such is the manner of wearing the skirt in a layman's house, but in a monastery it is allowable to cover just the upper part of the shins. These limits were fixed by the Buddha, and no one should alter them at will. Should one purposely act against the Buddha's teachings to satisfy one's human fancies? If the skirt one wears is so long as to trail on the ground, one would spoil the pure gift presented by a devotee on the one hand, and on the other hand, would disregard the maxims of he Great Teacher. My remonstrance is sincere, but who will listen to me? I hope that out of en thousand monks, one or two may pay attention to my words.

In India the skirt is worn crosswise round the body. The white cotton cloth of India is two cubits wide, and as it is only half the width required for making a skirt, it is difficult for a poor man to obtain a bigger piece. He has to join and sew together the two edges of he cloth and cut open the inside to meet his requirement. The rules for wearing garments are recorded in the Vinaya texts; I have only given a brief description of the essentials of the matter. No detailed explanation can be given unless we hold a face-to-face discussion.

Furthermore, all the garments of a homeless monk may be dyed in the color of gandha (myrrh), or of he yellow dust of lutinous rehmannia, vitex, philodendron, etc. These stuffs should be mixed with water in which red earth or red stone grains have been ground. One should make the color neither too deep nor too light, 74

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just to the point of meeting the requirement without taking too much trouble. Or one may just use the core of the sour jujube tree, or simply red earth and red stone grains, or birch leaf pear and earth-purple. As the color once dyed will last till the garment is worn out, why should one try to get any more kinds of dyestuffs? The bark of he mulberry tree and blue and green colors are prohibited, while true purple and brown colors are not used in the west.

As regards shoes and sandals, there are special instructions. Boots and thread-knitted shoes are completely banned as illegal. Embroidery and ornaments are not allowed by the Buddha, as is fully explained in the "Rules about Leather."

12. The Robes and Funeral Rites of a

Bhiksuni

In China the bhiksunls (Buddhist nuns) dress like laywomen, and their clothes are mostly contrary to the rules. According to the Vinaya, a bhiksuni possesses five garments, namely, (1) the samghdti, (2) the uttardsahga, (3) the antarvdsa, (4) the samkaksikd, and (5) a skirt. The style of the first four garments is not dissimilar to those worn by a monk, but a nun's skirt is different. It is known as kusulaka in Sanskrit, meaning a siloshaped skirt because it is sewn at both sides in the shape of a small silo. It is four cubits long and two cubits wide. It may cover up the navel and reach down to four fingers above the ankles. To wear the skirt, one steps into it, pulls it up to cover the navel, and then contracts the top of the skirt on both sides and ties it up with a double band in the back. The way of tying the band is more or less the same as that of monks.

Between the chest and the armpits [of a bhiksuni], no breast cover should be tied. But if he is in her youth or in old age, when her breasts rise high or become flaccid, she may wear one without fault. Why should one put her to shame, saying that she does 75

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216b not now the rules and regulations? Free use of rnaments is blameworthy at the moment of putting them on or taking them off. At the time of death, she will have evil effects falling upon her like drizzling rain. If one has committed an offense only once out of many times, one should still make a timely repentance. When going out, or n the presence of onks, or on being invited to accept a meal at a layman's house, a nun should put her kasaya round her neck to cover her body, and should not untie the strings at the shoulders. She should not expose her chest, and her hands should be thrust out from under her robe to take the food. A samkaksika which covers only one shoulder, and shirts and trousers, are prohibited by the Great Sage; they are unfit for a nun to wear.

In the countries of the South Seas, the nuns have a special garment. It is also called samkaksika, though not the same in style as in India. It is two cubits long and two cubits wide. The edges of it are sewn together, leaving about one foot not sewn in the center, and the upper corners are cut one inch open. To wear this garment, one holds it up, puts one's head and shoulders through the hole, and then pulls one's right shoulder out of it. It has no waistband; it covers one's sides, breasts, and navel; and it reaches below the knees. If ne wishes to wear this garment, it is harmless to do so. It has only two fastenings, and is good enough to conceal shame. If ne does not like to wear it, one may wear the samkaksika worn by monks. In the chambers of nunnery, it is adequate for a nun to wear only a kusulaka and a samkaksika. (Yijing's running note. I examined the Sanskrit texts and did not come across the name "shoulder-covering garment," which is actually the samkaksika. This is the original for the Chinese transliteration qi-zhi. It is not called a "skirt" in Chinese; perhaps the translators used different terms.) One should reject a garment which is against the rules and wear one which is made in compliance with the Buddha's teaching.

Making a samkaksika requires a full width and a half f ilk or some cotton cloth four or five cubits in length. The way of earing it 76

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is to put it over the shoulders in reverse, just as one wears the robe of five stripes. When going out to places other than one s chamber, one should be well covered. Even in the latrine, it is improper to leave the shoulders bare. In the spring and summer seasons one may use this garment to cover the body, while in the autumn and winter seasons, one may optionally put on warmer clothes.

By begging for food with an alms bowl, a nun may sufficiently maintain herself. Although she is a woman, she has the lofty aspirations of a man. Why should she always busy herself with the shuttle and loom and do miscellaneous work to make herself any garments, no less than five or ten? Some nuns never pay attention to meditation or the recitation of scriptures, being always driven by the vexations of an emotional temperament. They deck themselves with ornaments like laywomen, paying no regard to the texts on precepts. It befits all disciples to oversee and check on one another about their behavior.

In India none of the nuns act in such a way. All of them get their sustenance by begging for food and live a poor and simple life. But the nuns [in China] rarely have any beneficial support. The nunneries in which they abide are mostly devoid of a community supply of food, and if they did not try to earn a livelihood according to circumstances, they would have no way to keep themselves alive. If they do so, they are liable to act contrary to the teachings of the Vinaya and go against the Buddha s mind. Can they make a compromise and get out of the dilemma? It is said that when the body is at ease, the Way will flourish. But can we hear more about it in detail?

In reply I would say that one's original object in becoming homeless was to gain emancipation, so as to extirpate the noxious roots of the three trees [of greed, hatred, and stupidity] and to suppress the flood of the four torrents [of desire, continual existence, erroneous views, and ignorance]. One should follow the practice of austerity and keep off the wrong paths of suffering and enjoyment. One should strive hard to keep one s 77

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2i6c desires to a minimum, and pursue the true path of uietude. When one observes the precepts day and night, the Way will get on in the world. How can one think that it is reasonable to maintain the body in ease? If ne can abide by the Vinaya rules and differentiate truth from falsehood, one will naturally be respected by dragons, spirits, and heavenly and human beings. Why should one worry about one's livelihood and toil without purpose? The five robes, a pot, and an alms bowl are enough for a nun to subsist upon, and a small cell is sufficient for her to live in. When one simplifies personal matters and spares one's disciples the trouble of attendance, one will be like a piece of jade lying undefiled in mire, or a pure lotus flower growing out of uddy water. Although such a nun may be a person of ow rank, her wisdom is really equal to that of a superior personality.

Upon the death of their parents, [Chinese] monks and nuns perform rites and ceremonies unscrupulously, or they mourn over the dead as the bereaved children of a lay family would do, or arrange small mourning tables in their rooms to make offerings to the deceased, or wear a piece of ark-colored cloth in contradiction to regulations, or keep their hair long against the rules, or hold a wailing stick, or sleep on a straw mat in a mourning hut. All these practices are not taught by the Buddha, and they may well be omitted without committing a fault. What one should do, on account of the deceased, is to clean and decorate a room in which canopies and curtains may be temporarily fixed up for one to recite the scriptures and meditate on the Buddha while offering incense and flowers, so that the souls of he dead may be reborn in a good place. This is the way for a filial offspring to requite the kindness of the deceased. Why should one live in mourning for three years to show off ne's virtue, and fast for seven days as a way of repaying the kindness of one's dead parents? These actions will simply rebind the dead to earthly troubles to suffer more chains and fetters and pass from one dark place to another without knowing the twelve links of he chain of ausality in the three divisions. 78

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If one proceeds from death to death, how can one realize the ten stages of perfect achievement?

According to the teachings of the Buddha, when a bhiksu is dead and his death has been ascertained, the corpse is carried to a crematorium on the same day and cremated soon afterwards. In the course of he cremation, his relatives and acquaintances gather together and sit at one side on bundles of straw, or on a heap of earth, or on bricks and stones. A competent monk is asked to recite from the Anitya-sutra, a text on impermanence, as little as half page or one page, so that it will not be tedious and tiresome. (Yijing's running note: This text has been copied and sent home separately.) Then all of them meditate on the impermanent nature of all things, and after that they return to their abodes. In a pond outside the monastery, they bathe themselves with their clothes on. If there is no pond, they may wash near a well. They wear old garments, so as not to spoil new ones. Then they change into dry clothes and return to their chambers. The ground is purified by the smearing of cow's dung, and all other things remain as usual. Not a bit of their dress is changed [for the occasion], Sometimes sariras (ashes) are collected, and a stupa (a tumulus) is built. It is known as a kula (a mound) and is in the shape of a small pagoda, but without the wheel sign on the top. The pagoda for an ordinary person and that for a Holy One are different, as is fully described in the Vinaya texts. How can we agree to discard the holy teachings of akyamuni, the Father, and pursue the secular burial rites taught by the Duke of Zhou, wailing for several months and wearing mourning apparel for three years? I heard that there was a Venerable Lingyu, who never performed a funeral service, nor did he put on mourning dress. In memory of the deceased, he cultivated meritorious deeds on their behalf. Some of the monks in the capital and at Luo-yang also followed his example. People may think that he was unfilial to behave so, but they do not know that his action was more in concordance with the gist of the Vinaya.

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2i7a 13. The Purification of a Site

There are five methods of purifying the ground of a site; namely, (1) purification through mental action, (2) purification through common consent, (3) a place resembling a cow lying down, (4) an old deserted place, and (5) purification through the assent of the assembly of onks.

Purification through mental action indicates that when the foundation stone has been laid for the construction of a monastery, the supervising bhiksu should think thus, "At this spot in the monastery, or in the house, a pure kitchen should be built for the community of onks.

Common consent means that when the foundation stone of a monastery has been laid in the presence of, say, three monks, one of them should say to the other two, "Brethren, let us fix our attention to mark out this place in the monastery, or in the house, for the construction of pure kitchen for the community of onks. The second and the third monks should also repeat the same. The place resembling a cow lying down means that the buildings of he monastery being erected are in the shape of cow lying on the ground, with the doors of the chambers opened at random without a fixed plan. Even if no rites have been performed for its purification, such a place is considered pure by itself. An old deserted place denotes a place which has long been abandoned and forsaken by the monks. If hey come back, as soon as they reach the site, it is regarded as pure. But they cannot spend a night there unless a ceremony has been performed. Purification through the assent of the assembly of monks means that approval of the boundaries of a site for building a monastery is given by the assembly of onks after due discussion of a proposal submitted to them for consideration. The details are related in the Mulasarvastivada-nikaya-ekasata-karman. Once one of these five rites has been performed, the Buddha said, "This will enable all bhiksus to have the double ability to cook food within and store it outside of he boundaries, or to cook 80

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food outside of and store it within the limits, both being without fault."

When I examined the rites of urification of he monks of he four schools, witnessed the actual practice at the present time, and made a careful study of the purport of the Vinaya, I found that the method of purification was roughly the same as what has been described above. If monks drink, eat, and lodge together at a place before it has been purified, they commit an offense of cooking and lodging [at an improper place]. Once it has been purified, they may drink, eat, and lodge together in the limits without committing the offense of cooking and lodging [at an improper place].

When we say a monastery, we imply that the whole monastic residence is a pure kitchen. In every chamber raw and cooked food may be stored. If a monk is not allowed to spend the night inside a monastery, can we drive him out to stay outside overnight? First, monks do not preserve berths for themselves, and secondly, keeping provisions in the monastery is permissible. It is the tradition of India to purify and demarcate the whole monastery as a kitchen, but to use a part of it as a kitchen is also permitted by the Vinaya. These views are not the same as those of the Vinaya masters in China.

If a monk stays away from the monastery for a night, without having purified and marked out a spot to keep his robes, he is blameworthy. If the spot has already been purified and marked out by the assembly of onks, he may leave his monastery to spend the night there without committing a fault. The same is the case with the pure kitchen. Since such is allowed by the Buddha, we must not stick to our own worldly opinions. The demarcation of a spot for safekeeping of one's robes is fixed in different ways, depending on whether it is under a tree or in some other place. It is just a boundary of protection, and is not meant to guard against women. If a [female] servant comes into the kitchen, shall we deem it a village? When one carries one s robes at the time of going to a village, it is not meant to guard oneself gainst women. 81

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When the karmadana (director of uties) goes round to supervise monastic affairs and carries his robes with him, it is really too burdensome for him.

2i7b 14. The Summer Retreat of the Five Groups

The first summer retreat starts on the first day of he dark half f the fifth moon, and the second summer retreat begins on the first day of the dark half of the sixth moon. The summer retreat may be commenced only on these two days; no other date between them is fixed as the day to begin the retreat in the Vinaya texts. The first summer retreat concludes in the middle of the eighth moon, while the second terminates in the middle of the ninth moon. On the day when the retreat is drawing to its end, both monks and laymen perform a grand ceremony of alms-giving. The month after the middle of the eighth moon is called Karttika (October-November). When a Karttika congregation is held south of the Yangzi River in China, this is just the time to conclude the first summer retreat. The sixteenth day of the eighth moon is the day to distribute the kathina (inflexible) robes, or the robes of merit, as offerings to the monks. This is an ancient tradition. It is said in a Vinaya text that during the summer retreat a monk may take leave with a good reason to go out of the monastery for one or more days as he is invited. If what he is doing can be done in one night, he must ask for permission for one day's absence, up to seven days for going in response to different invitations. If another occasion arises for him to go out, the Vinaya prescribes that he should apply for permission again. Should the absence exceed seven days, say eight days, or even up to forty nights, he should apply for permission from the general assembly of monks. Having received their unanimous permission, he may go out for eight or more days, but he should not stay out for half f the summer retreat. Thus leave is for forty nights at the most. When a sick person or some troublesome matter requires him to go out of he monastery to some other place, he may do so without 82

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being regarded as breaking the summer retreat, though he has not obtained permission beforehand.

When the five groups of he homeless disciples have settled down for the summer retreat, if member of he lower grade has occasion for going out, he or she may ask another member to apply for permission in his or her stead. Before the commencement of the summer retreat, rooms are preassigned to the monks, the better rooms being allotted to the elder ones; thus all the rooms are distributed in order of eniority to the last person. Such rules are still practiced in Nalanda Monastery. The great assembly of monks assigns rooms every year; this is what the World-honored One has taught us to do with great benefit. Firstly, it may eliminate the concept of egoism, and secondly, the monastic rooms are generally looked after by all monks. All homeless monks should do so.

The monasteries south of the Yangzi River in China sometimes assign rooms to monks. This is a tradition handed down by the ancients, and it is still practiced at the present. How can one take a monastery as one's own property, just because one is living in it, without regarding whether such an action is permissible or not, till the end of one's life? It was because people of former generations did not observe the right conventions that men of subsequent ages lost sight of the Dharma. If the assignment of rooms is properly done according to the teachings of the Vinaya, it will give us great benefit.

15. The Ceremony of Confession

The last day of the summer retreat, which is also the end of the year, should be named pravârana (the day one is free from restraint), when the monks are free to expose the misconduct of one another on the three bases [of having witnessed, having heard about, or having a suspicion of the misdeed], with the intention of absolving others from guilt. The word was formerly translated as zi-zi (self-release from restraint) according to its implication. 83

A Eecord of he Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas 2i7c On the night of the fourteenth day, a teacher well versed in scriptures must be invited to mount a high seat to recite a Buddhist scripture, while lay devotees and monks gather together like clouds and mist, with lamps burning continually and incense and flowers offered. On the following morning, all of them go out round the village or town and worship the caityas devoutly. They bring with them carriages with shelves and sedan chairs to carry images of the Buddha, while drums and other instruments sound under the sky, and banners and canopies, properly arranged, flutter high to shade out the sun. This is called the samagri, translated as complete assemblage. All great festival days are celebrated in the same way as this. It is known in China as the procession going round the city.

When it is nearly noontime, they return to the monastery and have their regular meal at midday. In the afternoon, they gather together, each taking a handful of fresh cogon grass, and while stamping their feet on it, they exercise their duty of ree criticism. First come the monks and then the nuns, and lastly the three lower grades of the homeless disciples. If it is feared that owing to the large number of people attending the assembly, a long time might be required to complete the function, more members of he assembly should be appointed to hear the confessions. When one is accused of fault, one should make a confession and ask for absolution according to usage.

At this time either the lay disciples offer gifts to the monks, or the monks exchange gifts among themselves. All alms received are brought into the presence of the assembly, and a confessor who possesses the five virtues [of being free from predilection, from anger, and from fear, of not being easily deceived, and of being able to discern shirkers of confession] should ask the presiding monk, "Can these alms be distributed to the members of the community of onks to be placed at their disposal?" The presiding monk says in answer, "Yes!" Then all robes, razors, needles, awls, and the like received from the donors are equally distributed to the monks. Such is the teaching of the Vinaya. The 84

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reason why razors and needles are offered to the monks on this day is that the donors wish them to acquire sharp intelligence and keen wisdom.

After the mutual criticism and the distribution of alms, the monks may disperse and each go his own way. This is the completion of he summer retreat, and there is no need for them to spend another night there. A full description is given elsewhere, and I shall not explain it here in detail.

The confession of guilt is to disclose one's own misdeeds and declare what offenses one has committed in the past, in order to rectify the past and prevent future faults with perfect sincerity and earnest self-reproach. The posadha (fasting) ceremony is conducted once every half onth, and one should reflect every morning and evening on what offenses one has committed. (Yijing s running note: Posa means "nourishing," and dha, purifying. Thus posadha means nourishing good deeds and purifying the guilt of violating the disciplinary rules. It was formerly transliterated as pu-sha in a wrongly abridged form.)

Committing any offense of the first group is irremediable, while violation of the rules of the second group requires a quorum of twenty members of the community of monks (to listen to the offender's confession and absolve him of his guilt). If one has committed a minor offense, one should make a confession to absolve one's fault before a monk who is not one's equal. Of the Sanskrit word apatti-pratidesana, apatti means offense, and pratidesana, confessing before others. It is in the hope of gaining purity that one confesses oneself guilty. One should confess of one's faults item by item, and then expiation may be expected. A general confession of faults is not allowed by the Vinaya. For confession we formerly said chan-hui in Chinese, which is actually irrelevant to the confession of isdeeds. Why? Because ksamai (transliterated as chan) is an Indian word meaning forbearance, while hui is a Chinese word meaning "repentance," and repentance has nothing to do with forbearance. If we strictly follow the Sanskrit text, we should say at the time of aking confession, 85

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218a "I confess my faults with a sincere mind." From this careful analysis, we may see that to translate ksama as repentance has scarcely any authority.

In India, when people, regardless of age, touched each other unintentionally or rubbed shoulders when passing each other, the senior one looked at the other person with his hands hanging down, while the junior one joined his hands palm to palm to pay due respect to the senior one, or to stroke his body or sometimes hold his shoulder, uttering the word "Ksama," meaning "Please forgive me and do not be angry with me!" In the Vinaya the word ksama is used to express apology. Only when one confesses one s own faults is it known as desand (instruction). It is for fear of causing future misunderstanding that I have spoken about the errors introduced in former times. A habit may become a custom through long usage. However, we must follow the original regulations.

The Sanskrit wordpravarana is translated as optional. It also means satisfying, indicating that one is free to disclose the faults of other monks at one's option.

16. The Use of Spoons and Chopsticks

In the west, the people use only the right hand for eating food, but a monk may be permitted to keep a spoon on account of llness. As regards chopsticks, they are not heard of n the five parts of ndia, nor are they mentioned in the Vinaya texts of the four schools of Buddhist monks. They are used only in China in the east. It is, of course, an old custom of he laypeople to use chopsticks, and monks may or may not use them according to their preference. The use of chopsticks is neither allowed nor disallowed, and this matter falls within the scope of he general rules of orality. If obody derides or talks about the use of chopsticks, they may well be utilized in China. If monk holds chopsticks [in India], the laypeople may sneer at him with contempt. But in India the people have never handled chopsticks. Such is the principle of he general rules of orality. 86

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17. Salutation at Proper Times

The manner of aying homage should be in concordance with the rules; otherwise a prostration would merely be tumbling on the ground. Therefore, the Buddha said, "There are two kinds of impurity with which one should not receive salutation nor salute others." If one acts against this teaching, every bow one makes involves the fault of ill behavior.

What are the two kinds of impurity?

First, the impurity caused by eating and drinking. If one has eaten anything, even swallowed a tablet of medicine, one is unfit to receive salutation or salute others, unless one has rinsed one's mouth and washed one's hands. If one salutes others when one has not rinsed one's mouth and washed one s hands after having drunk uice or water, or even tea, honey, or other liquids, such as ghee, syrup, and the like, one commits a blunder as mentioned above.

Second, the impurity caused by going to the latrine. If one salutes others when one has not washed oneself lean and has not washed one's hands and rinsed one's mouth, or when one has not cleansed one's body or robes after they are defiled by excrement or soiled with mucus, saliva, etc., or when one has not chewed tooth wood in the morning, one commits a blunder as mentioned above. When the monks gather together to take a meal, one may just join one's hands palm to palm to show respect without paying a full salutation. If ne pays a full salutation to others on such occasions, one is acting against the teaching. At a busy or narrow place, or at an unclean spot, if one salutes others, one also commits a similar blunder. All these points are described in the Vinaya texts. As the rules are handed down from a long time ago, and the [Chinese] monks are living in a cold country, it is rather difficult for them to behave in accordance with the teaching, even though they \vish to do so. None of them does not find consolation in having fellow monks living under similar circumstances, and they would not care about minor offenses.

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218b 18. Answering the Call of Nature

I shall now give a brief ccount concerning evacuation. One should wear a bathing skirt on the lower part of the body, and put on a side-covering cloth for the upper part. One should then go to the latrine with a toilet jar filled with water, and close the door behind oneself to hide. Fourteen lumps of earth are prepared and placed on a piece of brick or stone, or on a small piece of board, outside the latrine. The size of the brick or board is one cubit long and half a cubit wide. The lumps of arth are ground into powder and kept in separate heaps arranged in two rows. An additional lump is also placed there. One takes three balls of earth into the latrine and puts them aside. One of them is used for wiping the body and another one for washing it. The manner of ashing the body is to first wash it with the left hand with water and then purify it with both water and earth. The remaining ball is used for roughly washing the left hand. If chips [of bamboo] are used [for cleaning purpose], they may be taken into the latrine, but they should be thrown out of he latrine after having been used. If ome old paper must be used, it should be cast into the latrine after having been used. After having washed oneself clean, one may straighten one's garments with the right hand, put the jar aside, unfasten the door bolt with the right hand, and come out with the jar carried in the right hand. Or one may hold the jar in one's left arm with the left hand bending inwards, and close the door with the right hand before one leaves.

Then one comes to the place where the balls of earth are kept and squats down at one side. If ne needs something to sit on, one may use anything one thinks fit at the time. The jar is placed on the left thigh and pressed down by the left arm. The seven balls of earth near oneself are used one by one to wash the left hand, and then the other seven are used one by one to wash both hands. The brick or board must be washed clean. The remaining ball is used for washing the jar, and then the arms, the thighs, and the feet, to make them all clean. After that one may go anywhere one wishes. 88

Fascicle Two

The water in the toilet jar is unfit for putting into the mouth or to the lips. After going back to one's chamber, one should rinse the mouth with water from a clean jar. In case one has touched the toilet jar after having finished the affair, one should again wash one's hands and rinse one's mouth; then one may touch other utensils. These are the rules, as roughly stated above, concerning relaxing the bowels. In order not to trouble others, a monk always washes himself, but it is not a fault to ask an attendant, if e has one, to wash for him. After urination, one or two balls of earth may be used for washing the hands and body. Purification is most important, as it is the foundation of veneration. Some people may consider it a small matter, but the Vinaya severely berates [those who violate the rules]. If ne has ot washed oneself clean, one is unfit to sit on a seat of the monastery, nor should he worship the triple gem. By these rules Sariputra once subdued the heretics. Thus the Buddha laid down the rules for monks in general. Those who practice these rules will gain the blessedness of observing the precepts of the Vinaya. If they do not, they go against the Buddha's teaching and will incur guilt. For a long time in the past, such rules were not introduced to China in the east.

Even if they had been introduced, they would have aroused the detestation [of the Chinese monks], who would have said: In the Mahayana theory of omplete voidness, what is pure and what is impure? Since the inside of the abdomen is full of filth, what is the use of ashing the outside?" They do not know that by slighting and disparaging the teachings and disciplinary rules, they are slandering and calumniating the holy mind. They incur guilt either by receiving salutation or by paying salutation to others, and heavenly beings and spirits abhor their way of earing robes and eating food. If a person does not wash himself lean, the people of all the five parts of India will laugh at him and he will be sneered at wherever he goes. Those who are engaged in propagating the Buddha's teachings should work for their dissemination. Since we have renounced worldly life and have relinquished our homes to 218c

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become homeless monks, we should abide by the words of Sakyamuni, the Father. Why should we cast angry stares at the sayings of he Vinaya texts? If ne does not believe in these points, one had better try to follow the directives for washing oneself. After doing so for five or six days, one will grasp the defect of ot washing oneself clean [after going to the latrine]. In the cold season, however, warm water must be prepared. In the three other seasons, one may use whatever water one likes. But the use of a water tube or a trough and a piece of silk for wiping is not based on the Vinaya texts. There are some people who keep some water in their mouth and leave the latrine, and this is also against the rules of purification.

For a monastery there must be, first of all, a latrine built and kept clean. If the monks are unable to make one, they may instruct some devotees to build one for the use of ll monks, whether holy or ordinary ones, coming from the ten quarters. It is important not to spend much money for it. Such is the way of urification, which is by no means a futile action.

A big trough capable of olding one or two shi (one shi equals one hundred liters), filled with earth, should be prepared and put beside the latrine, as the monks have no place to store earth in their private chambers. If a monk does not actually possess a water jar, he is allowed to use a porcelain or earthen pot to carry water and put it aside in the latrine. He may use his right hand to wash himself harmlessly.

In the regions of the Yangzi and Huai Rivers, many latrines are made of big earthen urns half buried below the surface of the ground. One should not wash oneself at such places. Separate washing places should be prepared, preferably at spots with streams of flowing water. In such monasteries as Bao-fu Monastery at Fen-zhou, Ling-yan Monastery at ount Dai, Yu-quan Monastery in the capital city of Jing-zhou, and the White Pagoda Monastery at Yang-zhou, the latrines are built quite in accordance with the traditional rules, except for the lack of supply of ater and earth. Had some people taught them the proper way of doing 90

Fascicle Two

it, the arrangement would have been the same as that at Rajagrha. This is due to the indifference of the former sages; the pupils of late times are not to be blamed for being ignorant. The earth as well as the water stored in a jar that is kept in the latrine should be safely placed and sufficiently supplied; there should be no shortages. It is better to use a water pot with a spout to replenish the jar. If one wishes to keep a bottle, the rules for that have been related before. A copper bottle with a lid over the wide mouth is unsuitable for washing. But if a hole is made in the side of the bottle, the top is welded with tin, and a small aperture is made in the protruding point on the top, it may also be used as a makeshift,to meet the requirements of the time. Supplemental Remarks

I have toiled with my pen and paper to express my deep and earnest sentiments, with the hope that some people will accept my remonstrances as water follows the course of a stream. The Great Sage has passed into the state of alm between the twin sala trees, and the arhats have become ashes in the five parts of India. The Dharma they have left behind is still exerting influence up to this morning. We should follow the example of those who have given up their lives and draw our inspiration from the ones who have abandoned the world. We should forsake the troubles that cause turbidity in our minds, and should admire the brilliant world of purity. Let both external defilements and internal delusions be cleared away, and the upper ties together with the lower bondages be completely destroyed. Our traces in life will be inactive and our spirits will become clear and bright. In any one of he four postures [of alking, standing, sitting, and lying], we shall cause no involvement, and the three honored ones [the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha] will be near and dear to us. Since we are not mocked by living people, why should we fear the anger of the lord of death? With my thoughts concentrated on benefiting 219a

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all sentient beings of the nine happy states, I shall complete the good cause of ealizing Buddhahood in three long ages. I sincerely hope that one man out of ten thousand rectifies himself through my words. Then I shall not regret the pains and hardships I have suffered during the last twenty years and more. End of Fascicle Two

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