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Chapter Four

The Six Realms

of Rebirth

(Note: The six realms of rebirth are discussed in the following six parts:) (1) The Gods (The Heavens), (2) Human Beings, (3) Demons (Asuras), (4) Ghosts and Spirits, (5) Animals, and (6) The Hells.

1. The Gods

(The Heavens)

(Note: This contains four parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name, (3) Suffering, and (4) Decrease of Karmic Effects [That Cause Rebirth in This Realm].

1. Introduction

To discuss the gods' rebirths, we know that they are rich and colorful. Their clothing and possessions are luminously fresh and their bodies are light and skillful. Yet even in the sixth and highest heaven among the heavens of the realm of desire there is King Māra. [The superior] Heaven of No-thought (Āsaṃjñika) is still a state that non-Buddhist teachings [mistakenly] claimed [as nirvana]. At the height of the four heavens of emptiness in the formless realm, attachment to evil views is not slight. In the midst of the six heavens of the realm of desire, delusions are particularly heavy. When one fails to uphold the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra and to serve the Nirvana Sutra, arrogance grows and attachment to the [the delusions of] self and others becomes increasingly powerful. Consequently, [eventually] the flowers worn by the gods on their heads wilt, and the sweat from their armpits dampens the edges of their clothes. The light shining around the palace fades and the clothes of the deities made of diaphanous material gather dirt.

Because of their pure minds beings repent and wash away all sins, and they are variously born as gods in the heavenly realms: the six heavens of 301b

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the realm of desire, i.e., the heaven of the four rulers, the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods, Tuṣita Heaven, the realm of Yama, the Heaven of Selfproduced Pleasures, the Heaven of Pleasures Produced by Others; the heavens of the realm of form, i.e., Brahmā, Brahmapurohita, Ābhāsvara, Śubhakṛtsna, Bṛhatphala, Anāgāmi[phala], Abṛha, Atapa, Sudarśana, and Sudṛśa; the four heavens of the formless realm, i.e., the heavens of Empty Space, of Infinite Consciousness, of Nothingness, and of Neither Thought Nor No-thought. In this way they occupy all possible space horizontally and vertically reach to the summit of the heavens.

Sometimes the gods sit upright on flower seats. Activated, their movement lasts over many world ages. When they meditate in a jade palace, they fix their gaze on one place and do not move from it for a thousand years. Let the clothing given to them spontaneously never leave their bodies. [Let them forever] roam around Indra's palace, called the Hall of Good Conduct. [Let them] remain above the suffering of birth and death (separation), remain free of the troubles of warfare, reject receiving the five signs of decline for a long time, and remain richly blessed with the seven jewels forever. Let their physical bodies be handsome and awe-inspiring, their appearance blindingly luminous. Having left behind the causes of suffering for long, let them rise in purity to receive the fruits of happiness.

2. Explanation of the Name

Question: What is meant by the six realms of rebirth (liuqu)? Answer: According to the Pitan lun (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:922a5), qu ("realm of rebirth") means "to arrive at." It also means "way." The point is that good or evil causes are the "way" to "arrive" at places of rebirth; for this reason these realms are called qu. Also people arrive at different places of rebirth according to the karma that they themselves have produced; for this reason these places are called qu. To name the point of arrival implies a sense of direction. In other words, the karma that people produce directs them toward such realms as heaven and hell.

Question: Are there only these six realms? Certainly there are other realms, isn't it so?

Answer: Each school is consistent [in its discourse] about the number of realms. The Loutan jing (T. 23) speaks of the sentient beings of the nine 164

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realms of existence, listing the realm of the bodhisattvas, that of pratyekabuddhas, and that of śrāvakas (hearers) in addition to the six realms of rebirth mentioned earlier. This is because ordinary beings and those holy beings live together, so that the former might benefit from the latter's influence. According to the terminological explanation in the Posha lun (T.1546:49b6), heaven is so called because it is filled with shining light. The word "heaven" (tian) has a similar sound and meaning and is related to the word "peak" (dian), which means "above." Heaven is the only existent thing among myriad things that are located in the sky above. That is why it is called the "peak." Heaven also means "manifest" (xian). "Manifest" implies that it is lofty and visible from everywhere. Among the myriad things only heaven is located high above, making everything clearly visible. For this reason it is called "manifest." Question: Why is the realm of heaven called by that name? Answer: That realm is the most excellent, the happiest, the best, the subtlest, and the highest among all the realms. That is why it is called the realm of heaven. According to one source, it is only after producing extraordinarily good conduct, speech, and thought that people are led there, born there, and continue to remain there; for this reason it is called the realm of heaven. According to another source, that realm is called heaven because of the increase of light there. In that realm light shines spontaneously day and night. Grammarians say that it is called heaven because there is the capacity for illumination there; with this capacity superior consequences are manifested and the karmic causes of previous lives are thoroughly illumined there. There is also an explanation that the realm is called heaven because beings there enjoy the pleasures of play. They are constantly playing and experiencing wonderful delights there. Question: What do the gods look like?

Answer: They stand erect.

Question: What language do they speak?

Answer: They all speak Sanskrit.

According to the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:198a5-6):

Gods are called devas; because they have performed good deeds they are born in that realm of existence; that is why they are called devas. To briefly discuss features of the retribution bodies of gods, there are no bones and flesh in their bodies, nor do they do such impure things as 165

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Suppose someone were to light five hundred lamps in one room; the light of each of these lamps does not overpower the light of any of the other lamps. Similarly, five hundred gods may be easily placed in the hand of one god, and the gods would not crowd or obstruct each other. The same scripture also says (ref. T.721:348b3): Sometimes one hundred and sometimes one thousand Yama gods sit together on a single filament of a lotus flower; because of the good consequences of their good deeds in previous lives they do not obstruct or crowd each other.

According to the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:710b23-24), "In Bianjing (Śubha kṛtsna) Heaven, the third heaven of the realm of form, sixty gods can sit on the tip of a pin and listen to the Dharma without obstructing each other." Again, the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:343c1-10) says: At that time the King of Yama deity spoke in verse to the other deities: If a person contemplates the Buddha in his mind, He is called someone who lives his life well. Because he does not neglect contemplating the Buddha, His life is called a life that matters among many lives. If a person contemplates the Dharma,

He is called someone who lives his life well. Because he does not neglect contemplating the Dharma, His life is called a life that matters among many lives. If a person contemplates the Sangha (monastic community), He is called someone who lives his life well. Because he does not neglect contemplating the monastic community, His life is called a life that matters among many lives. 166

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Again, according to the same scripture (T.721:347c1-6), there were three great beings in Yama Heaven who constantly preached the Dharma for the sake of undisciplined and indulgent gods. Who were these three? First was the king of the Yama gods, Mouxiuluntuo Bodhisattva; second one was Goose King Bodhisattva; and third was Peacock King Bodhisattva, who was variously decorated. These three great beings constantly preached the Dharma for the benefit of others, sometimes succeeding in causing some of them to attain the level of the śrāvaka's enlightenment, and sometimes succeeding in causing some of them attain the level of the pratyekabuddha's enlightenment. 3. Suffering

I will now describe how the scriptures detail suffering in the realm of heaven as well as the suffering of the luminous realms of form and the formless realm. Even though these higher realms are superior there is nevertheless some subtle pain there. Therefore, according to the Chengshi lun (T.1646:285b10-14): In the above two realms (i.e., the realm of form and the formless realm) there are no crude forms of suffering but there are still subtle forms of suffering. How do we know this? We speak of the four positions of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down in discussing the four meditative states. In each of these four positions there is also suffering. Furthermore, in the realm of form there are the [three] consciousnesses of the eyes, ears, and body. Perception in each of these consciousnesses is labeled as either pleasure or suffering. When in one of the four modes of conduct (walking, standing, sitting, and lying), we seek to change to another. From the fact that we seek to change [our position] we can infer the existence of suffering. Furthermore, due to a lack of understanding people form attachments that are followed by karmic consequences. When they make this mistake great suffering results. As said in the scripture, when life is about to end only those who have attained the Way show no sign of despair and suffering. How can the ordinary beings we are discussing here be free of despair and suffering? The expression "free from suffering" is used in the treatise because suffering is very subtle. Just as when there is very little salt in our food we say it is "free of salt," [though there are still trace amounts of salt in it]. The expression ["free of suffering"] does not mean that there is only pleasure and no suffering 167

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at all in heaven. In the life of pleasure in the realm above beings are in a state of silent quietude, free from attachment, and they are incapable of giving rise to crude forms of greed and anger. Therefore, they are said to be free from suffering and pleasure. Furthermore, it is said that there is no suffering in heaven because there are no instruments of punishment such as swords and sticks there. It is not that there are no subtle forms of suffering in heaven. Therefore, according to the Niepan jing (T.374:552c29-553a4; T.375: 798c17-21):

Even in the most supremely pure and clean garden, if one were to place a corpse inside it the garden becomes impure and people will abandon it and not be attached to it. Similarly, in the heavens of the realm of form, even though that realm is pure, because beings have bodies the buddhas and bodhisattvas all abandon them. Those who do not contemplate the matter in this way are not engaged in the cultivation of the body. From this statement we know that suffering exists in the heavens. According to the Fajubiyu jing (T.211:596a13-25):

Four monks were sitting under a tree and asked each other, "What is the greatest suffering in the world?" One of them said, "Sexual desire is the greatest suffering." Another said, "Hunger and thirst are the greatest suffering." The third said, "Anger is the greatest suffering." The fourth said, "Fear is the greatest suffering." They debated the meaning of suffering endlessly. The Buddha knew what they were saying and going to the place where the monks were he asked, "What have you been debating about?" The monks paid respect to the Buddha and explained what they were debating in detail.

The Buddha said, "Monks, your discussion has not penetrated to the bottom of the meaning of suffering. The greatest suffering in the world is having a body. Hunger and thirst, cold and heat, anger, fear, and the vice of sexual desire are all based on the body. The body is the source of all suffering; it is the source of all trouble. Human beings are worried and anxious about everything, crawling around in the three realms like worms, and yet we cruelly harm each other. We are attached and bound to the idea of self and ceaselessly go through [cycles of] lives and deaths. All 168

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of this comes from the body. If you desire to be liberated from worldly suffering you must seek absolute quietude. By controlling your mind correctly and becoming quietly freed from all thought, you can attain nirvana. This is the greatest pleasure.

From this quotation we know that beings who have not attained the holy knowledge (i.e., the Dharma) and who have not destroyed their bodies that belong to the three realms cannot be free from suffering. Question: In the realm of form beings have bodies and thus can receive suffering. If they do not have forms and shapes [in the formless realm], in what forms are beings born that they receive suffering? Answer: This kind of retribution is very subtle and minute, to the point of being invisible. Though they are free from crude obstructions they are not without subtle forms. This issue is discussed extensively in another chapter. According to the Zhidu lun (T.1509:232b20-21):

When beings die or withdraw from the above two realms (i.e., the realm of form and the formless realm), they are greatly distressed; in the lower realm it is as if they have fallen from the highest place and have been broken into pieces. According to the Zhengshi lun (T.1646:285b3-4):

Suffering and pleasure accompany a body through the four stages in the realm of form. Despair and joy accompany the mind to the summit of all the heavens.

Question: Those who are reborn in the heavens have rejected evil deeds and accumulated good deeds. Why then are they reborn in the three evil realms of the hells, hungry ghosts, and animals if their karmic retribution has been exhausted?

Answer: From the very beginning of time sentient beings have committed an infinite number of evil deeds. If they have been greedy and angry [even] for one day they receive rebirths in a thousand different forms. So, since they have committed many evil deeds, they are reborn even more times. The karmic effects [of a given birth] disappear after a limited period of time and further rebirths follow. When the karmic retribution for their good deeds is 169

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exhausted, the seeds of the evil deeds they committed earlier mature, and they are reborn again in the three evil realms. There is nothing puzzling about this. Therefore, according to the Chengshi lun (T.1646:297a22-24): Suppose someone who is in the realm of form or the formless realm has claimed that that existence is nirvana; when his life ends he remains in the intermediate state of existence in the realms of form or desire, and falls into a heterodox view, saying that there is no nirvana. He then reviles the supreme Dharma. From this we learn that evil deeds exist in the [heavens of] the realms of form and desire. Furthermore, according to the Zhidu lun (T.1509:175b27-28), "Those who die in the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought fall into Avīci Hell." From this we learn that all realms of rebirth in the three realms are filled with suffering.

Third, let us clarify suffering in the heavens of the realm of desire. When beings engage in battles in those heavens, they harm one another and both their bodies and minds suffer. If their limbs are cut off they grow back again. When they are severed in two at their necks or torsos, they then experience the suffering of death.

According to the Pitan (Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:894c22-25): All gods living in the heavens of the realm of desire commit deeds that belong to each of the ten categories of evil deeds, variously in opposition to the rules of discipline. Even though gods do not harm other gods, they harm the beings in other realms of existence. Sometimes they cut off their hands or legs but the beings are then reborn. If they cut off the heads of these beings they die. The beings attack each other, one after another. Starting from these extreme cases, evil deeds that fall into all the other categories of evil deeds are all present in the heavens. Furthermore, when the effects of their merits are about to be exhausted, the five signs of decline appear and the gods become greatly distressed. According to the Niepan jing (T.374:585c25-27; T.375:833b28-c1): Although in the heavens there is nothing that causes major suffering and the bodies of the gods are soft and smooth, when they see the five signs 170

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[of decline] they suffer greatly in a manner that is no different from the suffering of the beings in the hells and other evil realms. Thus, birth in heaven is like honey mixed with poison—it tastes good at first but causes suffering later.

According to a verse in the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:131b11-c3): If honey is mixed with poison it cannot be eaten. The pleasures in the heavens are like that; when beings leave, they suffer greatly.

When their karmic effects have been exhausted they become despondent and distressed.

As they abandon the heavenly maidens, Their moment of departing from the heavens is full of great suffering. Such suffering is beyond comparison. The time when the karmic effects of good deeds are about to be exhausted Is like the moment when a candle flame goes out. They do not know in which realms they will be reborn. Great suffering arises in their hearts. When they are about to leave the heavens, Great suffering arises in their hearts. Various kinds of suffering and pain in the hells— Sixteen of these is still less than this one kind of suffering [that they experience in heaven].

All circles of flame

Result from the power of loving attachment. Loving attachment chains and binds sentient beings. [From the heavens] to various evil realms of existence— The three realms are like a turning wheel. Bound by the effects of karma, the wheel turns ceaselessly. For this reason if a being abandons love and desire, Through rejecting desire, he can attain nirvana. Again, according to the Niepan jing (T.374:589b14-18; T.375:837a24-27): Even if beings receive the bodies of gods such as [those] in Brahmā Heaven and the gods of the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought, when 171

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their lifetime as a god is over they again fall into the three evil realms of existence. Even if beings receive the bodies of gods such as the four heavenly kings and the Heaven Where Gods Freely Enjoy Pleasures Produced by Others (Paranirmitavaśavartin), when their lifetime as a god is over they go to the realm of animals where some are born as lions, and others as tigers, buffaloes, hyenas, wolves, elephants, horses, oxen, and donkeys. From this passage, we learn that when the karmic effects that led to their birth as gods are exhausted, these gods suffer greatly. Now that we know about these difficulties we should confess our sins openly and sincerely, listing them item by item, and expiate them through ritual repentance. If someone has committed a sin but its karmic consequences have been exhausted, and if that person later performs good deeds, he [or she] may be reborn in heaven. Yet, they are still subtly affected by the influences of their earlier sin.

According to the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:182b16-26):

If a god committed the sin of stealing in his previous life, at the time [when the five signs of decline appears] he sees with his own eyes the heavenly maidens taking the jewelry that he himself is wearing and offering the jewels to other gods. If a god committed the sin of lying in his previous life, when the heavenly maidens hear what that god says they misunderstand him as expressing a wrong view and utter abusive words to him. If a god offered wine to someone who was upholding the precepts, or violated the precept and drank wine himself, or produced wine, then when he is about to die his mind becomes confused and, unable to concentrate on correct thought, he falls into hell. If a god committed the sin of killing living beings in his previous life, the life span of this god is shortened and his life in heaven ends quickly. If a god committed the sin of sexual licentiousness in his previous life, all the heavenly maidens abandon him and sport with the other gods with delight. These are called the five signs of decline. Because the gods were negligent in upholding the five precepts, they are bound by the effects of karma and suffer from these retributions. Again, according to the same source (T.721:180c17-181a1): The god Indra again contemplated the fruits of karma. On the wall of the 172

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temple he saw the eighteen sections of Screaming Hell. Those who commit the sins of killing living beings, stealing, sexual licentiousness, and lying fall into this hell and suffer in various ways. When they come out of hell they are reborn as hungry ghosts and live very long lives in this form. When they die in the realm of hungry ghosts they are reborn as animals and harm each other cruelly. When they die in the realm of animals they are reborn as human beings. Their bodies are emaciated and they lack any authority and power. If they are suffering from the effects of other sins, even if they are reborn as gods the size of their body and their very appearance are inferior, and the jewelry that decorates their bodies and their halo are unimpressive. They are not loved by the heavenly maidens. The heavenly maidens turn against them, abandon them, and go to the other deities. These humble deities possess little wisdom and their minds are not upright and honest. They are laughed at by the other gods. When the gods and asuras fight, they are killed by the asuras. All this is because of the effects of the other sins that these beings had committed.

4. Decrease of Karmic Effects [That Cause Rebirth in This Realm] According to the new translation of the Posha lun (T.1545:364c21-22; 365a21-b14):

When the life of a god in the heavens is about to end, two types of the five signs of decline appear; the first is called minor signs and the second is called major. What are the minor five signs of decline? 1. When the gods move around everywhere, coming and going, five kinds of beautiful music are heard from the jewels that decorate their bodies. The music is more beautiful than that performed by professional musicians. When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life this sound stops. According to one view, an uncontrollable sound is also heard. 2. The halo around the gods is blindingly bright and shines day and night. Their body has no shadow. When their life is about to end the light becomes dim. According to one view, when a god finally dies his shadow appears immediately.

3. The skin of the gods is fine and smooth. After they have bathed in the fragrant ponds and come out of the water it does not cling to their 173

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4. The world perceived by the gods is extraordinarily marvelous and beyond the limits of ordinary sense organs. It turns like a wheel of fire and does not remain still even for short periods of time. When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life he becomes fixated on one object of perception, and even after a long time he cannot get rid of it. 5. The gods are endowed with great physical power and they do not blink their eyes. When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life his physical strength weakens and he blinks many times. What are the major five signs of decline? (1) A god's clothing, which was previously clean, becomes soiled. (2). The crown of flowers [worn by a god], which was previously blooming, now withers. (3) Suddenly sweat flows from the god's armpits. (4) An unpleasant smell suddenly comes from the god's body. (5) The god cannot remain seated comfortably in his own seat.

The situation can be changed even after the first of these two sets of five signs of decline has appeared. When the five kinds of minor signs of decline appeared the god Indra thought that the five kinds of major signs of decline were about to appear, and he became frightened. He entertained the following thought: "If anyone can save me from this decline and calamity, I will later take refuge in him." Then he realized that none other than the Buddha, the World-honored One, could protect him from [the five major signs of decline]. He went to the place where the Buddha was staying and asked him to show compassion and save him. The Buddha preached for him and when [Indra] gained insight into the truth all of the signs of decline disappeared at once. The god jumped up, dancing in joy and delight before the Buddha, uttered many loving words, and uttered the following verse:

The Great Sage should know

That sitting in this seat

I regained the life span of a god.

I only wish to honor and remember you.

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According to the Shefu luohan jing (ref. T.206:521c26-b11): Once there lived a god in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. When his life as a god was about to end seven kinds of signs appeared: (1) The light on his neck disappeared, (2) the flowers in his headdress withered, (3) the color of his face changed, (4) dust gathered on his clothes, (5) sweat came out of his armpits, (6) his body became thin, and (7) he left his own seat [due to discomfort]. Then he thought to himself, "After my life here is ended I will be reborn in a lower realm as a pig in the womb of a scabrous sow in the kingdom of Kuśinagara." He was greatly distressed but did not know what he could do [about this fate]. The other gods said, "The Buddha is here now, preaching for the multitude. Only the Buddha can help you escape from your plight caused by your previous sins." The god immediately went to the Buddha and greeted him respectfully, bowing to touch his forehead to the Buddha's feet. Before he had a chance to ask a question, the Buddha knew what he had in mind and said, "You certainly know that all things are ultimately transient. Why do you become distressed about such matters as obtaining or leaving the body of a pig? Recite the Three Refuges regularly." Thus, the god recited the Three Refuges three times every day. After seven days the god's life as a pig ended and he was reborn as a son of an elder in the kingdom of Vaiśālī. While he was still in his mother's womb the god recited the Three Refuges three times daily. As soon as he was born and his feet touched the ground, he kneeled and took refuge in the Three Jewels of his own accord. When his mother gave birth to him there was no afterbirth. The maidservants who were attending the birth were all frightened and ran away. The mother was also puzzled, saying that the baby was a delusion caused by the deity of Mars, and she was about to kill it. The father realized, however, that the baby was an extraordinarily noble person, and ordered that he be brought up with great care. When he was almost seven years old he was playing at the roadside with some friends, and happened to see Śāriputra and Maud gal yāyana approach. The child went forward and paid respect to them. The holy ones were surprised, so the child explained in detail his experience with the Buddha in heaven. This child invited the Buddha to come to his house and the Buddha preached for him. The child, his parents, 175

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and all the members of his extended family attained the rank of avaivartya, which means "free from retrogression." (Note: According to the scriptures there are many different kinds of gods. Details were given in the thirtytwo parts in the section on the three realms [282b-292c]. In the present context, in the discussion of the six realms of existence, I discussed the subject briefly in six parts.)

Miracle Stories

(Six stories are cited briefly:) From the Jin dynasty (265-419), Layman Shi Shiguang and the monks Shi Huiwei and Shi Xianhu; from the Song dynasty (420-479), two women with the surname Lun; from the [Northern] Wei and Wei dynasties (386-534), the monk Shi Tanluan and Layman Chuan Xianchao; from the Liang dynasty (502-557), the monk Shi Huishao. Introduction to the Miracle Stories

Evil karmic consequences are momentous, and they easily mislead people's minds as they proceed on their paths; the powers of myriad good deeds are miniscule and it is difficult for them to evoke a response from spiritual reality. Wicked thoughts occur frequently; we often hear about immoral situations. The right Dharma is seldom encountered, the teaching declines, and the Way is lost. For this reason, if we fail to pursue the truth even for one moment, then we are separated from it for a period of ten thousand world ages; if we are distanced from it even for one split-second, we are kept apart from it for a long period of one thousand reigns. Indeed, because those who have faith in the right Dharma and those who damage it are constantly in competition, and good and evil people are in conflict with each other, ignorant and deluded people easily become shallow admirers of the heterodox teachings and those who follow the pure and correct teaching frequently encounter unjust persecutions. For this reason, after more than six hundred years have passed since the Dharma entered China, [Buddhism] has been persecuted three times. Disasters followed one after another and calamities reached our own times. The occurrences of such events are signs of cosmic responses and retributions for our moral conduct.

Thus, the Prince of Jian'an had a miraculous dream and was cured of his illness. Miraculous spirits appeared to Wenxuan (Xiao Ziliang, Prince of Jingling) 176

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and his illness was cured. When the king of Wu surrounded a temple a light appeared floating above the relic. When a Qi ruler was about to execute punishment the blade of his sword suddenly broke into pieces. When the ruler of the Yuwen family (Northern Zhou) persecuted Buddhism boils erupted on his body. When the Toba ruler (Northern Wei) abolished Buddhist temples pus flowed from his abscesses. Sun Hao urinated on an image of the Buddha and his penis ached. Helian (Xia) was wicked and was killed by lightning. Matters concerning good or evil deeds, fortunes and misfortunes, and other auspicious signs are recorded extensively in such works as the Xuanyan, the Mingxiang, the Baoying, the Gantong, the Yuanhun, the Youming, the Sao shen, the Jingyi, the Fayuan, the Hongming, the Jinglu yixiang, the Sanbao zhengying, the Shengji guixin, the Xiguoxing zhuan, the Mingseng, the Gaoseng, and the Mingbao shiyi. There are hundreds of fascicles of such works and they cannot be listed here in detail. In these works the facts are recorded in the scriptural style and highlighted more clearly than the sun and moon in the sky, so that everyone can see them clearly. If anyone doubts the truth of retribution, the consequence is that he will end up in delusion. Therefore, a scripture says, "If a person performs a good deed, good reward follows; if he performs an evil deed, an evil retribution follows." The Book of Changes (Kun section, Wenyan) says, "A house that heaps good upon good is sure to have an abundance of blessings. A house that heaps evil upon evil is sure to have an abundance of ills."

Truly we know that [rewards and] retributions for good and evil deeds follow like shadows and echoes; pain and pleasure appear one after another. I have examined over four thousand stories, and selected stories of miraculous occurrences that I have appended at the end of each chapter. Unless proofs are cited, it is difficult to remove a difficult disease. As for other pieces of evidence not included here, it is my wish that someone will supplement these sections with them.

Jin Dynasty

Layman Shi Shiguang was a man of Xiangyang. In the eighth year of the Xianghe period (333-334) he died in Wuchang. Seven days later, the monk Zhi Fashan was reciting the shorter version of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra when he became tired and laid down for a while. He heard a human voice in the spirit altar. There was a maidservant in the Shi household, whose name 177

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was Zhangxin. She saw Shiguan sitting on the spirit altar, dressed in exactly the same way as he had always dressed. Shiguang said to Zhangxin, "I was originally destined to be reborn in the realm of dragons but Master Zhi recited a scripture for me, and Tanhu and Tanjian welcomed me to the pleasurable location of the seventh heaven of the god Brahmā. Tanhu and Tanjian were both novice monks of Zhi Fashan, and they had passed away." Later, Zhi Fashan was again invited to the household to recite the longer version of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. Shiguang again came to the spirit altar. While he was still alive Shiguang had donated two banners, and the banners were still at the temple. He called out to [the maidservant] Zhangxin and asked, "Send those banners to me." As soon as Zhangxin replied "Certainly," she immediately died. When Zhangxin brought the banners, they both flew together in the northwestern direction, ascending a dark green mountain, the color of a vaiḍūrya jewel. When they reached the top they could see the Gate of Heaven at a distance. Shiguang then held up the banners himself and let Zhangxin return. He gave her a piece of dark green incense that looked like a pea, saying "Present this to Master Zhi Fashan." Before Zhangxin had completed her return trip she saw from a distance Shiguang entering the Gate of Heaven. Zhangxin continued on her journey and arrived back home and suddenly she was revived. She no longer had the incense in her hand. The banner was still at the temple.

When Shiguang and Zhangxin had left the house together, a six-year-old boy in the household pointed his finger and said to his grandmother, "Father is flying in the sky. Grandma, can you see him?" Later, Shiguang returned to the house accompanied by more than ten heavenly beings. After roaming around the house for a while, they departed. Every time he came back he was wearing a hairpin and a head cover, but when he left his head was bare. Zhangxin asked him about this, and he answered, "In heaven there is a crown but I do not wear it here." Later he appeared wearing the heavenly crown, accompanied by a group of heavenly beings who were playing drums and zithers and singing. Quickly he went to his mother. Zhangxin asked him, "Why do you come so frequently?" Shiguang said, "I come to let you people learn about moral retribution. I also wish to entertain my mother." The sound of the zither was pure and beautiful, entirely unlike worldly music. Everyone in the household, both young and old, could hear it. However, 178

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their voices seemed muffled as if they were being heard over a wall. People could not distnguish them. Only Zhangxin could understand their speech clearly. After a while they left. Zhangxin went to send them off and she saw Shiguang enter a black gate. After a while he came out and said to her, "My father-in-law is receiving the punishment of whipping today. It will be extremely painful and unbearable. I took a glance and came back. He had been found guilty of the crime of murder. Therefore, he is receiving this retribution. Tell my sister-in- law that if she gets a monk to recite a scripture [my father-in-law] will be able to escape this punishment." The father-inlaw had been the General of Light Chariot. The punishment caused by retribution then ceased. (Note: This story comes from the Mingxiang ji.) The origin of the monk Shi Huiwei of Chang'an is unknown. He stayed at a great temple in Chang'an and upheld the precepts, maintaining remarkable purity. Frequently he went up into the mountains and down into the valleys to cultivate the practice of meditation. A headless ghost approached him but Huiwei did not show any sign of surprise or fear on his face. He said to the ghost, "You have no head. That means that you never have a headache. How wonderful!" The ghost disappeared, and then reappeared as a ghost without a torso; he only had arms and legs. Huiwei again said, "You have no torso. That means that you never have troubles with any of the five organs. How pleasurable!" Immediately, the ghost again changed his appearance. Huiwen sent him away every time, speaking to him in the same [calm and friendly] manner. A long while later, it became very cold and started snowing. A woman came to ask him to let her stay overnight at the place where he was practicing. Her appearance was attractive and she was wearing a brightly colored dress. She conducted herself in a pleasing and elegant fashion, saying that she was a heavenly maiden. She said, "Because you are virtuous the gods sent me to come and amuse you." She spoke in a manner that was meant to arouse desire and lead Huiwei astray from his original commitment, but Huiwei maintained his integrity and his mind was not disturbed even for a moment. He then said to her, "My mind is like lifeless ashes. It cannot get tempted by a bag of skin." The woman then went away, beyond the clouds. Looking back, she said, "It is possible to drain the water of the ocean. It is possible to make Mount Sumeru lean to one side. But this monk holds fast to his commitment and nothing will affect that." Later, in the third year of the Long'an period 304a

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(399 C.E.), Huiwei traveled to the west accompanying Faxian. We do not know where his life came to an end. (Note: This story comes from the Liang gaoseng zhuan, T.2059:396b18-c2.)

There was also Shi Xianhu, whose secular surname was Sun. His place of origin was Liangzhou. He came to stay at Yanxingsi in Guanghan and practiced meditation on a regular basis. He was also well informed about monastic discipline and never violated the monastic code even a little. He died in the fifth year of the Long'an period of the Jin dynasty (401 C.E.). When he was about to die five-colored lights appeared from his mouth and illuminated the temple interior. He had left instruction that his body be cremated, and his disciples followed this order. After all the joints of his body had completely burned up, one finger of one hand remained intact. So his disciples buried the finger at the bottom of his stupa. (Note: This story comes from the Liang gaoseng zhuan, T.2059:396c4-8.)

Song Dynasty

Cengcheng in Dongguan was the place of origin of two women with the surname Lun, who were the sisters of Shizu. In the ninth year of the Yuanjia period (432 C.E.), the older sister was ten years old and the younger sister was nine. Their village was remote and the people there were ignorant; no one knew the teachings of the scriptures. Suddenly, on the eighth day of the second month, both sisters disappeared. Three days later they returned and asserted that they had seen the Buddha. On the fifteenth day of the ninth month they again disappeared. After ten days they returned, speaking a foreign language. They recited Buddhist scriptures and other books in Sanskrit. When they encountered a monk from Central Asia they could communicate freely with him right away.

On the fifteenth day of the first month of the following year they again went away. People who were working in the fields said that they saw them rise up into the sky with a gust of wind. Their parents, fearful, wailed loudly and offered sacrifices to the gods, asking for good fortune. After a month the sisters returned. They had shaved their heads and become nuns. They were clothed in nuns' robes and held the hair that had been shorn from their heads in their hands. They told the following story: "We saw the Buddha and some nuns. They said, 'Because of your karmic conditions from previous lives, 180

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you will be our disciples.' The Buddha raised his hand and rubbed the hair on our heads and the hair then fell off. The Buddha gave us our religious names. The older one is called Fayuan and the younger Facai. When we were about to be sent back, the Buddha said, 'You should build a temple. I will give you the scriptural teaching.'"

After they returned home the women destroyed the spirit altar and raised a hut as a temple. During the night they recited the scriptures. Every evening a five-colored light was seen floating around the mountain peaks, like so many lamps. The two women said, "From now on our deportment will be elegant and our use of speech correct. Even the [refined] customs of the capital city will not be superior to our manners." The prefect Wei Lang went to the village and offered his goodwill and material support [to the nuns]. When he heard the people in the village talking about them, he was truly amazed and marveled at what they said. Because of these events the people in the village in a valley honored the Buddha's teaching. (Note: This story comes from the Mingxiang ji.)

[Northern] Wei Dynasty

The family background of the monk Shi Tanluan of Xuanzhongsi in the Shibiku valley in Xihe is unknown, but the family was originally from Yamen. The family's residence was near Mount Wutai and people in the area enjoyed hearing stories of miracles and strange events. Tanluan had a chronic disease and went around seeking treatment. Coming to a ruin at Qinling in Fenquan, he went into the deserted city and looked upward above the eastern gate. There were blue clouds and suddenly he saw the Gate of Heaven open. Tanluan clearly saw the officials occupying the courtly ranks in the six heavens of the realm of desire, those of higher rank overshadowing those of lower rank in an orderly fashion. Because of this [vision] his illness was cured. Later, Tanluan visited Tao [Hongjing]'s hermitage in Jiangnan (south of the Jiang River). He was seeking the immortals' techniques, which he hoped would prolong his life. When he came to the mountain Tao welcomed him in delight, and gave him a work in ten fascicles describing the immortals' techniques. On his way back home Tanluan came to the Zhejiang River, where a deity called the Master of Baolang Zi lived. When a drum was struck the high waves would last for seven days. Tanluan encountered high waves and 181

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could not cross the river. He then went to the shrine of this deity, explaining his situation, and he prayed to the deity, promising him that if he responded to his request he would raise another shrine there. Immediately the deity manifested his body, which looked as if it was twenty zhang tall. The deity approached Tanluan and said, "If you want to cross [the river], you should do so tomorrow morning. I hope you will not renege on your promise." In the morning the waves were still quite rough and high, sounding as if they were driven by angry drumbeats. As soon as Tanluan entered the boat the water became quiet and peaceful. Thus he was able to cross to the other side. The emperor of the Liang dynasty thought highly of him, and therefore ordered a shrine to be built for the deity of the Jiang River [who had helped Tanluan]. Tanluan later left the emperor's palace and came to the border of the northern state of Wei. He was hoping to visit famous mountains to learn about new techniques for [spiritual] cultivation. When he came to Luoyang he met the Tripiṭaka master Bodhiruci. Tanluan said to him, "Buddhism contains many instructions for prolonging life and achieving immortality. Are these superior to the teaching of the immortals' scriptures in this land?" Bodhiruci spat on the ground and said, "What kind of nonsense is this? The two teachings are not comparable. Where in this land is a teaching that prolongs life and achieves immortality? Even if you could prolong life would it be very long before you died and ended up circulating in the three realms of existence?" Bodhiruci then gave Tanluan the Sutra on Contemplation (T. 365), saying, "This is the technique of the Great Sage. If you follow this in your [spiritual] cultivation you are bound to achieve liberation from the cycle of life and death that repeats for eternity."

Later Tanluan moved to Xuanzhongsi, a temple carved into the rock wall of Mount Beishan in Fenzhou. Singlemindedly he followed the teaching of [the Sutra on Contemplation], cultivating the Pure Land practice. When he was sixty-seven, on the day his life was to come to an end, flags, flowers, banners, and umbrellas appeared high above the temple building. Fragrance filled the air and loud music was heard. Everyone who was ascending the mountain to the temple witnessed this. In the fourth year of the Xinghe period (542 C.E.) of the Wei dynasty, Tanluan died at the mountain temple on Mount Pingyao. He was sixty-seven years old. (Note: This story comes from the [Tang] gao seng zhuan, T.2060:470a13-c6.)

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Wei Dynasty

The personal name of Chuan Xianchao, a retainer in the Qibei Commandery, was Yiqi. During the Jiaping period (249-254), while spending the night alone, he dreamed of a heavenly maiden who came and followed him. She described herself as a jade woman of heaven. She was originally from the Eastern Commandary (in heaven?). Her name was Chenggong Zhi qiong. She had lost both parents as a child. The Ruler of Heaven pitied her for the pain she suffered living alone, and issued an order to allow her to descend to the human world and marry a husband there. Chuan Yiqi's dream mentioned above was the consequence. Yiqi's soul was alerted to her presence, and was delighted by her extraordinarily beautiful appearance. When Yiqi awoke from the dream he kept thinking about the jade woman reverently. Sometimes she seemed to be there, and other times she was absent. This continued for three or four evenings. Then she manifested more solidly, arriving in a carriage and attended by eight maidservants. She was dressed in lace and embroidered silk, and her face and body were those of the flying immortals. She said that she was seventy years old but her appearance was that of a fifteen- or sixteen-year-old girl. On the carriage was a barrel of wine, clear and white, and there were five kinds of utensils made of vaiḍūrya jewels. Extraordinary food and drink were provided and they brought the wine down and started eating. Yiqi joined in the feast.

The woman said to Yiqi, "I am a heavenly jade woman. I was sent down to be married, and that is why I am here to accompany you. Is this not a proof of your great virtue? If the cosmic fortunes dictate that I spend the night [with you], we shall become husband and wife. Even if no benefits result from this there will be no harm, either. However, in moving here and there, I must ride in a carriage or on a well-nourished horse; my food and drink must be of exotic kinds, sent from distant places; plain or patterned silk material must always be provided in plenty. And because I am a goddess I cannot bear a child for you. My nature is not at all jealous, however. It is alright if you fulfill the worldly obligations of marrying and having a human family elsewhere."

In the end Yiqi and the deity became husband and wife. She presented a poem to him:

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Fluttering up and down, and suddenly going up, I speak. I play with my fellow deities among cliffs of clouds piled up, one upon the other.

Flowers of miraculous grass do not require watering.

Supreme virtue appears at the appointed time.

Would an immortal descend for no purpose?

Immortals arrive in response to cosmic fortunes.

If you accept me as your wife, I will bring prosperity to the five groups of relatives.

If you send me away calamities will follow.

This is the outline of the poem. The original text of the poem contains over two hundred words and cannot be reproduced here in full. She also wrote a commentary on the Book of Changes, a work in seven fascicles, and predicted auspicious and inauspicious fortunes. Yiqi always made use of her predictions. Seven or eight years after they became husband and wife, Yiqi's parents arranged for him to marry an ordinary wife. After that, the heavenly [jade] woman avoided him during the daytime and appeared at night to sleep in his house. She would arrive in the evening and depart early in the morning. She would appear and disappear suddenly, as if she were flying around. Only Yiqi saw her; others could not see her. If Yiqi was in a dark room with her human voices could be heard. Such traces of her presence were frequently found, yet no one else could see her body. Later people became suspicious and asked him about these events. So, Yiqi told them about his situation. Then the jade woman requested his permission to leave, saying, "I am a deity. Though I have been with you, I do not wish to be seen by others. You are by nature careless and sloppy, and have told others about our relationship over the years. Our love is strong, and once we are separated we will certainly feel miserable and resentful. But this turn of events prevents us from prolonging this relationship. Each of us must do our best." She called her attendants to bring wine and food. She wrote a Daoist register, made two layers of clothes from a piece of silk cloth, and presented these to Yiqi. She also offered a poem:

Taking your arm, I take leave of you; shedding tears I depart on an aimless journey.

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In numinous quietude I climb onto the carriage, which leaves quickly, as if it is flying.

After [the jade woman left], Yiqi fell into a deep depression that lasted for days and took him to the verge of a nervous breakdown. Later, he happened to be on a road on Mount Yu in Qibei. He was traveling westward and, looking far ahead, he saw a horse-drawn carriage on a winding road. The person on the carriage looked like the jade woman, Zhiqiong. He ran to the front of the carriage. Indeed, she was the jade woman. So he opened the cover over the carriage and the two saw each other. At first they were overwhelmed with emotion but then they were happy. Helping each other back into the carriage, they sat closely together and rode the carriage to Luoyang. There they established a household and lived together just as they had before. She was still alive during the Taikang period (280-289), but she no longer came and went everyday. Only on the third day of the third month, the fifth day of the fifth month, the seventh day of the seventh month, the ninth day of the ninth month, and the first and fifteenth days in the same month does she come down to see him and, after spending the night, she returns [to the heavens]. Zhang Mosheng composed a poem about the divine woman [on the basis of this story]. (Note: This story comes from the Sousheng ji.) Liang Dynasty

The secular surname of the monk Shi Huishao of Longyuansi in the Shu Commandery was Chen. His original registration was in Taiqiu in Yingquan. When he was a small boy he wanted to know a great deal, and he was remarkably more intelligent than his peers. When he was fifty-four years old he died in the Moheyan Hall of the temple in which he was based. At that time there was a citizen of Chengdu called Ying Shifeng, a wise person. He became ill and lost consciousness but his body around his heart remained warm. After five days he regained consciousness and told the following story. He had been taken to King Yama and heard him give verdicts. He heard Yama say, "Welcome, Dharma Master." Shortly thereafter, Master [Huishao] arrived. King Yama stepped down from the building and, with palms joined, he bowed to touch his forehead to the master's feet. The king did not say a 185

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word but prepared a document that had one large character, zheng ("government"), on it. Huishao went outside and sat under a tree at the side of an open road. A young boy appeared and presented a robe placed inside a lacquered willow winnower. He bade Huishao to put it on. Ten monks appeared to welcome him. Shifeng recognized two among them as the meditation masters He and Ci. There were lines of banners and decorative umbrellas along the sides of the road, and [all the masters] then flew up and went away. Again, during the night of the day Huishao died, a nun at Anpusi, who had been ill for a long time, lost consciousness. After regaining consciousness she told the following story.

She had accompanied Dharma Master Huishao and five hundred monks, and they had climbed seven jeweled staircases to reach the lecture hall of the heavenly palace. The ground looked like quartz and the seats were beautifully decorated. There were also dusters and tables. Lotus flowers filled the pond. Huishao sat at his seat and talked for awhile. After a short while he stood up and ordered those who had come to send him off to return [to their usual places].

There are other extraordinary signs and miracles like these that occurred at Huishao's death. On the third day of the seventh month of the second year of the Tianjian period (503 C.E.), Huishao died at Longyuansi. He was fiftyfour years old. (Note: This story comes from the Liang gaoseng zhuan; ref. Tang gaoseng zhuan, T.2060:470c16-471b2.)

2. Human Beings

(This consists of seven parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name, (3) Places Where Human Beings Reside, (4) Karmic Causes, (5) Noble and Humble Beings (Hierarchies of Social Status), (6) The Wealthy and the Poor (Socioeconomic Classes), and (7) Suffering.

1. Introduction

In the realm of human beings their bodies look impressive on the surface, but they commit numerous sins. Human beings take pleasure in doing wrong things. The Way of humanity and wisdom has declined and the teaching of love and goodness has disappeared. Consequently, Cui Shu murdered his 186

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lord; Shang Chen killed his father. Six powers competed with each other; ten thousand states formed aggressive alliances. All indulge in arrogance; each displays unrestrained licentiousness. The atmosphere of purity has long disappeared; influences of moral superiority do not prevail. The three poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) flourish in competition; the ten entanglements contest with each other to issue forth. The four violent flows of passion spread widely; the five corners that obscure the mind are deeply rooted in mysterious profundity. Wrong views and ignorance continuously reappear in great profusion. Consequently, life becomes precarious, like a leaning tree or a city under siege. The sweet taste of honey in one's mouth disappears quickly, the vine inside a well (i.e., the means of salvation) does not remain for long. Under a pine tree on a hill echoes the wailing of a broken man; in a broad street inside many gates voices moaning with sadness are heard. If all the beings of the human realm now repent—the creatures of "round head and square feet," which includes superior examples endowed with wisdom and inferior ones that are ignorant, and who live everywhere: in the western direction as far as Aparagodānīya, in the eastern direction as far as Pūrvavideha, in the north as far as Uttarakuru, and in the south as far as this Jambudvīpa world; some furthermore living in houses under roofs made of wooden boards and with curtains of woven wool, others with their bodies tattooed and with disheveled hair, drinking blood and eating fur, or nesting in caves and holes, polishing their hooves and blackening their teeth, or sleeping on their stomachs and crawling around, floating on Roshui like a hair, or climbing steep mountains with ropes, living in a remote city among barbarians, protected by armor and bearing a spear, or chained in prison; some carrying money on their shoulders or wielding wooden sticks in their hands— if all these beings were to make the vow to cultivate rites and polite conduct, human beings would acquire the virtues of filial piety on the part of those below and loving-kindness on the part of those above; wanton thoughts would cease and licentious desires would come to an end. The substance of these beings would become as solid as rock and metal; they would soar above other beings just like the sacred mountains Song and Hua. The eight kinds of suffering would not invade their lives and the nine calamities would have long been removed from them.

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2. Explanation of the Name

According to an explanation in the Posha lun (T.1546:49a13-14): Human beings are called by that name because the word means "to stop and cease." Because beings can "stop and cease" in that realm, which is one of the six realms of existence, it is called the realm of human beings. What is meant by this is that only in this realm among the six realms, beings can "stop and cease" giving rise to passions and evil disturbances. In no other realm than that of human beings can beings do this better. That is why the nature of this realm matches the meaning of "stopping and ceasing." In addition, the pronunciation for the word "human" (ren) is the same as that of the word "to bear," and this points to the fundamental similarity between the meaning of these words. Because these beings can peacefully "bear" a life that is sometimes at odds with the ways of the world, they are called by this name.

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:198a10-13) says:

Why is man called manusha (Skt. manuṣya)? There are eight reasons. (1) He is intelligent, (2) his conduct is superior, (3) his mind is refined, (4) he has the potential for supreme enlightenment, (5) his wisdom is superior, (6) he is capable of distinguishing the real from the unreal, (7) he is the correct vessel in which the holy Way may be placed, and (8) he is produced from the karmic effects of intelligent wisdom. For these reasons, man is called manuṣya.

The new Posha lun (T.1545:867c7-21) says:

Question: Why is this realm of rebirth called manuṣya? Answer: In the past there was a universal monarch called Māndhāta. He told the people, "Whatever you want to do, you must first think about it, take its measure, and observe." At that time people did just as the king taught them and whatever they wanted to do, they first thought about it, took its measure, and observed. In a variety of work requiring skills, they then turned out to be skillful. That was because they were able to use their minds (manas) and think and observe whatever they were doing. For this reason, human beings are called manuṣya.

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According to another view, because they perform to an increasing degree the lower category of subtle deeds of body, speech, and mind, beings are born in that realm and are made to continue their existence there. For this reason that realm is called that of human beings. According to yet another view, because they are arrogant, these beings are called human. It is because none of the beings in the five realms are as arrogant as human beings.

According to still another view, because they are capable of quieting the mind they are called human beings. It is because none of the beings in the five realms are as capable of quieting the mind as are human beings. For this reason, it is said in scripture that human beings are superior to gods in three things: (1) they are courageous, (2) they have a good memory, and (3) they can commit themselves to a life of purity. 3. Places Where Human Beings Reside

The new Posha lun (T.1545:867c25-868a14) says:

In the four realms under heaven, human beings live in the four great continents. They are Jambu[dvīpa], [Pūrva]videha, [Apara]godānīya, and [Uttara]kuru. Human beings also live in the eight subcontinents. What are the eight subcontinents? The continent of [Uttara]kuru has two subordinate continents: Kurava and Kauravā. The continent of [Purva]videha has two subordinate continents: Deha and Suhe (Videha?). The continent of [Apara]godānīya has two subcontinents: Śāṭha and Uttaramantriṇas. The continent of Jambu[dvīpa] has two subordinate continents: Cāmara and Faluozhemoluo (Cāmarāvara or Avaracāmara?). In these eight subcontinents people are short in height, just like dwarves in our world. According to one view, people live only in seven of the subcontinents. Only demons live in the subcontinent of Cāmara. According to another view, the eight that are mentioned here are nothing more than alternate names for the four main continents. This confusion arose because for each of the four continents two alternate names were given. If we are to follow this interpretation, as mentioned above each of these eight subcontinents has five hundred smaller subordinate continents. Human beings live in some of these smaller continents, non-humans in other, and still others are empty. 189

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Question: What is the outward appearance of the beings in the human realm like?

Answer: They stand upright. Human beings in Jambu[dvīpa] have faces that look like a wheeled carriage; human beings in [Purva]videha have faces that look like a half-moon; human beings in [Apara]godānīya have faces that look like a full moon; human beings in [Uttara]kuru have faces that look like a square pond.

Question: What are their languages like?

Answer: When the world first came into being everyone spoke the holy language (Sanskrit). Later, when beings began taking food and drink, inequalities developed and flattery and deception increased. Consequently, different languages developed and those who are unable to speak at all also appeared.

4. Karmic Causes

The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:894a16-20) presents four phrases to distinguish the different types of karmic causation: (1) "Karmic causation that results in physical pleasure but mental suffering" refers to ordinary beings in fortunate external circumstances; (2) "karmic causation that results in mental pleasures but physical suffering" refers to arhats in unfortunate external circumstances; (3) "karmic causation that results in both physical and mental pleasure" refers to arhats in fortunate external circumstances; and (4) "karmic causation that results in both physical and mental suffering" refers to ordinary beings in unfortunate external circumstances. In all these cases, everyone receives pleasure and suffering through karmic causation.

The Pusazang jing (Dabaoji jing, Pusazang hui, T.310:196a22-b1) says: At that time the World-honored One told the elder Xianshou, "The elder should know the following. As I observed all the sentient beings in the world, they were oppressed by ten situations of suffering. What are the ten? (1) They were oppressed by the suffering of birth. (2) They were oppressed by the suffering of old age. (3) They were oppressed by the suffering of illness. (4) They were oppressed by the suffering of death. (5) They were oppressed by the suffering of sadness. (6) They were oppressed 190

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by the suffering of resentment. (7) They were oppressed by the very fact of experiencing suffering. (8) They were oppressed by melancholy. (9) They were oppressed by the suffering of unbearable pains. (10) They were subjected to the oppression of the great of pain of repeated birth and death. I saw these ten kinds of suffering oppressing sentient beings. In order to attain supreme enlightenment and be released from these oppressions, with pure faith I abandoned the household of the Śākya clan and pursued the supreme Way. Furthermore, Elder [Xianshou], I observed that all sentient beings in the world, for innumerable world ages, commit millions and trillions of faults and are constantly struck by ten kinds of large poisoned arrows. What were the ten? They are (1) the poisoned arrow of love, (2) the poisoned arrow of ignorance, (3) the poisoned arrow of desire, 4) the poisoned arrow of greed, (5) the poisoned arrow of faults, (6) the poisoned arrow of stupidity, (7) the poisoned arrow of arrogance, (8) the poisoned arrow of biased views, (9) the poisoned arrow of the mistaken view of being, and (10) the poisoned arrow of the mistaken view of nonbeing. I saw sentient beings struck by these ten kinds of poisoned arrows and sought supreme enlightenment in order to put a stop to these poisoned arrows. For this reason, with pure faith I abandoned the household of the Śākya clan and pursued the supreme Way.

5. Noble and Humble Beings (Hierarchies of Social Status) If we are to speak in terms of the four directions, in the north in Uttarakuru there is no differentiation of noble and humble beings. The distinction between master and servant is absent there, and that is why there is no differentiation of noble and humble beings. In the other three directions differentiation of noble and humble beings is always present. Rulers, ministers, and common people are separated and in great households the masters and servants are distinguished. Therefore, noble and humble beings form different categories. Altogether these types can be classified into six groups: (1) the most noble group among the nobles, referring to such beings as universal monarchs, (2) the middle group among the nobles, referring to kings of small kingdoms, (3) the lowest group among the nobles, referring to many officials, (4) the humblest group among the humble, referring to developmentally challenged children, (5) the middle group among the humble, referring to servants and 306b

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slaves, and (6) the least extreme group among the humble, referring to princesses and maidservants. This is a rough and general classification. To attempt a more detailed, exhaustive classification would be difficult. 6. The Wealthy and the Poor (Socioeconomic Classes)

If we are to speak in terms of the four directions, the people in the north in Uttarakuru are the wealthiest and have the greatest equality [among the classes]. In the continents in the east and west, some are wealthy and others are poor. In the south, in Jambudvīpa, people are the most impoverished. The situations in the continents in the four directions all differ and are described in detail in the scriptures.

Again, in Jambudvīpa, the economic fortunes of people are not fixed. There are three categories. The highest category includes such beings as the universal monarch, who governs everywhere in the four directions and rules over the four oceans. Everything he needs is supplied without fail. The situation of the universal monarch is described in the scriptures. The universal monarch's powers, provided for him through the merits of his deeds in previous lives, are the greatest. When he renounces the householder's life five miraculous phenomena appear and seven jewels arrive through cosmic response. The five miraculous phenomena are (1) through cosmic response flowing springs and bathing ponds with calm and clear water appear everywhere in the world; (2) through cosmic response heavenly sweet dew appears in the palace courtyard, and when the monarch drinks the dew his body becomes light and his illnesses are cured; (3) through cosmic response the level of the great sea goes down by the length of one yojana, and roads of golden sand appear everywhere, on which the monarch travels around in the realm under the four heavens; (4) through cosmic response oxhead incense appears on the shores of the ocean; if the king picks it up and burns it the aroma is even stronger, and if he blows on it into the direction of the wind the fragrance reaches far to places forty miles away; if dead people smell this fragrance they come back to life; (5) the kācilindika bird is born in the ocean; if the monarch holds and touches its body he experiences a great sensation of comfort in body and mind, superior to any of the pleasures of the six senses. The following verse in the Wangsheng lun (T.1524:230c27-28) refers to this bird:

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The seven jewels that decorate the Pure Land are like grasses; They are soft and flexible and turn right and left.

If anyone touches these he feels extreme pleasure,

Greater than that given by the kācilindika bird.

[The universal monarch] has one thousand sons, endowed with seven jewels, courageous and fierce. (Note: This matter is described in the scripture mentioned above.) The second category of median wealth refers to people like the rulers of small kingdoms.

The third category of wealth, the lowest, refers to Jotika. (Note: There are also three categories of poverty and if you think about it you will be able to determine them for yourself.)

7. Suffering

In the realm of human beings there is no real pleasure and everything leads to suffering. Ignorant people think that there is pleasure, but informed people know that everything is suffering. Deluded views hold that there is pleasure but the view that corresponds to reality holds that everything is suffering. Therefore the Fu fazang jing (T.2058:302c27-303a5) says: Those who are suffering in different ways in the world all wish to obtain pleasure. But this body is not solid; it rots and is easily destroyed. Like bubbles, our bodies change and disappear after a moment's time. Even a handsome appearance to which people are very attached goes away and cannot be found anywhere anymore when the decline of old age sets in. Outside our bodies are covered with skin, which is decorative; pus and blood, which are impure, flow within. Conditioned phenomena are impermanent and in one moment of our life, extremely quickly, they come into being and go out again four hundred times. These phenomena may be compared to phenomena in the open sky, where clouds gather with thunder and lightning and strong winds blow, yet soon the clouds scatter, the wind ceases, and everything is back to normal again. The five kinds of desires (corresponding to the five sense organs) are unstable, just like the phenomena in the open sky. People may seek peaceful happiness together, yet given the effects of impermanence who will be left remaining in this 193

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state? The world is filled with many forms of suffering and it is difficult to remain in the world for long.

For this reason, we know that the human body consists only of suffering and impermanence. Reason dictates that we should abhor life and quickly seek liberation.

[The Fu fazang jing (T.2058:305c28-306a5) says:]

All conditioned phenomena are nothing but heaps of suffering—they are like a tumor or a latrine, or an arrow that has pierced a human heart. The wheel of life, old age, sickness, and death turns endlessly. Impermanence is the law of dissolution and rapid decay. Like a prisoner facing death, whose life cannot be said to be long-lasting, or a prisoner who has nothing he loves or for which he seeks, or a piece of fruit on the road that people find bitter and throw away, this body is to be reviled. It is bound to be reduced to nothing. After death crows, magpies, foxes, and wolves rush to eat it; blowing winds and exposure to the sun turn the body into a rotten and smelly lump; the hair and teeth are scattered around in disorderly fashion. Why should we be attached to a body like this? We should work diligently on the means of salvation and quickly seek liberation. Even the wealthy and noble gods are in the end bound to be reduced to nothing; even if they possess an attractive outward appearance inwardly they are in a state of constant despair and sadness.

For this reason, as it is said in the Dazhuangyan lun (T.201:264b27-28): It is like wearing a golden chain; the chain is good but it can be used to bind and tie up a person. The throne of a king is like this; the king is constantly despondent and fearful. [The person] is [constantly] thinking about protecting [what he has]. If he loses it, he is visited by great sorrow. It is as if we speak of pleasure precisely because food and clothing have been denied to us. Thoughts of pleasure go out of control in the midst of acute suffering

For this reason Piṇḍola spoke in verse to King Udayana (Pintoulutuluoshe wei Youtuoyanwang shuo jing, T.1690:785c20-786a4):

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Changes in the throne cannot be stopped even for a short while. Quickly, like electric lightning, In a moment it is reduced to decline and disappearance. The throne of a king is endowed with tremendous wealth. Ignorant ones truly yearn for it. But decline and disappearance come in no time, and The suffering of the mighty is greater than that of lowly and humble ones. The king occupies a high throne; His reputation fills the world in all ten directions. Being handsome and attractive,

He ornaments his body in a variety of ways. He is like someone who is about to die, Wearing a flowered headdress and necklaces. It will not be long before he gives up his life. The throne of a king is like this. The Buddha said that the example of someone about to die is just like a king:

They are both always afraid.

While walking, standing, and sitting down, all the time, Whether they are among familiar people or among strangers, they are always filled with suspicion and fear. Ministers, commoners, and queens and court ladies in the palace, Elephants, horses, and rare jewels, The land that belongs to the kingdom, and everything else, Are all the king's possessions.

Yet when a king is about to give up his life, All abandon him, and not one of any of these things will accompany him. Again, in the Niepan jing (T.374:373a26-b16; T.375:612c22-613a12) the Buddha says in verse:

In all the worlds,

Those who have been born are returned to death. Even if their life span is incalculably long, They are bound in the end to die. Those who prosper are bound to decline. 195

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I Things that come together will be separated. The vigorous years cannot last for long. A healthy condition will be invaded by illness. Life is swallowed by death.

There are no entities that exist permanently. Kings may be free to do anything they want, And their power may be unmatched. Yet everything changes and disappears. Our life span is also like this.

The wheel of suffering ceaselessly turns. Beings flow and turn on it without end. All three realms of rebirth are impermanent. There is no happiness in anything that exists. Even though the Way toward salvation must be based on reality, Everything that exists is empty and ultimately nonexistent. Entities that dissolve keep changing. In every instance, these entities eventually decline and become troubled. Fear is worse than any of the other evils. Old age, illness, and death bring distressing decline. In this realm where nothing exists permanently, Destruction and hatred easily enter. Everything is obscured by the passions, In the same way as the silkworm is [sequestered] within its silken cocoon. How could wise ones find happiness in this place? This body is constituted by suffering. Everything is impure.

Tied to catastrophes by ropes, our body is just like a tumor. There is nothing good at its very basis. Even superior bodies like those of the gods are also like this. All the objects of our desires are impermanent. Therefore, I do not become attached to them or hunger for them. Leaving desire behind, I direct my thought skillfully, And achieve realization of the truth. Therefore, Honorable Piṇḍola[-Bhāradvāja] said to the king (Pintoulutuluoshe wei Youtuoyanwang shuo jing, T.1690:786b25c1): 196

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Great king, please observe the matter well. What objects of the five desires are permanent? Is there a king's throne that remains stable for a long time? Which kingdoms maintain their borders without having the size of their territory reduced? What rare jewels are free from eventual loss and dispersion? Which pleasures based on desire are permanent and unchanging? Which entities come together and do not scatter apart again? All the objects of the five desires are in their essence nothing but suffering. They all arise from deluded thought and take shape as "pleasures."

For this reason, even a king's throne is [a place of] suffering and there is no peace in it. The situation is similar to that of the man who saw things in a dream and when he woke up realized that the things of which he dreamed were not real. For this reason, wise people should feel revulsion toward [samsaric] existence and take leave of it, and then immediately realize that everything, both within and outside of ourselves, changes—all is impermanent. Even though coarse and fine entities appear to be different, in one moment the difference [between them] disappears and the two become the same. For this reason it is said in the Nirvana Sutra (T.374:588b15-19; T.375: 836a20-26) that because forms are suffering the distinction of the ten periods of time appears. The ten periods are the stages of (1) membrane, (2) foam, (3) froth, (4) lump of flesh, (5) limbs, (6) infant, (7) childhood, (8) youth, (9) adult, and (10) declining old age. If any of these stages was not impermanent the progression from the membrane stage to the stage of old age and death would not take place.

The ferocious fire of the three poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) burns the mind ceaselessly. Therefore, we are pained by this suffering. (Note: According to the scriptures there are many kinds of human beings. Details have been given above in the part on the four realms under heaven in the section on the three realms of existence.)

Miracle Stories

(Note: Eighteen stories are listed here briefly.)

The Chunqiu wei, Yangong tu chapter, says:

Confucius was ten chi tall and nine wei around the middle. When he was sitting he looked like a squatting dragon; when he stood he looked like a 197

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The Wuyue chunqiu says:

Wu Zixu had an audience with King Liao of Wu. Liao saw from a distance that Wu Zixu's appearance was extremely fearsome—he was over one zhang and ten wei wide, and the distance between his eyebrows was one foot in length. King Liao spoke with him for three days and Wu Zixu did not repeat the same words even once. Wu Zixu knew that the king liked him. Every time he entered the palace to talk to the king, Wu Zixu appeared strong and relaxed; he had an air about him of great courage and fortitude. The Liang ji says:

Lü Guang, styled Shiming, formed alliances with powerful and wise people and provided for the strongmen who attended him. He was eight chi and four zun (inches) tall, his eyes had double pupils, and flesh protruded from his left elbow. By nature he was grave and careful, while when discussing strategies he was open and relaxed. He was accessible and prepared to consider a wide range of possibilities. His contemporaries did not know about him. Only Wang Meng, when he was still a private citizen, marveled at him, saying, "This man is an extraordinary person." The Hetu wei, Yuban chapter, says:

If you go ninety thousand li to the north of Mount Kunlun, you reach the kingdom of Longbo. The human beings who live there are thirty zhang tall. They live for eighteen thousand years before they die. If you go eastward from Mount Kunlun, you reach the kingdom of Great Qin. The human beings there are ten zhang tall. From there if you go one hundred thousand miles to the east, you reach the kingdom of Tiao. The human beings there are three zhang and five chi tall. From there, if you go one hundred thousand miles to the east, you reach the kingdom of Zhongqin. The human beings there are one zhang tall.

The Hetu wei, Longyu chapter, says:

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At each of the eastern, western, southern, and northern poles of heaven there are soldiers with copper and iron foreheads. They are thirty million zhang tall, and there are three trillion of them. At each of the eastern, western, southern, and northern poles of heaven there are diamond warriors who do not fear death. They are thirty million zhang tall, and there are three trillion of them. In the City of Great Peace in the middle of heaven, there are armed soldiers who are steel-faced ghosts that eat everything. They are thirty million zhang tall, and there are three trillion of them. The Wuxing zhuan, Hongfan, says:

At the time of the First Emperor of Qin, giants appeared. They were five zhang tall and their footprints were six chi in diameter. The barbarian tribes were subjugated by them. They were seen in the sky above Lintao. The people of Qin said, "We should not let them prevail among the barbarians; that will cause calamities." The Weizhi says, "People in the Indian kingdom are all one zhang and eight chi tall. Men and women in the kingdom of Cheli are both eight chi tall." The Weizhi also says:

In the second year of the Xianxi period (265) in Xiangwu, an oracular statement appeared: "A large human being will appear. He will be over three zhang tall, and his footprints will be three chi and two zun in diameter. White-haired, he will wear a single layer of yellow clothing and a yellow hat. He will raise his staff and call to the people." The king began to say, "The Age of Great Peace is upon us now."

The Shenyi jing says:

There is an unusual kind of human being who lives in the southeast direction. These beings travel everywhere under heaven. They are seven chi tall, and they are measure the same around the middle. The hair on their heads is disheveled and they do not take regular food or drink. In the morning they swallow three thousand evil ghosts and three hundred [more] in the evening. They simply swallow them, they do not chew. The ghosts are the food of these beings and mist and dew are their drink. They are 199

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There is an unusual kind of human being who lives beyond the ocean in the northwest direction. They are two thousand li tall, and the distance between their two legs is one thousand miles. The measurement around their abdomens is one thousand six hundred miles. They only drink two and half sheng of wine (Note: heavenly wine and sweet dew.), and they do not eat the five kinds of grain or meat. When hungry they raise their faces toward heaven and then they feel satiated. They love to roam around the mountains and oceans. They do not commit violence on common people, nor do they harm any of the ten thousand things in the universe. They form one living organism with heaven and earth. They are called "people of no roads" (Note: The reason for the expression "no road" is that they do not consider high rank or great reputation as their way.) They are also called "humanity" (ren). (Note: In ceremonies they are called "people of humanity.") Another name [for them] is "trustworthiness." (Note: In ceremonies they are called "people of trustworthiness"). Another name [for them] is "spirits." (Note: They live as one organism with heaven and earth and never die. That is why they are called "spirits.") The Shuwang benji says, "During the reign of Prince Xiang of Qin, there was a man of Xiangchang in the Dangqu Commandery who was twenty-five zhang and six chi tall."

The Waiguo tu says, "Human beings who live in the kingdom of Great Qin are over one zhang and five chi tall. They have long arms and are very skillful at riding camels."

The Shi wei, Hanshenwu chapter, says, "At the northeastern pole there live human beings who are nine cun tall."

The Guoyü says, "Confucius said, 'People of the kingdom of Jiaoyao are three chi tall. They are the shortest people.'"

The Xiyu zhuan, Weilue, says:

The kingdom of dwarves is located to the northwest of Kangju (Sogdiana). 200

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Both the men and women there are three chi tall and they are very numerous. According to the local tradition in Kangju, a merchant once lost his way and arrived at this kingdom. There were many pearls and fluorescent jewels in the kingdom. After crossing this kingdom the merchant traveled more than ten thousand miles before he arrived at Kangju. The Weilue says:

In southern Japan there is a kingdom of dwarves. Human beings there are three or four chi tall. This kingdom is located over four thousand li away from the kingdom of the female ruler.

The Waiguo tu says:

The people of Jiaoyao are one chi and six cun tall. When a headwind blows toward them they lean backward; when a tailwind blows over them they lean forward. They have all the usual facial features, like eyes and eyebrows. They only sleep outdoors. According to one source, [the people of] Jiaoyao are three chi tall. In their kingdom grasses and trees die in summer and come back to life in winter. The kingdom is located thirty thousand li from Mount Jiuyi.

The Liezi says:

Forty thousand miles eastward from the central continent of China lies the kingdom of Jiaoyao. People there are one chi and five cun tall. At the northeastern pole live the people called Jingren, who are nine inches tall. In the twenty-sixth year of the First Emperor of Qin, giants over thirtytwo feet in height appeared. Their footprints were six feet in diameter. All the barbarian tribes bowed down before them. Twelve of these people appeared at Lintao. Confucius said, "People of the kingdom of Jiaoyao are three feet tall. They are the shortest people." Even the tallest human beings are not taller than ten feet. Ten is the highest of numbers. Now we hear about human beings who are five zhang tall. These must be exceptions. In this year the Qin kingdom for the first time annexed the six states. They were happy and regarded the appearance of the giants as an auspicious sign. They smelted metal and produced twelve images of them. They established fortresses in the Five Peaks in the south and constructed the 201

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Great Wall in the north. The wall went through Lintao in the west and reached Liao dong, spanning a distance of several thousand miles. This is why the giants first appeared at Lintao: they indicated the place where troubles would first occur. Twelve years later, the rule of Qin came to an end. (Note: The twelve stories above were all taken from historical records.) In the fourth year after Wang Mang established his state (12 C.E.), shadows of dwarves, only a little more than one chi tall, were observed at Chiyang. Some of these dwarves were riding on a carriage and others were walking on foot; they were handling numerous things, large and small. They themselves said that this event would end in three days.

According to the Guanzi, in the marsh that had been dried up for hundreds of years, in an impassable valley where water wells up incessantly, the water monsters called qingji are born. The qingji have an appearance like that of human beings. They are four zun tall, wear yellow clothes and yellow headdresses. Carrying yellow umbrellas, they ride on small horses and are skillful horsemen, galloping around everywhere. If you call them by their name, even if they happen to be one thousand li away, they respond immediately. Thus, the shadows observed at Chiyang might well have been the qingji. Also, according to the same work, in a small pond that has long been dried up live frog spirits. The frog spirits have one head and two bodies; their appearance is like that of a snake. They are eight feet long. If you call one by its name you can use it to catch fish and turtles. (Note: These two stories are found in the Sousheng ji.)

3. Demons (Asuras)

(Note: This is divided into seven parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name, (3) Dwelling Places, (4) Karmic Causes [for Rebirth], (5) Attendants, (6) Food and Clothing, and (7) Battles. 1. Introduction

We shall now discuss the realm of the asura demons. Those born in this realm in their pathological thought always suspect that they are not being treated the same as others; some organize rebellions and engage in battles; they also lead troops to do battle with and conquer each other. They are tall and large in appearance but always look tired and hungry. Their bodies are 202

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rough and coarse and they are always angry. Standing tall, they are fearsome; accompanied by others who are equally tall they take people by surprise. All have three heads and eight arms that protrude from their bodies in layers. Striding over mountains and walking upon the ocean, they grasp the sun and hold the clouds up high. In heaven they seek banquets and they ferment wine in the ocean.

Such beings all take refuge in the Three Jewels. Particularly, the asura kings Śambara and others, the attendants of Vemacitra, the peers of Khara skandha, and furthermore the retinues of Bali and his brother Rāhu, or the like-minded Śācī and Batuo (Bhadrā?)—they all vow to get rid of their arrogance and practice to remove their tendency toward flattery. Their palace halls are illuminated, with rich and luxurious carpets of orchid flowers everywhere. When a ceasefire is declared and warfare ceases their anger disappears and greed does not arise. The suffering from double-edged swords is no more; the pain, continuous like a lotus root thread, is forever eliminated. Happily listening to the right Dharma and thirstily looking up to the Great Vehicle, they give up their tired and ugly bodies and accept a handsome form; they protect the state's borders, as well as the state and the ruling house. Building the city of Dharma, they contribute to the cause of wisdom's sun. 2. Explanation of the Name

Why are these creatures called "demons" (asuras)? According to the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:198a3-5):

Demons are unable to tolerate good deeds nor can they repent of their infractions. Even when they listen to various teachings their minds are unmoved. Because they are arrogant they are not good young men, but because they are not gods either they are called demons. The name axiulo is given in other scriptures as axulun. Now, according to the new Posha lun (T.1545:868b4-6):

In the Sanskrit text the correct sound (for the root of this word?) is given as suluo. Suluo means "gods." Because these creatures are not gods, however, they are called asuluo (i.e., "not gods.") Furthermore, suluo also means "handsome." Because these creatures are not handsome they are called asuluo.

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The Chang ahan jing says:

[Asura] demons give birth to handsome girls and ugly boys. For this reason, they are called "not handsome." Sometimes they are called "not drinking." There are two interpretations of the significance of this name. According to the first, these creatures upheld the precept of not drinking in their past lives, and because of the karmic effect of this conduct they are called "not drinking." According to the second interpretation, they originally were very fond of wine. In the realm under the four heavens they gathered flowers and scattered them over the ocean in order to ferment the seawater into wine. This did not work, however, and the water of the ocean turned into saltwater. Because they could not obtain wine they were forced to abandon wine completely. Therefore, they are called deities that do not drink wine. The Posha lun (ref. T.1546:50a6-21) says:

Some say that [the asura] demons belong to the realm of the gods, but because their minds are crooked they are not firmly established as gods. Some say they belong to the realm of hungry ghosts (pretas). As illustrated by the fact that the god Śakra's consort Śācī was an asura demon, however, they are able to mate with gods.

Therefore, the Gāthā-sūtra says that some of the [asura] demons are ghosts, some animals, and some gods.

The Zhengfanian jing (T.721:107a13-14) says "Some are ghosts and some animals."

Some say that [the asuras] are inferior gods. The designation "inferior god" applies to Vemacitra. The name Vemacitra means "loud sounds"; it also means "cave-dweller." When a loud sound is heard at the bottom of the great ocean he shouts "I am Vemacitra." For this reason, he is called "loud sounds." He lives in a cave in the ocean. Therefore, he is called "cave-dweller." 3. Dwelling Places

The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:107a-124c) says:

[Asura] demons live in five locations. The first location is on the earth in the middle of a mountain range. The demons who live there are the weakest. The second location is to the north of Mount Sumeru. If you go into the 204

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ocean for a distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas there is a place where a demon lives. His name is Rāhu and this monster rules over a host of an infinite number of demons. If you go another three times the distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas you reach a place where another demon lives. His name is Yongjian. If you go another four times the distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas, there is a place where another demon lives. His name is Huaman (Śambara?). If you go further twice the distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas, you come to a place where yet another demon lives. His name is Vemacitra. The voice of this demon goes through the ocean and is heard outside of the ocean. He says, "I am the demon Vemacitra." For this reason this demon is called Loud Sounds. As for the mother of Vemacitra, the Chang ahan jing (ref. Guanfo sanmei hai jing, T.643:646c14-647a18) says:

At the very beginning of the world age the god Guangyin (Light and Sound) went into the ocean to wash his body. A water spirit entered his body and planted one egg. After eight thousand years a girl was born. Her body was shaped like Mount Sumeru. She had nine hundred and ninetynine heads and each head had one thousand eyes. There were nine hundred and ninety-nine separate mouths, and each mouth had four tusks. At the end of each tusk was a flame that looked like thunder and lightning. There were twenty-four legs and nine hundred and ninety-nine hands. At one time this girl was bathing and playing in the ocean. A water spirit entered her body and planted an egg. Again, after eight thousand years Veracitra was born. He had nine heads and each head had one thousand eyes. Water was constantly coming out of his mouth. He had nine hundred and ninetynine hands and only six legs. A female gandharva gave birth to Śācīrāhu, who was chosen by the god Indra (Śakra) as his consort. The asura demon Rāhu is also called Zhangriyue (Obstructing the Sun and Moon); he stands at the front of Indra's army and directs the light of the sun toward the asura demons, blinding them so that they do not see the army of gods approaching. Therefore the asura demons hold their hands up to block the rays of the sun. They are powerful and fight with the gods frequently. The new Posha lun (T.1545:868b17-b23, 29-c17) says:

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Question: To where do the asuras retire?

[Answer:] According to one view, inside Mount Sumeru is a vacant space. The mountain thus resembles a treasure bowl that has been placed upside down. Inside this empty space is a city, and that where the asuras live. Question: According to a scripture, an asura said, "The ocean in which we live has the same uniform salty taste." If the village where they live is located within the salty ocean, how could the asura king live inside a mountain?

[Answer:] According to one view, on top of the golden wheel inside the salty ocean is a large golden platform, five hundred yojanas in both height and width. There is a city on top of the platform, and that is where the asura king lives. The asura king also has four gardens; the first is called Auspicious Happiness, the second Delight and Joy, the third Utmost Joy, and the fourth Attractive. Just as in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods there is the pārijātaka tree, so too in the asura king's residence there is also a tree.

Question: What do the asura demons look like?

Answer: They stand upright.

Question: What is their language?

Answer: They all speak the holy language (Sanskrit).

Question: To which of the six realms of rebirth do they belong? Answer: According to one view, they belong to the realm of the gods; according to another they belong to the realm of the hungry ghosts. The Qishi jing (T.24:336a10b3; 337c26-338a25) says:

One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the east and under the ocean is the land of the asura king Vemacitra. The living space is eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth. It is surrounded by seven balustrades and seven layers of gold and silver nets with bells. Outside there are seven lines of tāla trees. All these are made of seven jewels. They are decorated elaborately in a manner that cannot be described completely. Inside the big city is a palace standing by itself, called Shemopoti. The palace is ten thousand yojanas in width and depth, and is surrounded by seven walls, all of which are made of seven jewels. The walls are one hundred yojanas tall and fifty yojanas wide. Inside the garden are ponds, flowers, and fruit, 206

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and birds singing harmoniously. (Note: More complete descriptions are found in the original passage in the scripture; details have been abbreviated here). One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the south and under the ocean is the palace of the asura king Yongyue. His palace is eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth. One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the west and under the ocean is the palace of the asura king Śambara. His palace is eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth. One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the north and under the ocean is the palace of the asura king Rāhu. His palace is eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth (Note: The palace where Rāhu lives is similarly beautiful as those mentioned above.) The city of Mopodi is where the [asura] king lived. The asura king Rāhu held meetings at a palace, which was also called Seven Heads. This palace was eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth, and was surrounded by seven walls and seven layers of balustrades. These were made of seven jewels. On all four sides, to the left and close by, innumerable numbers of minor asura demons are gathered.

Details cannot be given exhaustively here. (Note: They are explained in the sutra.)

4. Karmic Causes [for Rebirth]

The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:893a24-28) says:

The ten [evil] deeds that lead to rebirth as an asura demon are: (1) minor evil conduct of the body, (2) minor evil conduct of speech, (3) minor evil conduct of thought, (4) giving rise to the arrogance that despises others, (5) giving rise to the arrogance that assumes that one's own body and mind are permanent, (6) giving rise to the arrogance of falsely claiming that one has attained enlightenment, (7) giving rise to great arrogance, (8) giving rise to the arrogance of falsely claiming to have virtue, (9) giving rise to the arrogance of claiming to be superior to those who actually are superior to oneself, and (10) directing the karmic effects of all good deeds to rebirth in the realm of the asura demons.

The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:108c7-109a16; 109b11-113a9; 113c25-114a8; 114b12-124c14) discusses generally the four different kinds of karmic 207

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causes for rebirth as an asura demon. This work appears to summarize the teachings of other scriptures. For the most part we attain rebirth in the asura realm through three kinds of causes: anger, arrogance, and doubt. The Za ahan jing (ref. Za piyu jing, T.207:526c11-19) says: In a previous life an asura demon was once a poor man, who lived near a riverbank. He regularly crossed the river to collect firewood. At one time the river water became very deep and the current very fast and strong. Several times the man was carried away by the water and almost lost his life. At that time a pratyekabuddha visited the house and begged for food. The people of the house were delighted and gave food to him. After eating the food, the pratyekabuddha flew into the sky and went away. When the poor man saw this, he was led to make a vow: "In my later rebirth I vow to obtain a body so large that the deepest waters will not come above my knees." Because of this development, the asura obtained an extraordinarily large body. The waters of the four oceans do not reach above his knees. If he stands up in the ocean, his body rises higher than the summit of Mount Sumeru. He can let his hand rest on top of that mountain and look down on the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. 5. Attendants

The Zhengfanian jing (T.721:108c01-5) says:

The first king of the asura demons, Rāhu, has four jade women, who had been born from memories: (1) Shadowlike, (2) Fragrances, (3) Beautiful Forest, and (4) Superior Virtue. Each of these ladies was attended by twelve million maidens. They all attend the king of the asura demons and entertain themselves together. They indulge in sense pleasures freely in ways that cannot be described in detail. The second king is called Yongjian, more powerful than the first king. The third king is called Huaman (Śambara), and is even more powerful than the second. The fourth king is called Vemacitra. His power and the number of his attendants are many times greater than that of the third, beyond calculation. As for the other ministers, court ladies, and various servants, their numbers too are incalculable. For this reason, we know that the gap between noble and humble asura kings is very wide, and they cannot be discussed in a uniform manner . 208

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6. Food and Clothing

The Zhengfanian jing (T. 721) says:

The food and clothing of the asura demons appear spontaneously by themselves. The garlands of their crowns and their clothing are all made of seven jewels, and are just as fresh and clean as those of the gods. The food they eat appears just when they think of them, and all are as variously delicious as the gods' foods.

The Dazhidu lun says:

The [asuras'] food and clothing are superior to those of human beings. When the food is actually eaten, however, it is no longer as good as human beings' food. In other words, when the asura demons eat their food, the last mouthful turns into blue-green mud, like the food of a dragon (nāga) king. This food is varied and delicious with a hundred flavors, but when the king actually eats the food the last mouthful turns into a toad. For this reason the scripture says that an asura king's food is not as good as that of human beings.

7. Battles

The Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:560c7-18) says:

At that time the Buddha said to the monks, "No being has been given a larger body than the king of the asura demons. Its height and width are eighty-four thousand yojanas. Its mouth is one thousand yojanas in width and height. When [the asura] was about to touch the sun, his body doubled in size to one hundred and sixty thousand yojanas. When he appeared before the sun and moon, the kings of the sun and moon both became afraid and were no longer at peace in their places. This was because the body of the asura king was so fearful [to behold]. The kings of the sun and moon were frightened and their light disappeared. "However, the asura demon did not dare go forward to seize the sun and moon. This was because the sun and moon are endowed with great supernatural powers. Their life spans are extremely long and in appearance they are most handsome. They enjoy pleasures endlessly. [The specific length of their life span ] is the period of one world age (kalpa). Furthermore, 209

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the beings in this world came to rescue [the sun and moon]. Consequently, the sun and moon were beyond the reach of the asura demon. The asura demon then became distressed and disappeared into its own place." The Chang ahan jing (ref. T.1:141a22-29; 142c29-144a12) says: The asura demon is very powerful and says to himself, "These gods of the Heaven of Thirty-Three Gods and the gods of the sun and moon move above my head. I vow to seize them and turn them into earrings." He became more and more angry and wanted to strike them. So he ordered the two asura kings Śambara and Vemacitra and their ministers to make preparations to engage in battle with the gods. At this time the two dragons Nanda and Upananda encircled Mount Sumeru seven times with their long bodies. The mountain moved and was covered by clouds. When they hit the surface of the great ocean with their tails, the waves covered Mount Sumeru. The gods of the Heaven of Thirty-Three Gods said, "The asuras are about to begin a battle." Many dragons and supernatural beings, holding weapons, went into battle, one after the other. The outcome of the battle went against them and they all fled. In front of the palace of the god of the four heavens they armed their vehicles to engage in combat. The god of the four heavens first reported the situation to the god Indra (Śakra), who in turn reported to higher deities, up to the deity of the highest heaven of the realm of desire. Numerous gods as well as dragons and other supernatural beings surrounded them. Indra gave the command, saying, "If our army turns out to be victorious, bind the asura Vemacitra with five bonds and bring him to the Hall of Good Dharma. I would like to have a look at him." The asura demon also said, "If our army turns out to be victorious, bind Indra with five bonds and bring him to the Hall of Seven Leaves. I would like to have a look at him."

The great battle began immediately but neither was injured. Only their bodies touched each other, which caused them both great pain. Then Indra manifested a body that had one thousand eyes, holding a vajra that emitted smoke and fire. When the asura demon saw this, he retreated in defeat. The gods then captured Vemacitra and brought him back to Indra (Śakra). Seeing him from a distance Vemacitra abused Indra. Indra responded, "I 210

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would like to discuss morality with you. Do not abuse me. The life span in heaven is one thousand years; a few live longer and most do not live that long. With your evil intentions you fight well in battle. Furthermore, you have violated the precepts. Yet even though you are unreliable in speech, because you have given generously for spiritual purposes you have been reborn in this form. (Note: According to another scripture, the asura had been reborn in that form because even though he had not been straightforward in thought he had indeed cultivated meritorious deeds.) The Guanfo sanmei jing (T.643:646c27-647b10) says:

As for the king of asuras, Vemacitra, whose mother eats ghosts, eats only by chewing mud and lotus roots. When this demon grew up he saw that the gods were attended by maidservants. He said to his mother, "Everyone has a consort. Why am I the only one who is alone?" His mother replied, "In Fragrant Hill (Gandhamādana) lives a supernatural being called a gandharva. That supernatural being has a beautiful daughter, is as white as white jade. Beautiful music can be heard coming from all the pores on her body. It would please me greatly for you to have her as your wife. Do you want her?" The asura demon said, "Good, good. I would like you to go there and ask for her."

The mother then went to Fragrant Hill and said to the god of music (gandharva), "I have a son who is so powerful that he is free to do anything [he wishes]. There is no other being in the realm under the four heavens as powerful as he. You have a good daughter. You should let my son marry her." When the daughter heard about this proposal, she wished to happily return with the mother and marry her son.

Not long after the asura demon married the girl she became pregnant, and after eight thousand years she gave birth to a baby girl. The child was exceptionally beautiful; there was no one comparable to her either in heaven or in the realm under heaven. She had eight thousand four hundred attractive facial expressions and she could strike eight thousand four hundred attractive poses, both to the right and to the left, and likewise on the front and back sides [of her body]. When the asura demon saw her he thought that she was extraordinary. It was as if the moon had taken the 211

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place of the stars. She was indeed quite remarkable. Kauśika (the surname of the god Indra in his human life) heard about her and requested her as his wife. The asura demon was delighted and gave her to him to be his wife. Kauśika became the god Indra (Śakra) and called his wife Yueyi. All the gods who saw her marveled at her beauty, exclaiming that such beauty had never before existed. When they looked at her to the east, they forgot all about the western direction; when they saw her to the south, they forgot about everything in the northern direction. Every one of her features, including the hair on her head, gave pleasure. Indra was very fond of his garden and bathed in the pond there with a number of maidservants. Yueyi became jealous and sent five yakṣa demons to her father, saying, "Now Indra does not bestow love on me; he only plays with maidservants." When her father heard these words, he became very angry. Mobilizing the four kinds of troops (i.e., soldiers mounted on elephants, horses, and chariots, and foot soldiers), he attacked Indra (Śakra). There in the midst of the great ocean, sitting atop Mount Sumeru, with his ninety-nine hands he attacked the city in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods and caused Mount Sumeru to move. The waters of the four great oceans made huge waves. Indra was taken by surprise and did not know where to go. At that time a supernatural being told the god, "Do not be greatly frightened. In the past the Buddha preached the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. The king recited the scripture over and over again and the army of ghosts was crushed by itself. Then Indra (Śakra) sat in the Hall of Good Dharma, burned many famous types of incense, and made a great vow: "The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra is a great spell. It is the supreme spell. It is an incomparably wonderful spell. It is truly effective. I uphold this teaching and will realize the Buddha's Way in order to make the asura demons flee without any effort on my part." When he said these words a wheel of swords appeared in the sky. This was due to Indra's merit. Spontaneously the wheel began to come down right on top of the asura demon, severing its ears, nose, arms, and legs, which then fell into the water of the great ocean. They looked red, like a pearl in a clam. The asura demon was amazed and frightened. Not knowing where to flee, he scrambled about and crawled into a lotus filament.

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Miracle Stories

(Note: Three stories are briefly cited.)

The Xiguo zhuan (Record of the Western Regions) says: In a rocky valley to the south west of the kingdom of Campa in Central India there is a cave of asura demons. A man was traveling around the mountains, engaged in religious practice, and came across this cave by accident. He then went inside the cave and saw the palace of the asura demons. It was marvelously beautiful, almost like the palace of the gods in heaven. The pond in the garden and the forest of fruit trees cannot be described fully in detail.

When the asura demons saw the unexpected arrival of the man [in their palace], they said, "Can you stay here for long?" The man answered, "I wish to return home." When the asura demons saw that he did not wish to stay they gave him a peach, and when the man had finished eating it the asura demons said, "You should get out quickly. I am afraid your body is growing larger and the cave will not be big enough to contain it." As soon as the demons finished saying this, the man ran to escape. He grew taller and his body became rough and large. He managed to get his head out of the cave but his body had become so large that became stuck in the cave and in the end he could not get out.

Several hundred years have passed since then. Only the man's head can be seen from the outside, and it resembles three large jars. When people see it they tell this story to each other. Taking pity on him, one man offered, "We can carve the rock to let you get out. How about that?" The head answered, "I would be grateful." The man then reported this in detail to the ruler of the kingdom. The ruler consulted his ministers, who said, "This extraordinary man must be so strong that he alone could fight against a thousand soldiers. If we were to carve away the rock and let him get out but then something unexpected happens, no one could control him." So they left the large man stuck in the rock cave as before. People at that time called him the Large-headed Sage.

An emissary from the Chinese kingdom of Tang, Wang Xuance, went to that place three times, and spoke to the man, patting the large head 213

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[affectionately]. He could clearly understand what the head said. Recently there was a forest fire on the mountain and the head was burned black. Yet the man with the large burned head is still alive. The Record of the Western Regions was compiled in sixty fascicles as a national project and submitted to the throne. By imperial edict learned scholars were ordered to produce paintings and drawings to accompany the sixty-fascicle record, and these were collected at the government's central office. This constituted altogether forty fascicles. The project began at the beginning of the third year of the Linde period (666 C.E.) and ended in the summer of the first year of Qianfeng period (667 C.E.). I have met [Wang] Xuance, who told me the details of this story.

The Biography of Dharma Master Xuanzang says:

The kingdom of Dhanakataka belongs to South India. Both on the eastern and western sides of the capital city are mountains, and there are large temples in these mountains. In one of these temples was a master of doctrinal treatises, Bhāviveka. (Note: His name in Chinese is Qingbian.) Before Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva he made a vow to stop eating grain and to drink only water for three years. He was determined and prayed to see Maitreya Bodhisattva. Then Avalokiteśvara manifested his material body and ordered Qingbian to go to the deity Vajrapāṇi, who was staying in a large cave in the mountain to the south of the city, and to recite the vajra spell (dhāraṇī).

After three years the deity gave him this instruction, "Inside the cave is the palace of the asura demons. If you follow the correct way and make a proper request a rock door will open. Go through the door and bring out Maitreya, who will be waiting there. I will make sure that you will succeed in this act." After another three years had passed, Qingbian uttered the spell and threw a pepper seed at the rock wall , and suddenly the wall opened wide. Hundreds of thousands of people were present there and all were amazed to see this. The master stepped through the gate and looking back, again and again, he told the people to follow him, but only six people followed him. Others were afraid and did not enter, saying that poisonous snakes lived in the cave. After the master had gone inside, the rock doors closed up and formed an intact wall again.

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Dharma Master Xuanzang also told the following story: In the thirteenth year of Zhenguan (639 C.E.) [I] was at Nālanda Monastery in the kingdom of Magadha in Central India. [I] met a layman, who told me, "There was a man who loved women. Every time he heard scripture recited he noted that the male offspring of the asura demons are extremely ugly but the female offspring are attractive. He had heard that there was an asura cave in a nearby mountain and that there was a extremely beautiful palace there, as refined as the palace of the gods in heaven. That man thought that he would like to meet an asura's daughter and marry her. He practiced spells diligently for three years, and when the three-year period was about to end his wish was granted. This man had long been a close friend of mine. When he was about to go to the cave, he invited me to accompany him on his trip to the palace of asura demons. At that time I went with him, and since the spell had become effective, we arrived at the gate of the palace.

"The guard at the gate looked very serious. My friend asked the guard, sincerely and passionately, to let him pass through the gate to see the lady of the palace. The guard reported the reason of our visit in detail to those inside. The lady of the asura demon was delighted and asked the guard, 'How many people have come?' The guard replied, 'There are two people.' The lady said to the guard, 'The one who uttered the spell may come in. The one who accompanied him will stay outside the gate.' He returned and said, 'The one who recited the spell may come in.' I had no sensation of how this happened, but as I watched my friend being led inside my body was suddenly back at my own house, and I was standing to the south of the building.

"From then on I have never heard any news about my friend. Because of this I made the commitment to renounce the householder's life and cultivate the religious path. I vowed to make offerings to the Three Jewels in this temple building." This man told this story in detail to Dharma Master Xuanzang.

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