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Chapter Three

The Sun and Moon

(Note: This contains thirteen parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Lunar Mansions, (3) The Sun Palace, (4) The Moon Palace, (5) Climate, (6) Illumination, (7) Waxing and Waning, (8) Rising Clouds, (9) Thunder, (10) Lightning, (11) Rainfall, (12) Irregular Weather, and (13) Earthquakes. 1. Introduction

Before the universe came into being, the two foundations of yin and yang had not yet manifested. After sentient beings accumulated grain the three lights (sun, moon, and stars) shone on them, activating the deep compassion of jewel-like will and issuing forth the mysterious thought of auspiciousness. Harnessing the yang spirit, they let the light flow. Clarifying the yin soul, they make the stars rise. Like galloping windhorses, they move in their courses. In accordance with the measurements of astronomical instruments, they travel in the right degrees. They order heat and coldness properly for the three time units of the year. They move from morning to evening through the four continents. Even though the patterns are above, in the sky, they serve as signs below on earth. Just as if their virtue matches the Original Goodness [of the Book of Documents], they travel along the ecliptic circle (huangdao). Their logic differs from that of human relationships and is comparable to that of fish and water; mirrors are transported along the profound paths and circle around the three lunar stations. Praising good words, they demonstrate their effects with auspicious events that appear at the fivefold turning points of the year. Showing evil omens, they discipline the evil ones. By looking up at the mysterious mirrors we look upon our own lives in terms of reward and punishment. Great is the use of the sun and moon!

2. Lunar Stations

The Daji jing (T.397:274a13-275c29, 282a19-b26) says:

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Then the dragon king Sāgara said to Jyotirasa Bodhisattva, "Great being, who has spoken about the lunar stations? Who made the larger and smaller stars? Who made the sun and moon? Who placed them in empty space? Thirty days form a month and twelve months a year. How are these time units determined? To which location [in the sky] do they belong? What are their clan names and personal names? What are their good and evil qualities? What do they eat and what should we give them as offerings? How are their days and how are their nights? The sun, moon, and lunar stations—at what pace do they move? You rank as the first among sages. Take pity on us dragons and explain these matters fully. Having heard your explanation, we who seek release from suffering will serve these stars." Jyotirasa Bodhisattva replied to the dragons, "In the past, at the beginning of the present age of the wise, there was a god called Mahāsammata. He was unusually handsome and intelligent. He governed with correct conduct and always took pleasure in quiet meditation. Staying away from love and attachment, he always kept himself pure. The king had a queen, who was greedy with sexual desire. Because the king no longer cared for her, she had no way to satisfy her need.

One time she saw a donkey with an erect penis; sexually aroused, she took off her clothes and approached it. The donkey saw her and they had sexual intercourse. Consequently, she became pregnant and at the end of one month gave birth to a child. His head, ears, mouth, and eyes were all like those of a donkey; only his body was shaped like a human body, but it too was covered with coarse hair, just like the body of an animal. When she saw this creature she was frightened and immediately threw him into the toilet. Due to his power of merit, however, he hovered in the air and did not fall.

At that time a female demon (rākṣasī), called Donkey God, saw that the child had not been soiled and said to herself, "He must be a child of extraordinary merit." She took hold of the child in the air and washed him. She then went to the Himalayas, fed the child milk and raised him, treating him exactly the same way as she did her own children. When the child grew up she made him take the drug of immortality; he played with the other children of the gods day and night. Another great deity came and loved this child, feeding him tasty meals, candies, and herbs. The 124

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child's body was transformed: it was decorated with meritorious effects and illuminated with bright light, and the other gods all praised him, calling him Kharoṣṭhī, which means Donkey-lipped Great Sage.

For this reason, wherever Donkey-lipped Sage went, in the Himalayas and elsewhere, various beautiful flowers, good fruit, medicines, fragrances, clear streams, and different kinds of birds appeared by transformation. Wherever he stayed the place was filled with a rich harvest. Benefiting from the medicines and fruit, his crude appearance gradually changed and he became handsome. Only his lips were still like those of a donkey. For this reason he was called Donkey-lipped Sage.

Donkey-lipped Sage studied the holy teaching. For sixty thousand years he stood on one leg, not putting his other foot down, day and night, never becoming fatigued. The gods saw the great sage undergoing this austerity. Then the gods of Brahmā Heaven and Śakra Heaven, as well as those in the higher realms of the realm of desire, gathered and came to pay respect. Dragons, asuras, and yakṣas all gathered together like a cloud. All the sages and practitioners of the holy path came to the place of Donkey-lipped Sage. Placing their offerings, they held the palms together and asked, "Great sage, whatever you are searching for, would you please speak of it to us gods? If it is within the range of our capabilities we will immediately give it to you. We will not begrudge it." When Donkey-lipped Sage heard these words, he felt delighted in his heart and answered the gods, "You can satisfy what I truly want. I will explain briefly. I recall that in one of my previous lives in a past world age I saw in space many lunar stations, the sun and the moon traveling day and night at a fixed speed and illuminating the realm under heaven. I want [you to help me] understand this matter thoroughly. Out of pity for the beings who live in darkness, these lunar stations, the sun, and the moon work tirelessly. At the beginning of the present world age of the wise such efforts were not expended. You, gods and dragons, took pity on me and came here. I ask you to describe the working of these stars and the sun and moon, so that they can be set up [in the present world age just as they were in the past]; in the past some stars are good and some evil, some are good-looking and some ugly. Just as I have requested, please describe them exhaustively."

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All the gods said, "Great sage [Kharoṣṭhī], this is a very profound matter, and it is outside of our own sphere [of knowledge]. Taking pity on all sentient beings, please quickly describe how the matter stood in the past world age." Then the sage Kharoṣṭhī said to all the gods (Fayuan zhulin, T.2122: 293c6-294c19, from Daji jing, T.397:274c10-275c23), "First [they] placed Mao (Kṛttikā) as the leading lunar station."

[Kharoṣṭhī told the deities], "The stars revolve and travel in the sky. Is it not true that Mao (Kṛttikā) is the leading lunar station? " Then the sun deity said, "This Mao lunar station constantly travels around the empty sky, going through the four realms under heaven, always performing good deeds and generously benefiting us. I know that this lunar station is a fire god."

At that time a sage called Great Virtue, said, "This Mao lunar station is the son of my sister."

The lunar station has six corners and is shaped like a shaving knife. In one day and night it travels through the four realms under heaven. [The moon] proceeds for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. It is a fire god. Its clan name is Biyeni. To those that belong to this lunar station an offering of ghee is made.

[Kharoṣṭhī told the deities], "Then [they] placed Bi (Rohiṇī) as the second lunar station. It is a water god. Its clan name is Poluotuo. The Bi lunar station has five stars and is shaped like a standing hairpin. In one day and night [the moon] moves for forty-five muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Bi lunar station an offering of deer meat is made. "Then [they] placed Zi (Mṛgaśira) as the third lunar station. It is a moon god. It is the moon's son. Its clan name is Piliqieyeni. There are three stars and the lunar station is shaped like the head of a deer. In one day and night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the Zi lunar station an offering of roots and fruit is made. "Then [they] placed Shen (Ārdrā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a sun god. Its clan name is Posishichi. Its nature is evil and it is frequently angry. It consists of one star, like a woman's mole. In one day and night [the moon] moves for forty-five muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Shen lunar station an offering of ghee is made.

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"Then [they] placed Jing (Punarvasu) as the fifth lunar station. It is a sun god. Its clan name is Posishichi. It consists of two stars and is shaped like a footprint. In one day and night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Jing lunar station an offering of rice flour and honey is made.

"Then [they] placed Gui (Puṣya) as the sixth lunar station. It is the god of the planet Jupiter. It is Jupiter's son. Its clan name is Paobonapi. Its nature is gentle and it takes pleasure in cultivating the good teaching. There are three stars, which together look like the Buddha's mark of a broad torso. In one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station] . To those belonging to the Gui lunar station an offering of rice flour and honey is made as well.

"Then [they] placed Liu (Aśleṣā) as the seventh lunar station. It is a snake god. Its clan name is Sheshi ("Snake Clan"). It consists of only one star, like a woman's mole. In one day and night the moon moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the Liu lunar station an offering of milk gruel is made.

"These seven lunar stations correspond to the Eastern Gate. "Then [they] placed the first lunar station in the southern direction. It is called Qixing (Maghā, "Seven Stars"). It is a fire god. Its clan name is Binqie yeni. Its five stars are shaped like a riverbank. In one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the lunar station of Qixing one should prepare an offering of gruel made of rice powder and black sesame.

"Then [they] placed Zhang (Pūrvaphālgunī) as the second lunar station. It is a god of moral virtue. Its clan name is Jutanmi. It consists of two stars and is shaped like footprints. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Zhang lunar station an offering of bimba fruit is made. "Then [they] placed Yi (Uttaraphalgunī) as the third lunar station. It is a forest deity. Its clan name is Jiaochenru. It consists of two stars and is shaped like footprints. In the course of one day and one night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Yi lunar station an offering of cooked green and black beans is made. 127

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"Then [they] placed Zhen (Hastā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a Shapilidi god. Its clan name is Jiasheyan. It is the son of the Scorpion Sage. It consists of five stars and is shaped like a human hand. In one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the Zhen lunar station an offering of cooked tare and millet is made.

"Then [they] placed Jue (Citrā) as the fifth lunar station. It is a god of delight. Its clan name is Zhituoluoyani. It is the son of a gandharva. It consists of only one star, shaped like a woman's mole. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Jue lunar station an offering of flour and rice is made.

"Then [they] placed Gang (Svātī) as the sixth lunar station. It a Moduluo god. Its clan name is Jiazhanyanni. It consists of only one star, shaped like a woman's mole. In the course of one day and night the moon moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Gang lunar station one should offer green beans, fermented milk, and honey cooked together.

"Then [they] placed Di (Viśākhā) as the seventh lunar station. It is a fire god. Its clan name is Xiejiltuoyeni. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for forty-five muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Di lunar station one should offer different kinds of flowers.

"These seven lunar stations correspond to the Southern Gate. "Then [they] placed the first lunar station in the western direction. Its name is Fang (Anurādhā). It is a god of compassion. Its clan name is Alanpoyeni. The Fang consists of four stars and is shaped like a necklace. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Fang lunar station an offering of wine and meat is made.

"Then [they] placed Xin (Jyeṣṭhā) as the second lunar station. It is a Śakra god. Its clan name is Luoyanna. The Xin consists of three stars and is shaped like [a grain of] barley. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Xin lunar station an offering of unrefined rice gruel is made. 128

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"Then [they] placed Wei (Mūlā) as the third lunar station. It is a hunter god. Its clan name is Jiasheyeni. The Wei consists of seven stars and is shaped like a scorpion's tail. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Wei lunar station an offering of fruit and roots is made. "Then [they] placed Ji (Pūrvāṣādhā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a water god. Its clan name is Mochajiazhanyanni. The Ji consists of four stars and is shaped like a cow's horn. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Ji lunar station an offering of the juice from a fig's skin is made.

"Then [they] placed Dou (Uttarāṣādhā) as the fifth lunar station. It is a fire god. Its clan name is Mojialuoni. The Dou consists of four stars and is the shape of a man clearing the ground. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for forty-five muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belong to the Dou lunar station an offering of unrefined rice, rice flour, and honey is made.

"Then [they] placed Niu (Abhijit) as the sixth lunar station. It is a Brahmā god. Its clan name is Fanlanmo. The Niu consists of three stars and is shaped like a cow's head. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for six muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Niu lunar station an offering of purified butter (ghee) and cooked rice is made.

"Then [they] placed Nü (Śravaṇā) as the seventh lunar station. It is a Viṣṇu god. Its clan name is Dilijiasheyeni. The Nü consists of four stars and is shaped like a grain of barley. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Nü lunar station an offering of bird meat is made. "These seven lunar stations correspond to the Western Gate. "Then [they] placed the first lunar station in the northern direction. Its name is Xuxing (Dhaniṣṭhā). It a Śakra god. It is Shapo's son. Its clan name is Jiaochenru. The Xuxing consists of four stars and is shaped like a bird. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Xuxing lunar station an offering of the juice from cooked black beans is made. 129

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"Then [they] placed Wei (Śatabhiṣā) as the second lunar station. It is a Tuoluonu god. Its clan name is Dannani. In one day and night [the moon] moves for fifteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Wei lunar station an offering of unrefined rice gruel is made. Then [they] placed Shi (Pūrvabhadrapadā) as the third lunar station. It is a snake-head god. It is the scorpion god's son. Its clan name is Shedu jianiju. The Shi consists of two stars and is shaped like a footprint. In one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the Shi lunar station an offering of meat and [animal] blood is made.

"Then [they] placed Bi (Uttarabhadrapadā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a forest god. It is Varuṇa's son. Its clan name is Tuonanshe. The Bi consists of two stars and is shaped like a footprint. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for forty-five muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Bi lunar station an offering of meat is made.

"Then [they] placed Kui (Revatī) as the fifth lunar station. It is a Fushe god. Its clan name is Asepaini. The Kui consists of one star and is shaped like a woman's mole. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Kui lunar station an offering of refined butter (ghee) is made. Then [they] placed Lou (Aśvinī) as the sixth lunar station. It is a gandharva god. Its clan name is Ahanpo. The Lou consists of three stars and is shaped like a horse's head. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Lou lunar station an offering of cooked barley and meat is made. "Then [they] placed Wei (Bharaṇī) as the seventh lunar station. It is a Yama god. Its clan name is Baqiepi. The Wei consists of three stars and is shaped like the legs of a tripod. In the course of one day and night it covers forty time units. To those belonging to the Wei lunar station an offering of unrefined rice and black sesame is made.

"These seven lunar stations correspond to the Northern Gate. "Among these twenty-eight lunar stations there are five that cover forty-five time units, namely Bi, Shen, Di, Dou, and Bi. There is a lot to be said about the twenty-eight lunar stations, and it is difficult to come to 130

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understand them deeply. I will not discuss the matter in detail here. Here I discussed the lunar stations briefly. " The gods who heard the discussion were delighted.

Then, facing the assembly, the sage Kharoṣṭhī held his palms together and said, "Arrange the sun, moon, the year, and time units in this way." (Note: The Zhi riyue nianshi jing, Scripture of Placing the Sun, the Moon, the Year, and the Time Units, belongs here. It is not included here due to its length.)

[Continuing from the Daji jing (T.397:282a19):]

[Question:] What are the six seasons of the larger and smaller star mansions? Answer: The first and second months are called the season of moderate warmth. The third and fourth months are called the season for planting. The fifth and sixth months are called the season for praying for rain. The seventh and eighth months are called the season for the ripening of fruit. The ninth and the tenth months are called the cold and freezing season. The eleventh and twelfth months are the season of snowstorms. In this way the twelve months are divided into six seasons.

Furthermore, there are eight larger star mansions: Suixing (Jupiter), Ying huoxing (Mars), Zhenxing (Saturn), Taiboxing (Venus), Chenxing (Mercury), the sun, moon, and Heluohouxing. There are twenty-eight smaller star mansions, which refer to the set of lunar stations starting with Mao and ending with Wei. I placed them in this way in an orderly fashion. You have all heard the explanations.

At that time all the gods, sages, asuras, dragons (nāgas), and human beings, with palms joined, said, "Now, this heavenly sage is to be honored to the highest degree among gods and humans and none among the dragons and asuras is superior to him. In wisdom and compassion he is the first. For the duration of innumerable kalpas he has not failed to take pity on sentient beings and he has obtained meritorious rewards. Among all the gods and human beings there is none who has comparable wisdom. He makes the cosmic laws function in this way. There are none among the sentient beings who can make the laws work in this way. All beings are delighted, and he brings comfort to us. It is good, most virtuous one. You bring peace to sentient beings!"

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Then the sage Kharoṣṭhī spoke again, saying that the twelve months constitute one year. In a moment he finished speaking about these matters regarding the larger and smaller stars. He also placed the four heavenly kings in each of the four directions around Mount Sumeru to bring benefit to sentient beings in each direction.

Then everyone in the assembly praised the sage, saying, "It is good!" They were boundlessly delighted. Then the gods, dragons, yakṣas, and asuras presented offerings, day and night.

After innumerable ages another sage, called Qieli, will appear in the world. He will again speak about the arrangement of the star mansions, small and large, and the calculations of the lunar periods and seasons. (Note: Details can be found in the scripture.)

I have now listed the twenty-eight lunar stations. Each has different affiliates and spiritual guards. Thus, according to the Daji jing (T.397:371a11-b13): The Buddha said to the ruler of the sahā world, the heavenly king Brahman, Indra, and the four heavenly kings, "In the past how did the heavenly sage place the lunar stations, the sun, moon, and planets in order to protect the land and nurture sentient beings?"

The great king Brahmā and others replied to the Buddha,"In the past the heavenly sage placed the lunar stations, the sun, moon, and planets in order to protect the land and nurture sentient beings. In the eastern direction are seven lunar stations: (1) the Jue lunar station, in charge of birds; (2) the Gang lunar station, in charge of those who have renounced the householder's life and seek the holy path; (3) the Di lunar station, in charge of sentient beings born from water; (4) the Fang lunar station, in charge of those who drive vehicles for profit; (5) the Xin lunar station, in charge of women; (6) the Wei lunar station, in charge of sentient beings in the continents and islands; and (7) the Ji lunar station, in charge of potters. "In the southern direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Sei lunar station, in charge of metal workers; (2) the Gui lunar station, in charge of all kings and ministers; (3) the Liu lunar station, in charge of dragons in the Himalayas; (4) the Xin lunar station, in charge of the wealthy; (5) the Chang lunar station, in charge of thieves; (6) the Yi lunar 132

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station, in charge of merchants; and (7) the Chen lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Suraṣṭra (?).

"In the western direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Kui lunar station, in charge of boatmen; (2) the Lou lunar station, in charge of merchants; (3) the Wei lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Po lou jia; (4) the Mao lunar station, in charge of water buffaloes; (5) the Bi lunar station, in charge of all sentient beings; (6) the Zi lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Vaideha; and (7) the Shen lunar station, in charge of the kṣatriyas.

"In the northern direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Dou lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Jiaobusha; (2) the Niu lunar station, in charge of the kṣatriyas and the kingdom of Anduobojiena; (3) the Nü lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Yangqiemoqietuo; (4) the Xu lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Nasheluo; (5) the Wei lunar station, in charge of those who wear flower crowns; (6) the Shi lunar station, in charge of the kingdoms of Gandhāra and Shuluna, as well as all creeping creatures such as dragons and snakes; and (7) the Bi lunar station, in charge of those who are happy among the gandharvas, Bhagavats of great virtue, and past heavenly sages.

"In this way the lunar stations were placed in the four directions in order to protect the land and nurture sentient beings." Then the Buddha said to the Brahmā king and the others, "You must listen carefully. Among the heavenly sages in the world I am the most superior with regard to all knowledge. It is also I who causes the stars and star mansions to protect the land and nurture sentient beings. You must announce to them how I divided the land and sentient beings so that each is protected and nurtured according to this division. The divided kingdoms belong separately to the twenty-eight lunar stations." Question: What are the sizes of the stars?

Answer: According to the Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:736a9), the larger stars are one yojana in diameter and smaller stars are two hundred steps in diameter. According to the Loutan jing, the circumference of a large stars is seven hundred li; that of a mid-sized star is four hundred and eighty li; and that of a small star is twenty li.

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According to the Yüqieshidi lun (T.1579:288a7-8), the larger among the star mansions are eighteen krośas; the midsized ones are ten krośas; and the smallest ones are four krośas.

Compiler's comment: According to Buddhist scriptures these star mansions are all residences of the gods, who live inside them; due to their karmic powers light is emitted. According to secular books, they are said to be simply pieces of rock. Thus, during Song period (420-479) a star fell; the meteor was like a piece of rock. Some said it was not the star but rather a stone that fell from the Heavenly River. Thus, according to one secular book, the Heavenly River is connected with the Earthly River, and thus stones sometimes fall from the river.

The Xumi xiangtu shan jing says,

The river in heaven is called Yemaluo; it travels in the sky; over a long time large rocks and small [particles of] sand have occasionally come off it; these have been fixed as stars.

This work is not an authentic scripture but rather an arbitrary composition by a secular author. Though it has been in circulation it does not represent the Buddha's teaching.

In the eighteenth year of the Zhenguan period of Tang (644 C.E.), in the tenth month, on the day of bingshen there was a great thunder in the sky at the boundary between Fenzhou and the Wenshui district of Bingzhou. A stone fell from a cloud in the sky. It was of the size of a pheasant's beak, with a raised back and a flat bottom. Zhang Xiaojing, Aide of the Wenshui district, along with the official of Fenzhou, presented a memorial. At that time an elder from Mahābodhi Temple in Magadha came to the Western Capital. He was very knowledgeable about all sorts of things. The emperor asked him about this occurrence. The elder answered, "Two dragons fought with each other and consequently dropped down like stones." If we are to speak on the basis of this exchange, it is not necessarily the case that what falls from the sky is a star.

[The Yanshi jiaxun, Guixin chapter, says:]

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among people that heaven is the ether of essence; the sun is the yang essence; stars are the essence of myriad things. According to what Confucian scholars teach to reassure us, when a star falls it becomes a stone. If its essence is that of a stone it cannot possibly emit light. It would also have a heavy mass. To what would it have been attached? The diameter of one large star is one hundred li. The distance between the head and tail of one lunar stations is several tens of thousand li. Objects one hundred li in diameter are arranged at distances of several tens of thousand li, and as they move the distances between the stars do not change. Furthermore, the light emitted by the stars, the sun, and the moon is similar; only the sizes [of these celestial objects] varies. How can the sun and moon be stones? Stones are solid and dense. How could a crow or a hare reside within it? How can stones move in the qi by themselves? Suppose that the sun, moon, stars, and lunar stations were all qi. The substance of qi is light, and qi merges with the sky. Their movement and turning cannot diverge from one another. How then can the sun, moon, the five planets, and the twenty-eight lunar stations all have different degrees and move unevenly, rather than move uniformly? How could qi fall and suddenly turn into stones? If the earth is the accumulation of dregs, it should sink at the bottom. Yet, when we dig in the ground springs open up. The earth floats upon water. What lies under the water? Streams in a hundred valleys gather into the Yangzi River and the Yellow River. Where do these streams originate? The rivers flow to the east into the ocean. Why does the ocean not overflow? To where does the water of the Guitang Gorge [into which the rivers flow] and the Weilü Deeps [through which the water flows] eventually lead? What gas continues to burn in the rocks of Wujiao [over which water flows]? Who controls the ebb and flow of the tides? Why doesn't the Milky Way that hangs in the sky not fall down? How come water, which by nature flows downward, rise up there? As soon as heaven and earth were established there were lunar stations. The nine continents had not been marked and many states were not divided. Marking boundaries of the territory is like traveling through lunar stations. After the feudal system is established who controls the borders? [The fortunes of] states change but the stars are steady in their course of progress. 135

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Calamities and good fortune never miss the right time. Patterns in the sky are large; stars are numerous. How could the [corresponding] divisions of the ground be confined to China? The lunar station Mao is Maotou (Pleiades), which is the protective star of the Xiongnu tribes. How would it abandon the western Hu, the eastern Yi, the [southern] Diaozhi (?) or Jiaozhi? As we explore [these matters] exhaustively, we cannot treat human affairs as being beyond cosmic [influences].

People believe only what they see with their own eyes and hear with their ears; they doubt everything that lies beyond this limit. Yet the Confucians have several astronomical theories, such as huntian and gaitian, and speak of the "conformation of the heavens" (antian) and the "vastness of heaven" (qiongtian). These theories are quite comprehensive and unlike the viewpoint of those who only accept what they themselves see. Yet their calculations are not reliable. Why should we believe the speculation of worldly people and doubt the superior teaching of the Great Sage? Why are we tempted to deny the existence of worlds as numerous as grains of sand in the Ganges River, and of world ages (kalpas) as numerous as minute dust particles? Zou Yan spoke of the nine continents. Those who live in the mountains do not believe that a fish can be as large as a tree. Those who live near the ocean do not believe that a tree can be as big as a fish. Emperor Wu of the Han did not believe in the existence of a bowstring made of glue; King Wen of Wei did not believe in the existence of fire-resistant cloth. Foreigners see embroidered silk and do not believe that it is made of fibers secreted by worms that eat [mulberry] tree leaves. People of the Wu region, living south of the Jiang River, do not believe in the existence of a tent that can hold one thousand people. When we come to the region north of the Ho River the people there do not believe in the existence of a boat that can hold twenty thousand shi. These things have real proof of their existence. In the world there are such things as magicians and different magical techniques, such as walking on fire, stepping on swords, harvesting melons [immediately after planting], and moving wells; suddenly a thousand changes and ten thousand transformations take place. It is within the power of human beings to do these things. Why, then, could not miraculous cosmic responses beyond the limits of our understanding actually happen; for example, a seat decorated with a jeweled 136

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banner one hundred yojanas long, or the miraculous appearance of the Pure Land, or the emergence of a marvelous stupa from the ground? Wang Xuance's Xiguoxing zhuan says:

In the fourth year of Xianqing (659) the king's emissary reached Polishe. For the Chinese visitors the king there arranged to have five women perform. These five women handled three swords, adding more swords until they had ten. They also performed rope tricks. Going up in the air on top of the rope, they put on their shoes and then threw them, while handling a sword, a shield, and a spear in their hands. They performed various other kinds of tricks, [such as] cutting off their tongues and pulling out their intestines. These cannot be described in detail here. 3. The Sun Palace

The Qishi jing (T.24:358c21-359b29) says:

The Buddha said to the monks, "The palace of the sun god is fifty-one yojanas in depth, width, and height. The palace looks square, like an ordinary residence, but from a distance it appears round. It is made of two materials, gold and glass. Two parts of each side are made of heavenly gold, pure and luminous; one part is made of heavenly gold, clean and luminous. Five kinds of winds blow and make the sun move: (1) a holding wind, (2) a dwelling wind, (3) an adaptive turbulent wind, (4) a Poluohejia wind, and (5) a future wind.

"In front of the sun palace are innumerable gods. As they move to the front they each experience pleasure. These gods are called 'Steadily Moving.' (Note: According to the Chang ahan jing the structure of the sun palace and its walls are thin like flower petals. They are supported by the five kinds of winds.)

"Furthermore, inside the sun palace is a carriage made of Jambūnada gold. It is sixteen yojanas tall and eight yojanas square, and is decorated most beautifully. The god and his attendants are inside the carriage, enjoying the pleasures that satisfy the five desires. The sun god has the life span of five hundred years. His son and grandson succeed him from generation to generation and rule in this palace. The palace remains for the period of one world age. The light that shines from the body of the sun god illumines 137

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the carriage. The light that shines from the carriage in turn illumines the palace. The light is thus passed on and illumines beyond the four continents and the many worlds. There are one thousand light rays on the body of the sun god, the carriage, and the palace. Five hundred light rays shine sideways; five hundred rays shine downward. The palace of the sun god moves constantly. For a period of six months it moves northward; it keeps moving gradually all day and travels a distance of six krośas in a day. (Note: The Zabaozang jing [T.203:452c5] gives one krośa as five miles.) It never departs from the sun's path. For the next period of six months it moves southward; it keeps moving gradually all day and travels a distance of six krośas in a day. It does not fall off the sun's path. As the sun palace keeps moving with the cycle of six months, the moon palace moves in similar fashion in a cycle of fifteen days."

4. The Moon Palace

The Qishi jing (T.24:360b24-361b4) says:

The Buddha said to the monks, "The palace of the moon god is forty-nine yojanas wide and deep, forming a perfect square. It is surrounded by fences on all four sides and the palace is made of seven jewels. The palace building of the moon god is made only of heavenly silver and heavenly blue jade, pieces of which are placed side by side. Two parts are of heavenly silver, clear and untarnished and which shines brightly. The remaining part is of heavenly blue jade, also very clear and transparent. The light shines through it and illuminates far and wide. Again, five kinds of wind support the moon. (Note: The same names of the five kinds of wind as above are given here.) As the moon palace moves in the sky it is preceded and pulled by the palaces of numerous gods; these gods all receive pleasure. This palace also has a large carriage, made of blue jade, eighteen yojanas in height, and eight yojanas wide. The moon god and heavenly maidens are inside this carriage. The desires of each of the gods' five sense organs are satisfied in various combinations, and these deities move about freely. The life span of the moon god is five hundred years. Generations of his descendants rule there. The palace lasts for a period of one world age. The light that shines from the body of the moon god illuminates the blue carriage. The light that shines from the carriage in turn illuminates the moon palace. The light 138

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from the moon palace illuminates the four continents. The moon god emits five hundred rays of light directed downward. It also emits five hundred light rays that shine sideways. For this reason the moon god is called One Thousand Rays of Light.' It is also called Cool Light." Why does the moon palace appear gradually? The Buddha answered, "There are three reasons: (1) it rotates; (2) for half a month blue-colored deities, whose clothing and necklaces are all uniformly blue, hide in their palace and because of this hiding the moon appears gradually; and (3) sixty rays of light shine simultaneously from the moon palace and obstruct the light from the moon. For these reasons the moon appears only gradually. "Why is the moon palace perfectly round? Again, there are three reasons for this. (1) At the right time the moon rotates and the moon palace appears. (2) The blue-colored deities hide for half a month but on the fifteenth day the form of the moon palace is perfectly round and its light brightest. If one lights a torch in a pool of fuel, all [the light from] smaller lamps is overwhelmed and disappears. Similarly, on the fifteenth day the moon palace overcomes all other sources of light. (3) As for the sixty rays of light that are simultaneously emitted from the sun palace and that obstruct the light of the moon palace, on the fifteenth day the moon palace is fully empowered. There is no shadow anywhere. At that time even rays of light from the sun cannot obstruct the light of the moon.

"Again, why does the moon palace completely disappear on the fifteenth day of the waning period? The moon palace is closest to the sun palace on the fifteenth day of the waning period. It is covered by the sun's light and therefore becomes completely invisible.

"Again, why is the moon palace designated by the same term as 'month'? During the waning (black) period the moon palace gradually disappears day by day, until it is entirely gone at the end of the month. The strength of the light decreases gradually [over the course of the month]. For this reason, it is designated by the term 'month.' (Note: in the Western Region the month is divided into black and white. From the first day to the fifteenth day is called the white month. From the sixteenth day to the day the moon disappears is called the black month. In China the black month is included [in the white month] and together they are called a month.)

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"Why do shadows appear in the moon palace? The jambu (rose apple) tree exists on this continent. Because of this tree the continent is called Jambudvīpa. The jambu tree is tall and large and its shadow appears in the moon."

The Yüqie lun (T.1579:288a6-7) says:

The shadows of the fish and turtles in the ocean are reflected in the moon. For this reason black patterns appear there. (Note: According to the Xiguo zhuan [Record of the Western Regions], once in the past a rabbit was cultivating the bodhisattva practice. The Heavenly Ruler wanted to test [the rabbit's practice] and asked for some meat to eat. The rabbit threw itself into a fire [to offer its body as a sacrifice]. The Heavenly Ruler took pity on it and placed the burned rabbit on the moon so that all future beings would see the rabbit's body and know that it had cultivated the bodhisattva practice.) 5. Climate

According to the Qishi jing (T.24:359b29-360a19):

Again, why is heat generated in the summer? The Buddha said, "For six months the sun palace travels northward. In one day it steadily travels the distance of six krośas, without fail. There are ten reasons why heat is generated. Its light touches upon ten kinds of mountains and generates heat." Again, why are there cold areas? After six months the sun palace gradually turns to the south. There are again twelve reasons why coldness is generated. Between Mount Sumeru and Mount Khadiraka is the Sumeru Ocean, eighty-four thousand yojanas wide with an immeasurable circumference. The ocean is filled with flowers that have a powerful fragrance. The light of the sun reaches this ocean. This is the first reason why there is coldness. [There are similar oceans between these mountains:] Second, Mount Īṣādhara; third, Mount Yugaṃdhara; fourth, Mount Sudarśana; fifth, Mount Aśvakarṇa; sixth, Mount Nimindhara; seventh, Mount Vinataka; and eighth, Mount Cakravāḍa. [As the sun shines on these mountains, coldness results.] Ninth, the sun reaches the places where rivers flow in Jambudvīpa, and for this reason there is coldness. Tenth, there are twice as many rivers in [Apara]godānīya. Eleventh, there are twice as 140

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many rivers in Pūrvavideha. Twelfth, there are twice as many rivers in Uttarakuru. The light of the sun reaches these twelve groups of rivers and coldness results. (Note: In addition to the eight mountains, the opening section on generating heat mentions, as the ninth reason, the demigods' [yakṣas] palace in the sky, ten thousand yojanas above the ground. The tenth reason is the mountains in each of the four continents. Altogether ten reasons are listed.)

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197c10-23) says:

Question: Why is it cold in winter? Why is it hot in spring? Why is it some times hot and sometimes cold in summer?

In winter the water element is dominant and has not begun its downward trend. Vegetation is moist and has not begun to dry up. The earth element is damp; the fire element is turned downward; the water element rises upward. We know this because [at this time] deep water is warm and shallow water is cold. When the cold season arrives the sun moves along the outside path, and the daylight is shorter. The yang force is inside. Food is digested quickly. For this reason it is cold in winter. Why is it hot in spring? During this season the strength of the water element declines. Vegetation dries up and the ground splits from the lack of moisture. The water element is directed downward and the fire element rises upward. We know this because [at this time] deep water is cold and shallow water is warm. Having passed through winter, the sun travels along the inside path and the daylight is longer. The fire inside the body declines. Therefore, it is hot in spring.

Why is it sometimes hot and sometimes cold in summer? The ground is constantly scorched in the eighth month. When a large cloud sends down rain, the ground steams with vapor. When the wind blows the vapor disappears. Then, it becomes cold. If there is no wind, then it is hot. For this reason, it is sometimes hot and sometimes cold in summer. (Note: In the Western Region four months constitute a season. There is only spring, summer, and winter; there is no autumn. For this reason there are three residences [to be used in each of these] three seasons.) The Qishi jing says:

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Why do rivers flow in the world? The Buddha said to the monks, "The sun generates heat; the heat causes scorching; scorching causes steam; steam causes sweating (i.e., precipitation). This moisture in the mountains forms the rivers."

6. Illumination

The Chang ahan jing (T.1:145-b8¬10) says:

At the beginning of the world age heaven and earth were in great darkness. A great black wind blew over the great ocean. The sun was then installed to illuminate the world. It was placed halfway up Mount Sumeru, along the solar route. It turns around the four continents and shines on sentient beings. The Qishi jing (T.24:358c2-13) says:

At that time the world became dark. Suddenly the sun, moon, and stars appeared, and there were days, nights, years, and seasons. Then the sun went up to the great palace. It arose from the east, circled around the middle of Mount Sumeru, and went westward. After it sets there, it returns to appear again in the east. When sentient beings saw the sun rise from the east again, they said to each other, "The sun rose from the east, and circled around Mount Sumeru. It will set in the west." When they saw it a third time, they said to each other, "This is the heavenly light that travels." This is how the sun got its name ("Sūrya" means "This is that one.") The Zhidu lun (T.1509:347c1-2) says, "The diameter of the sun and the moon is five hundred yojanas, and yet they appear to be no bigger than a fan when we see them."

The Chuchu jing (T.730:526b15-16) says, "The Buddha told Ānanda, 'The limit of what the human eye can see is known to be four hundred and twenty thousand yojanas.'"

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197b16-18) says:

Why are there nights? Why are there days? There is night because of the sun, and because of the sun there is day. The realm of desire is itself dark. Because the sunlight is covered there is night. Because the sunlight is exposed, there is day.

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The Qishi jing (T.24:360b4-c3) says:

When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of Jambudvīpa [in the south], it is beginning to set on the continent of Pūrvavideha [in the east], it is beginning to appear on the continent of Aparagodānīya [in the west], and it is midnight on the continent of Uttarakuru [in the north]. When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of Aparagodānīya it is beginning to set on this continent of Jambudvīpa, it is beginning to appear on the continent of Uttarakuru, and it is midnight on the continent of Pūrvavideha. When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of Uttarakuru, it is beginning to set on the continent of Aparagodānīya, it is beginning to appear on the continent of Pūrvavideha, and it is midnight on the continent of Jambudvīpa. When the sun is at the highest point on the continent of Pūrvavideha, it is beginning to set on the continent of Uttarakuru, it is beginning to appear on the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is midnight on the continent of Aparagodānīya.

The Buddha said to the monks, "West to the people in Jambudvīpa is east to the people in Aparagodānīya. West to the people in Aparagodānīya is east to the people in Uttarakuru. West to the people in Uttarakuru is east to the people in Pūrvavideha. West to the people in Pūrvavideha is east to the people in Jambudvīpa. The same relationship applies in the north-south direction."

7. Waxing and Waning

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197b18-c4) says:

Why is the one part of the moon black and the other part white? It is because of the sun that one part [of the moon] is black and the other part white. The course of the sun follows that of the moon. Each day the distance between them either decreases by forty-eight thousand and eighty yojanas or increases by the same amount. When they come closer [to each other], the sun covers three and one-third yojanas of the moon each day; in fifteen days the sun covers the moon completely. On that day the black part is complete. The sun also leaves the moon at the rate of forty-eight thousand and eighty yojanas. The moon opens up by three and one-third yojanas each day; in fifteen days the moon is completely exposed. The 143

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people in the world say that the moon is completely white (bright). When the sun and moon are furthest apart, the moon is full; the people in the world say that the moon is completely white. When the sun and moon are in the same place, they are said to be moving together; the people in the world say that the moon is completely black (i.e., hidden). When the sun follows the moon, the light of the sun illuminates the light of the moon. Because the light of the moon is coarse a shadow appears, and this shadow covers the moon. This is why the back part of the moon is missing. In this way, larger and larger parts of the moon are covered, and in fifteen days the moon is covered completely. The period when the sun follows the moon is designated as the "black part." When the sun precedes the moon, each day new parts are exposed in the same way, and in fifteen days the entirety of the moon becomes completely visible. The period when the sun precedes the moon is called the "white part."

The Qishi jing (T.24:360a22-b3) says:

Question: Why is the night long and the day short in winter? The Buddha answered the monk, "After six months the sun palace begins to gradually travel south. Each day it moves precisely six krośas. In this season (winter) the sun palace is at the southern end of Jambudvīpa, where the land is narrow. The sun passes this end [of the continent] very quickly, and therefore in winter the days are short and the nights are long." Again, why are the days longer and the nights shorter in spring and summer?

The Buddha answered, "After another six months the sun palace begins to gradually travel north. Each day it moves precisely six krośas. During these seasons the sun travels over Jambudvīpa where the land is wide and its passage [over the continent] takes a long time. Therefore, the days are long. For this reason, in spring and summer the days are long and the nights are shorter."

The Zhidu lun (T.1509:409b24-c14) says:

The "Nonretrogression" (Avaivartika) chapter [of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra] speaks of the division of the day and month (ref. T.223:256b24), which should be understood as follows: The day begins at dawn and ends 144

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at [twilight], consisting of the first part, middle part, and last part. The night is also divided into three parts. The day and the night together consist of thirty time units (muhūrtas). At the spring and fall equinoxes, fifteen time units belong to the day and fifteen to the night. At other times there are increases and decreases. At the summer solstice in the fifth lunar month the day consists of eighteen periods and the night of twelve; at the winter solstice in the eleventh lunar month the day consists of twelve periods and the night of eighteen. The month may consist of thirty and one-half days, or of thirty days, or of twenty-nine and one-half days, or of twentyseven and one-half days. There are four kinds of months: first is the month of the sun, second the worldly month, third the month of the moon, and fourth is the month of the lunar stations. The month of the sun is thirty and one-half days; the worldly month is thirty days; the month of the moon is twenty-nine days plus thirty sixty-seconds of a day; the month of the lunar stations is twenty-seven days plus twenty-one sixtieths of a day. The intercalary month results from the combination of the month of the sun and the worldly month, and is called the thirteenth month. Sometimes thirteen months forms one year. The year contains three hundred and sixty-six days, and repeats itself.

The bodhisattva knows that in the middle of a day, the former half of the day has already gone out of existence and the latter half of the day has not yet come into existence. The middle point does not remain; there is no specific and fixed characteristic that marks this point. The day thus is "empty"; there is no existence to which it corresponds. When the thirtieth day of the month has arrived, the preceding twenty-nine days have already disappeared. How can one gather all of the disappeared days in the one day that is present and form a month? If a month does not exist in this way, how can one gather these months and form a year? Therefore, the Buddha said that worldly dharmas (i.e., existence) are like an illusion or a dream. They are nothing but the delusive product of the mind. A bodhisattva is capable of forming worldly days, months, and years; he or she is also capable of deconstructing them into nonbeing. This is called skillful distinction. 8. Rising Clouds

The Qishi jing (T.24:348b21-24; c22-29) says:

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There are four kinds of clouds in the world: white, black, red, and yellow clouds. Of these four kinds of clouds, the white one is common in the realm of earth; the black one is common in the realm of water; the red one is common in the realm of fire; the yellow one is common in the realm of wind. The clouds rise above the ground into space. Some reach one krośa and stay there. Others reach two, three, and so on up to seven krośas and stay there. Some clouds go up into empty space to the height of one yojana, and so on up to seven yojanas and stay there. Some clouds go up one hundred yojanas and so on up to seven hundred yojanas and stay there. Some clouds rise above the ground to the height of one thousand yojanas, and so on up to seven thousand yojanas. This continues until the end of the world age. The Chang ahan jing (T.1:136c28) says, "At the beginning of the world age clouds appear and reach Ābhāsvara Heaven." (Note: According to scripture, there are many kinds of clouds—sometimes five-colored and auspicious clouds appear, at other times red clouds, black clouds, and other kinds of clouds appear. These cannot be described exhaustively. Details can be found in such scriptures as the Renwang jing [T. 246].)

9. Thunder

The Qishi jing (T.24:349a1-7) says:

The Buddha said to the monks, "Someone following non-Buddhist teachings may come and ask you, 'Why is there sound in the sky?' You should then answer as follows: 'For three reasons of mutual contact sound appears in cloudy skies. What are the three? First, the wind realm and the earth realm come into contact inside the cloud, and for this reason sound occurs. Second, the wind realm and the water realm come into contact inside the cloud, and for this reason sound occurs. Third, the wind realm and the fire realm come into contact inside the cloud, and for this reason sound occurs. Why is this so? For example, if the branches of a tree rub against each other fire may be created. The contact [between the earth, wind, water, and fire realms] described above work in a similar way.'" (Note: According to scriptures there are many kinds of thunder—sometimes supernatural beings are said to hit the drum on the thunder chariot. Thus, popular sayings speak of the "heavenly drum." Those with many sins and 146

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evil deeds are hit [by this drum] and die. Here we see [the working of] karmic retribution.)

10. Lightning

The Qishi jing (T.24:349a15-28) says:

The Buddha said to the monks, "Someone following non-Buddhist teachings may come and ask you, 'Why does electric lightning appear suddenly in the sky?' You should then answer as follows: 'For reasons that will be described in two parts electric lightning appears in the sky. What are the two [reasons]? First, the electricity of lightning in the eastern direction is called "no thickness." The electricity of lightning in the southern direction is called ["following] the stream." The electricity of lightning in the western direction is called "fallen light." The electricity of lightning in the northern direction is called "one hundred growing trees." Second, if the electricity called "no thickness" that appears in the eastern direction and the electricity called "fallen light" that appears in the western direction come into contact with each other, they scrape and hit against each other and for this reason a bright light appears in the clouds in the sky. This is called electric lightning. Again if the electricity called "following the stream" that appears in the southern direction and the electricity called "one hundred growing trees" that appears in the northern direction come into contact with each other, they scrape and hit against each other and for this reason electric lightning occurs. This may be compared to the process of the wind blowing two trees into contact with each other. Suddenly fire appears and spreads through the two trees." (Note: According to scripture, sometimes there is first thunder but no lightning, other times there is lightning but no thunder. From the contact of electric currents fire results and then thunder may be heard by people and animals.)

11. Rainfall

The Fenbie gonde lun (ref. T.1507:31b1-10) says:

There are three kinds of rain: the rain of the gods, the rain of the dragons (nāgas), and the rain of the asuras. The rain of the gods is fine and misty. The rain of the dragons is coarse with large raindrops. When the dragons 147

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are happy the rain is mild and nourishing; when they are angry thunder and lightning appear. The asuras, who fight with the gods in Indra's heaven, are also capable of causing rainfall. Their rain is sometimes coarse and sometimes fine. (Note: There are also many other kinds of rain. Sometimes there are no clouds yet it rains. Sometimes there is first a cloud and then it rains. Sometimes the dragons bring down the rain. Sometimes it rains independent of the dragons. The karmic conditions of sentient beings determine this. Details can be found in the scriptures.) 12. Irregular Weather

The Qishi jing (T.24:349b1-c14) says:

The Buddha said to the monks, "There are five conditions that create obstacles to rainfall. Diviners cannot fathom these and become increasingly confused. They predict rain yet the rain does not come. What are these five? First, a cloud rises in the sky and thunder is heard, or lightning may be seen and a cold wind may begin to blow. These are all signs of approaching rain, and all diviners of weather and astronomers determine that it will rain at that time. Then the asura king Rāhu comes out of his palace, takes the cloud in his two hands, and throws it into the ocean. This is the first condition that creates an obstacle to rainfall. Diviners are not aware of this, and yet the rain does not come [despite their predictions]. "Second, a cloud rises in the sky and the sound of thunder is heard in the cloud; lightning also appears, and the wind brings cold air. Diviners see these signs and determine that rain will come. Then the power of the fire realm increases and burns up the cloud that had appeared. This is called the second condition that creates an obstacle to rainfall. Diviners are not aware of this, and yet the rain does not come in the end [despite their predictions].

"Third, a cloud rises in the sky and the sound of thunder is also heard in the cloud; lightning appears as well. In addition, the wind brings in cold air. When diviners see these signs, they determine that rain will definitely fall. But the power of the wind realm increases and blows away the cloud, and it goes into the riverbank in Kaliṅga, or in a desert, or into the 148

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riverbank in Molianna. This is called the third condition that creates an obstacle to rain. Diviners are not aware of this, and yet the rain does not come in the end [despite their predictions].

"Fourth, because sentient beings are licentious and defile the pure practices, rainfall becomes irregular. Fifth, because the people of Jambudvīpa do not follow the teaching they are stingy, jealous, and hold the mistaken opinions of heterodox views, and for this reason rain does not fall." (Note: These last two points are described in the original passage in the same way as the earlier three points. The Chang ahan jing also has a similar passage.)

The Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:650a9-16) says:

There are four kinds of shadows that cover the sun and moon and prevent their light from reaching us. What are these four? They are first clouds, second dust in the wind, third smoke, and fourth the asuras. These all cover the sun and moon and prevent their light from reaching us. Monks also have four kinds of bondage that cover the human mind and keep them away from understanding—first the bondage of desire, second [the bondage of] anger, third [the bondage of] ignorance, and fourth [the bondage of] materialism. These all cover the human mind and keep it from understanding. The Sifen lü (T.1428:619b10-13) also presents a similar list of four— first, licentious desire; second, drinking wine; third, amassing money and valuable objects; and fourth, [engaging in] wrong kinds of livelihood. These four things also prevent the Buddha's teaching from being clear. Thus, verses say:

The fire element causes smoke to rise up.

The cloud element takes the form of towering clouds. The divine dragon spits out mist.

The rising dust falls on the world of human beings. Wine is the gate of licentiousness.

Licentiousness is the source of life and death.

Gold and silver give rise to grave illness.

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The Fo banniyuan jing (T.6:182a18-24) says:

Ānanda brought his palms together and asked the Buddha, "I would like to learn about earthquakes."

The Buddha said to Ānanda, "There are three conditions [for earthquakes]. The first is that the earth sits on a body of water, and the water rests upon the wind, and the wind rests upon the sky. When a great wind rises the water is disturbed, and when the water is disturbed the earth moves. The second is that when a monk who has attained the Way or a mysterious god wishes to cause a cosmic response, the earth moves as a consequence. The third is the power of the Buddha. Before and after achieving the buddhahood the Buddha moves, and the suns, moons, and heaven and earth all respond. Many among the gods and human and supernatural beings achieved understanding." The Da fangdeng daji nianfo sanmei jing (Da fangdeng daji jing pusa nianfo sanmei fen, T.415:838b16-20) says:

The entire earth shook in six ways: (1) moving everywhere, (2) shaking everywhere, (3) swelling up everywhere, (4) roaring everywhere, (5) rising up everywhere, and (6) awakening everywhere. Each of these six ways had three aspects, thus there were eighteen manifestations. In this way the east swelled up and the west sank; the west swelled up and the south sank; the south swelled up and the north sank; the north swelled up and the south sank; the middle swelled up and periphery sank; the periphery swelled up and the center sank.

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:173b5-16) says:

The Buddha told Purāṇa, "There is also a great deity whose powers are known in all the heavens. If this god wishes to make the earth shake then he can make the earth shake. Some monks have great supernatural abilities and powers, and during visualization they can make the size of the earth change from large to small and from small to large. These monks can also make the earth shake. There is wind called Vilambā. This wind blows constantly and upholds the movement of the earth. Sometimes the wind 150

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blows upward and sometimes downward. Sometimes the wind blows from the side, and sometimes it blows in a balanced way and holds up the earth as it turns."

The Zhidu lun (ref. T.1509:117a12-b10) says:

There are four kinds of earthquakes: the first kind is caused by fire, the second by dragons, the third by garuḍas, and the fourth by the gods and the twentyeight lunar stations. Rākṣasas and gods can also cause earthquakes. The Zengyi ahan jing (ref. T.125:753c12-754a11) says: The Buddha was at Śrāvastī and said to the monks, "There are eight reasons for the quaking of the earth. The earth is sixty-eight thousand yojanas deep and is held up by water. The water in turn is supported by empty space. Sometimes the wind in the empty space moves, and the water also moves. When the water moves the earth shakes. This is the first kind of earthquake. If a monk acquires supernatural powers he can move about freely and regards the earth as if it were the palm of his own hand. He can make the earth shake. This is the second kind of earthquake. Again, the gods who have great supernatural and miraculous powers can make the earth shake. This is the third kind of earthquake. Again, at the time when I, as a bodhisattva in Tuṣita Heaven, was about to be born into this world the earth shook. This is the fourth kind of earthquake. When I, as a bodhisattva, realized that I was in my mother's womb the earth shook greatly. This is the fifth kind of earthquake. When I, as a bodhisattva, realized that ten months had passed and that I was about to come out of my mother's womb the earth shook greatly. This is the sixth kind of earthquake. When I, as a bodhisattva, having renounced the householder's life, sat on the seat of enlightenment, conquered Māra, and finally achieved enlightenment the earth shook greatly. This is the seventh kind of earthquake. When in the future I, as a bodhisattva, enter nirvana without remainder the earth will shake. This is the eight kind of earthquake." (Note: Elsewhere the scriptures also talk about many different kinds of earthquakes. Sometimes [it is said that] when the earth quakes holy beings come into the world; when mountains quake holy beings who have attained the fourth 151

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fruit, or arhats, come into the world. Or when buddhas and bodhisattvas are said to come into the world. Some speak of the shaking of one world-system, other of many world-systems. Sometimes it is said that sentient beings endowed with little merit can feel the earth quaking and being damaged. Details, in terms of the primary and secondary karmic effects, are described in the scriptures.) Compiler's Comment: Below I will summarize briefly the descriptions in non-Buddhist sources of the first differentiation of heaven and earth, yin and yang, and the appearance of forms and their transformations. There are five levels of discussion: Original Substance, Primal Simplicity, Primal Commencement, Primal Beginnings, and Primal Material. According to the Hetu, "The Original Substance has no shape; it is noisy and active. As it comes to rest, it becomes earth; as it looks down, it becomes heaven."

The Litong says, "Heaven and earth are produced by the Original Substance; they are the ancestors of the myriad things." The Diwang shiji by Huangfu Shian says, "The Primary Substance, when it begins to sprout, is called the Primal Commencement." The Sanwu liji says:

When heaven and earth have not yet come into being, they are undifferentiated like a chicken's egg. [The universe] begins in the undifferentiated state and becomes differentiated step by step. The planet Jupiter begins its movement from the neighborhood of the Sheti stars. The Original Substance is then opened up. The Dixi pu says:

When heaven and earth first arise, all is undifferentiated. Then, the heavenly emperor is born and governs for a period of eight thousand years, with the virtue of wood as the ruling principle.

The Liezi says:

If that which has shape is born from that which is without shape, then from where are heaven and earth born? (Zhang Qian [Zhan?]'s commentary says: heaven and earth have no origin from which they emerge; they emerge spontaneously.) For this reason [it is said that] there was Primal 152

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Simplicity, Primal Commencement, Primal Beginnings, and Primal Material. These transformed into the One; the One transformed into the Seven; the Seven transformed into the Nine. The Nine is the ultimate point of transformation, and on reverting it transforms into the One. The One is the beginning of the transformation. What is clear and light rises and forms heaven; what is muddy and heavy falls and forms earth. The substance that is harmoniously blended forms human beings. For this reason heaven and earth contain intelligent essences, while the myriad things are born by transformation.

The Xici zhuan ("Commentary on the Appended Phrases") chapter of the Book of Changes, Part I, says:

For this reason in change there is the Great Ultimate, from which the Two Principles of yin and yang emerge. These Two Principles give rise to the Four Images; the Four Images give rise to the Eight Trigrams. The Eight Trigrams determine the auspicious and the inauspicious. The Chunqiu wei, Ganjingfu chapter, says:

The ruler of human beings is equally luminous as the sun and moon, and accords perfectly with the four seasons. Therefore, heaven is his father, earth his mother, the sun his elder brother, and the moon his elder sister. (Note: The ruler treats heaven as his father in the ceremony performed at Round Hill; he treats earth as his mother in the sacrifice of the Square Marsh; he treats the sun as his elder brother at the Eastern Suburb; and he treats the moon as his elder sister at the Western Suburb.) The Chunqiu wei, Shuotici chapter, says:

The speech of heaven is pervasive. Residing high, it is principle; [residing] below it is the scriptures for people. It is the essence of all yang [phenomena]. Containing all, it is the Great One; differentiated it takes on different names. For this reason the character of the One is established [to refer to] heaven. The Chunqiu fanlu says:

There are five elements in heaven. Heaven is one element. Earth is one element. Yang is one element. Yin is one element. Soil is one element. 299c

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Human being is one element. Metal is one element. Wood is one element. Water is one element. Fire is one element. Altogether there are ten elements. Heaven also has the energy (qi) of delight and anger, as well as the heart of sadness and happiness. Heaven and human beings go side by side, harmonizing with each other in terms of the same categories. Heaven and human beings are one. Spring brings life into being because of its energy of delight. Fall kills because of its energy of anger. Summer nourishes because of its energy of happiness. Winter stores because of its energy of sorrow. These four are shared by heaven and human beings. The Erya says:

Qiongcang ("arching blue") refers to the blue sky. (Note: Li Xun says: In ancient days people looked up and saw the shape of the sky, rising high in the middle like an arch. Its color is blue. Therefore, they called it "arching blue.") Spring is called cangtian ("blue sky"). (Note: Li Xun says: In spring myriad things are born. Their color is blue-green. Therefore, spring is called "blue sky.") Summer is called haotian ("thriving sky"). (Note: Li Xun says: In summer the energy of myriad things is strong and their energy thrives. Therefore, summer is called "thriving sky.") Fall is called mintian ("patterned sky"). (Note: Li Xun says: In fall myriad things ripen and show patterns. Therefore, fall is called "patterned sky." "Pattern" refers to the natural pattern given by sky. Guo Jingchun says: The character min means to take pity. One takes pity on myriad things that decline in fall.) Winter is called shangtian ("higher sky"). (Note: Li Xun says: In winter the energy of yin stays above and myriad things fall over and are stored below. Therefore, winter is called "higher sky." Guo Jingchun says: "This means that at this time Nonbeing remains high above and looks down upon the world.") The Guangya says:

The sky is round. Its north-south diameter is two hundred million thirtythree thousand five hundred and seventy-five bu ("steps") long. Its eastwest diameter is four bu shorter. Its periphery is six hundred million one hundred thousand seven hundred and twenty-five bu long. The distance between the ground and the sky is one million one thousand six hundred 154

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seventy-eight and one-half li. The thickness of the ground is the same as the height of the sky.

The Xiaojing says:

There are seven barriers and six intermediate points all around heaven. The distance between the inner barrier to the middle barrier is altogether one hundred and nineteen thousand li, each separated by nineteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-three and one-third li. From the middle barrier to the outer barrier, each is separated by fifty-nine thousand five hundred li. The Luoshu zhenyaodu says:

The circumference of the sky is three hundred and sixty-five and onequarter degrees. One degree is one thousand nine hundred and thirty-two li long. The distance between the sky and the ground is one billion seven hundred million eight thousand five hundred li.

The Lunheng says:

Each day it proceeds by one degree. One degree is two thousand li. In the course of one day's time it proceeds one thousand li. It moves as fast as the mythical animal qilin.

The Baihutong says:

The sun moves slowly. The moon moves quickly. While the sun moves one degree, the moon moves thirteen and seven-nineteenth degrees. The diameter of the orbit of the sun and the moon is one thousand li. Furthermore, to measure the course of the sun, there is a distinction between the inside and the outside. The distance between the extreme northern point to the extreme southern point is nine hundred and ninety yojanas. The sun takes one hundred and eighty days to move from the inside to the outside. It also takes one hundred and eighty days to move from the outside to the inside. This is called the movement. It is said that the sun travels sixty li each day— the wheel of the sun's orbit is large and the sun travels slowly in the sky. Because it travels slowly, it only covers sixty li. For this reason the year has twelve months. Six months for northward moving; six months for southward moving. Altogether it travels a course of three hundred and sixty degrees. 155

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The Baihutong says :

How is the waxing and waning of the moon effected by the sun? It takes three days to form the outline of the moon (chengpo, "without light"); it takes eight days to fill it with light (chengguang). In sixteen turns, twice eight, the cycle is completed. As the last day of the month changes to the morning of the first, the moon receives the order again and the process repeats itself.

A month may be longer or shorter. The sky turns leftward; the sun and moon turn rightward. The sun moves slowly while the moon moves quickly. The period for the moon to catch up with the sun is called a month. After twenty-nine days the moon is short by seven degrees, but after thirty days it is in excess by seven degrees. Days cannot be divided and so the shorter months are formed. This explains the effects of yin and yang. Why is the intercalary month formed? The sky contains three hundred and sixty-five and one-quarter degrees. In the course of twelve months the sun falls short by twelve degrees. Therefore, one intercalary month is inserted in the third year; another is inserted in the fifth year. In these cases yin is insufficient and yang is in excess. The intercalary month results from the excess of yang.

Xuzheng's Changli says:

The diameter of the orbit of the sun and the moon is one thousand li. Its circumference is three thousand li. The distance from the ground is seven thousand li.

The Shangshu says, "The light of the sun illuminates three hundred and six thousand li."

The Dishuoshu says, "The sun and the moon illuminate four hundred and fifty thousand li."

The Liezi says:

Confucius traveled east and saw two children debating with each other. When he asked why, one child said, "I think that the sun is closer to us when it first rises and is far away in the middle of the day." The other child held that the sun is far away when it first rises and is closer in the 156

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middle of the day. The first child said, "When the sun first rises it looks like a large wheel but in the middle of the day it looks like a small pan. Does this not mean that when it is far it looks smaller and when it is closer it looks larger?" The other child said, "When the sun first appears the temperature of the air is cold. In the middle of the day it is as hot as boiling water. Does this not mean that when the sun is close by it is hot and when it is far away it is cold?" Confucius could not decide. The two children laughed, saying, "Why do people say that you are wise?" Huan Tan's Xinlun says:

When I was young I heard people tell the following story on the street. Confucius traveled east and saw two children debating with each other. When he asked why, one child said, "I think that the sun is closer to us when it first rises and is far away in the middle of the day." The other child held that the sun is far away when it first rises and is closer in the middle of the day. The commandant of Changshui, Guan Ziyang, thought that the distance between people and heaven above is far, and the areas [close to the ground] in the four directions are closer. When stars rise in the east in the evening they are few and scattered; the distances between them are over one chang. In the middle of the night they are high up in the sky in great numbers. The distances among them are only one or two chi. The sun is the heavenly yang. Fire is the earthly yang. The earthly yang rises above. The heavenly yang comes down. If one lights a fire on the ground and checks its heat from the sides and from above, regardless of differing distances the heat above exceeds by half the heat from the sides. When the sun is above [our heads], the heavenly yang is balanced at its peak point. Therefore, it is hot. When the sun has just risen the heat comes out of the sun [from the side], and so it is cool. In the west [where the sun sets behind the trees] the level of the heat is the same [as in the morning]. Yet the air (qi) is different from what it is in the morning. The Lunheng says:

The sun and moon are not round. They look round because they are at a great distance from people. The sun is fire essence. On earth water and fire are not round. How could only fire in heaven be round? The sun and 300b

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the moon in heaven (i.e., the sky) are like the five planets. The five planets, like other stars in constellations, are not round. Only their light makes them look round. How do we know this? In the Spring and Autumn period a meteor fell in the city of Song. It looked like a piece of stone. Stones are not round. Thus, we know that the sun, moon, and the five planets are not round.

The Lunheng says:

Confucian scholars say, "There is a three-legged crow in the sun." The sun is fire. If a crow goes into a fire it is burned. How could a crow stand in [a fire]? Thus, the crow shares the essence (qi) of the sun. The Shi wei, Tuiducai chapter, says, "The moon acquires a soul in three days and light in eight days. When the body of the toad is formed the rabbit (juebi) begins to appear." (Song Jun's commentary: juebi means rabbit.) The Chunqiu wei, Yangong tu chapter, says, "The toad is the essence of the moon."

The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says:

The yin essence forms the moon. Each day it moves thirteen degrees. It always obediently accepts responsibility and receives. (Note: It receives the yang essence.) Because it receives luminous essence within, metal and water form its internal illumination.

The Hetu wei, Shikai chapter, says:

The dust of the Yellow Spring goes up to form the blue cloud. The dust of the Red Spring goes up and forms the red cloud. The dust of the White Spring goes up and forms the white cloud. The dust of the Black Spring goes up and forms the black cloud. (Note: This appears in the Huainan Zi as well.)

The Hetu wei, Kuadixiang chapter, says, "From Mount Kunlun five-colored clouds appear.

The Yijing (Book of Changes), Shuogua chapter, says, "Xun is wind. Nothing is quicker than wind in bending myriad things." The Hetu wei, Ditongji chapter, says, "Wind is the messenger of heaven." 158

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The Erya says:

The condition in which the four energies (qi) are in harmony is considered to be pervasively correct. This is called jingfeng ("auspicious wind"). (Note: Li Xun says "auspicious wind" is the Wind of Grand Peace.) The southern wind is called kaifeng ("happy wind"). The eastern wind is called gufeng ("valley wind"). The northern wind is called liangfeng ("cool wind"). The western wind is called taifeng ("great wind"). The fenlun ("burning wheel") [wind] is said to be tui, "collapsing." (Guo Pu's commentary says that the wind is from above to below.) The fuyao ("whirlwind") is said to be yan ("flamelike"). (Note: From below to above.) When wind is combined with fire it is called tun ("disturbance"). (Note: "Disturbance" here describes how it flares up.) The turning wind is called piaofeng ("tornado"). The wind that blows when the sun comes out is called baofeng ("violent wind"). The wind that blows bits of soil is called mai ("dust wind"). The wind that blows in cloudy weather is called yi ("cloudy wind"). The Yi wei, Jilantu chapter, says, "Falling yang is wind. The movement of falling yang does not cause tree branches to make sounds." The Yijing, Shuogua chapter, says, "Zhen is lei ("thunder"). Nothing is greater than lei in moving myriad things."

The Hetu wei, Ditongji chapter, says, "Thunder (lei) is the drum of heaven and earth."

The Zuo zhuan says:

If one stores ice at the proper time, then when thunder (lei) occurs it shakes (zhen). If one abandons the ice and does not use it, then even when thunder does not occur, it shakes.

The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says, "When yin and yang come together thunder (lei) is formed."

The Shi guang zhan says:

In the spring thunder (lei) begins to occur. It makes the sound bobo gege. A thunderbolt (pili) is male thunder (lei); it is formed by the essence (qi) of drought. It makes a noise like the sound of the word. The sound is not loud. A thunderbolt (pili) is female thunder; it is formed by the essence of water. 159

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In the vernal equinox, if rain is accompanied by thunder (lei), its sound is like that of thunder but it is not really thunder. The sound comes from below the ground. Soldiers appear from below the residence. If there is no cloud in the sky and yet it thunders, it is called the movement of a comet (tiankou). Inauspicious things will happen in the kingdom within three years.

The Hetu wei, Shikai chapter, says, "Intensified yang is thunder (lei)." The Yi wei, Jilantu chapter, says, "When yin and yang are combined, the lightning (dian) is bright and its light lasts long." The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says, "When yin and yang strike against each other, there is lightning (dian)."

The "Heavenly Offices" chapter of the Book of History (Shiji) says, "Lightning (dian) is the movement of yin and yang." The Geliang zhuan says, "Duke Yin said, 'Ting ("thunderbolt") is a kind of lei ("thunder").'" (Note: This refers to an excessive one. Today these are called by another name for thunderbolt.)

The Erya says, "Quick thunder is called tingni ("thunderbolt")." (Guo Pu's commentary says that intensified thunder is called pili.) The Shuowen says, "Zhen ("quake") means thunderbolt (pili); it shakes things."

The Shiming says, "Pili means to break. Zhen means to fight (zhan). It destroys whatever it attacks, as if in battle."

The Yiyuan says:

When the monk Huiyuan (334-416) was meditating on Mount Lu, traveling dragons flew in front of him. Master Yuan, angered, threw a stone at a dragon and hit it. The dragon then flew up high. Then a sudden windstorm occurred. The master realized that this was caused by the dragon. He climbed up the mountain, burned incense, gathered the monks, and they recited verses together. Thereupon, a thunderbolt circled around the stone thrown at the dragon. The cloud and rain then disappeared. The Yiyuan says:

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The Qifu group had a hostage who was brutal. He held a thunderbolt in his palm, and released it outside his body. Four characters written on his back marked his offense. Early in the history of the kingdom Shiqu abandoned him. [Concluding] verses say:

The sun and moon have long been hung in their places. The stars in the sky are constantly bright. Like gold during the day and at night like jade. How could they compare with total darkness? When they appear there is bright light. When they disappear, [we know that] they will return. Waxing and waning, hiding and reappearing, From the last day of the month to the first day of the next, they move in accordance with the measurements of astronomical instruments. Stars are lined up according to their ranks. Fortunes and longevity are controlled by mysterious powers. Sages establish all these.

According to karmic causes good things increase. Cloud and dragon meet,

Going up and down, then separating from each other. Thunder and lightning strike,

And cold and hot weather appears according to its proper time. 161