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What has been discussed above are the dharmas to be learned and the ways to practice them. What are the characteristics of those who can learn these dharmas? A bodhisattva's practice comprises twelve abodes that encompass all bodhisattva stages. Only after these stages [have been accomplished] can a bodhisattva attain unsurpassed enlightenment, which is the thirteenth abode of perfect fruition. A verse [enumerating the thirteen abodes] gives them as:

Inherent nature, the practice of supreme understanding, Extreme joy, advanced precepts,

Advanced mind, three kinds of advanced knowledge, formless effort,

Formless effortlessness, unobstructed understanding, The most perfect bodhisattva abode,

And the ultimate abode of the Tathagata.

1. Abiding in inherent nature. This refers to the foundation stage before the aspiration for unsurpassed enlightenment (bodhicitta) has been aroused. It is only a cause for the other abodes. Its characteristics have been discussed previously. 2. Abiding in the practice of supreme understanding. This includes the stages from the initial aspiration up to the first bhumi. From the cultivation carried out in the previous stage, although a bodhisattva has attained purification, he continues to practice for the purpose of further purification. Through differentiating knowledge, he exhorts himself to practice, but he is slow to engage in all practice. Still he encourages himself to preach the Dharma. Although within his own capacities he is able to manifest some degree of correct understanding and to benefit others and make them happy, he has not yet completely learned all practices nor accomplished all fine characteristics, nor purified all thoughts.

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533c 3. Abiding in extreme joy. This refers to the first bhumi. bodhisattva in this stage accomplishes all the good dharmas of the previous stages and the ten great vows. It is therefore called abiding in pure and supreme joy. [The bodhisattva] surpasses the state of a common person, realizes the nature of no-birth, is born into the household of the Tathagata, and becomes a true son of the Buddha. Carrying on the lineage of the Buddha and attaining all kinds of equanimity, he avoids all confrontation and attains true realization and purity. He knows that he is getting closer to enlightenment and has realized the truth of the two kinds of emptiness and the two wondrous wisdoms. Hence, he is overjoyed and practices the ten dharmas so as to abide in purity. The ten dharmas are: faith; kindness; compassion; charity; non-indolence; comprehension of all treatises; understanding of the world; cultivation of remorse; perseverance; and making offerings to all Buddhas. [After the completion of these ten practices], he concentrates his efforts to proceed to the cultivation of the other nine abodes.

[In this abode the bodhisattva] often becomes a universal monarch (cakravartin) ruling this world [of Jambudvipa] and subdues stinginess and defilements. He vows, "I resolve to always stay in the most honored position in order to be a refuge for sentient beings and to do beneficial work for them." Or if he takes delight in practicing more vigorously and, further, becomes a monk with pure faith, he can realize hundreds of samadhis in a single moment, see with heavenly eyes hundreds of athagatas in Buddha lands, and comprehend all their transformations. His supernatural power can move hundreds of Buddha lands and his body can emit great light to be universally seen by others. He is able to manifest in hundreds of ransformations to benefit hundreds of sentient beings. If he wishes to stay in the world, he can live hundreds ofkalpas. He can see things of a hundred kalpas into the past and future, can realize hundreds of Buddhist doctrines, and can transform into hundreds of bodies, each of which manifests hundreds of bodhisattva retinues.

4. Abiding in advanced precepts. This is the second bhumi. After achieving the purification of the ten delights in the previous 72

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bhumi, the bodhisattva enters this bhumi. He is replete with the natural precepts [such as abstaining from killing]. He has little evil karma and does not violate the precepts, let alone commit more or the most serious transgressions. He knows well the causes and effects of actions, and thus exhorts himself and others to practice pure deeds. He has great compassion for suffering sentient beings and comprehends them as they really are. He perceives the Buddha s vast, pure roots of virtue. He often appears as a universal monarch ruling the four continents of he world and stops beings from breaking precepts. His power is ten times greater than in the previous stage.

5. Abiding in advanced mind. This is the third bhumi. After penetrating the dharmas practiced in the previous abodes, the bodhisattva enters this abode through ten purifications of the mind through which he penetrates all practices for great enlightenment. He understands that unobstructed wisdom is the only skillful means to eradicate the suffering and afflictions of sentient beings, that there is only nondiscriminating wisdom in the pure Dharma realm (,dharmadhatu), and that superior samadhi is the only way to accomplish this wisdom. He is vigorous in listening to the teachings of the bodhisattva vehicle. He disregards his life and gives up whatever he loves. There are no masters whom he does not vow to serve. He vows to practice all teachings and to endure all suffering. He regards hearing one single verse [about the Dharma] as more precious than treasures filling up the great thousand worlds, and hearing one phrase of the Buddha's teachings, which can bring forth both enlightenment and pure bodhisattva practices, as superior to the attainment of the worldly fruition of a Sakra, Brahma, or universal monarch. If someone were to say to him, "I have a phrase of the Dharma that can bring forth enlightenment and pure bodhisattva practices. If you jump into a firepit, I will tell you [this phrase]," the bodhisattva would say with willing joy, "I will, even if 534a the firepit were as big as the three thousand worlds. For the sake of hearing the Dharma, I will jump into it even from the Brahma Heaven, let alone into a small firepit. I would stay in hell a long 73

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time to seek the Buddha-Dharma, let alone undergo just a little suffering." After having this thought, he can practice according to the Dharma and thus abide in the four dhyana heavens of form and so forth. He will then give these up and return [to the world] in order to take rebirth [to help beings] as he wishes. He often becomes a Sakra who teaches beings to cut off desire and covetousness. His power is hundreds of thousands of times greater than before.

6. Abiding in advanced knowledge corresponding to the modes of enlightenment. This is the fourth bhumi. After accomplishing the ten dharmas through much hearing, the bodhisattva enters this abode and attains ten advanced wisdoms. He cultivates the dharmas leading to enlightenment that can sever attachment to the view of the self as real and so forth. He abandons slandering and practices praising others. His mind is well regulated and his merits and virtues flourish. Abiding in goodness, he cultivates the practices relating to the basis of discipline and, as a result, perfects wonderful thoughts and superior understanding of the Dharma. The teachings of sages and enemies cannot upset him. He often becomes a king of the Yama Heaven who helps beings eradicate their erroneous views of the self. His power is millions of times greater than in the previous stage.

7. Abiding in advanced knowledge corresponding to truths. This is the fifth bhumi. After having achieved the ten joyful and pure thoughts of equanimity, the bodhisattva enters this stage and contemplates all truths with ten skillful means. He correctly refutes all erroneous practices and has compassion for sentient beings. He gathers the provisions [of blessings and wisdom], cultivates proper vows, and practices insightful thought which can increase [virtues] and eradicate deviant thoughts. He employs all kinds of skillful means to bring sentient beings to maturity, such as the arts which can inspire [them to virtue]. He often becomes a divine king in the Tusita Heaven who teaches beings to forsake all internal and external deviant dharmas.

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8. Abiding in advanced knowledge corresponding to dependent arising. This refers to the sixth bhumi. After having realized the nature of equanimity of the ten dharmas in the previous stage, the bodhisattva enters this abode in which he awakens to the teaching of dependent arising which brings about ways to liberation. He cannot be moved by any aberrant thought. In order to benefit sentient beings, he abides in samsara and manifests wisdom and compassion, pursuing unattached wisdom and the perfection of wisdom. He realizes immeasurable superior samadhis. His joyful thought cannot be destroyed and nothing can mislead him. He often becomes a divine king in the "Wondrous Transformation" Heaven (miao hua t'ien) who eliminates increasing arrogance and so forth, and whose power is hundreds of thousands of millions of times greater than in the previous stage.

9. Abiding in formless effort. This refers to the seventh bhumi. After having realized the ten wonderful skillful means of wisdom that lead to superior practice in the world, the bodhisattva enters this abode in which he reaches the stage of the Buddha's uninterrupted and faultless practice. In each single moment, he realizes the ten perfections and other dharmas leading to enlightenment. He engages in and perfects all accelerated practices that are preliminaries to ultimate purity; therefore, this stage is still called defiled [by comparison with the next stage]. The bodhisattva at this stage perfects the skills of the arts and surpasses the meditative states of those of the two vehicles. In each and every thought, he can enter the samadhi devoid of the sensation of thoughts and can manifest the most marvelous acts of a bodhisattva. He often becomes a divine king of the Paranirmita Heaven who teaches those of the two vehicles the skillful means of contemplation. His power is hundreds of thousands of millions of times greater than in the previous stage.

10. Abiding in formless effortlessness. This is the eighth bhumi. After having realized the ten foremost wisdoms that penetrate all dharmas, the bodhisattva enters this stage in which he obtains the 534b

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pure realization of no-birth through the four true wisdoms (yathabhuta-parijnanam) cultivated previously. He cuts off the four disasters due to his deep commitment [to eradicate them]. He is awakened and taught by the Buddha's immeasurable ways of incurring wisdom and supernatural powers. He attains the ability to transform into immeasurable bodies; he attains wonderful wisdom and the ten kinds of self-mastery. He obtains superior advantage from what he has been taught. He often becomes a king in the first dhyana heaven. The power of blessings and wisdom from the first moment of entering this abode is double the power accumulated from all previous abodes, and the power from the second moment is two times greater than before. The power increases from moment to moment until he reaches the stage of the tenth bhumi. It is difficult to describe [this power] exhaustively. 11. Abiding in unobstructed understanding. This refers to the ninth bhumi. Because the bodhisattva is not satisfied with the previous abode, he penetrates further and takes delight in the supreme nature of wisdom. He arouses wisdom, accelerates his practice, and discourses upon the Dharma. He preaches the Dharma and practices according to the truth. He thus becomes a great Dharma master with unobstructed understanding. He often becomes a king in the second dhyana heaven.

12. Abiding in the foremost perfection of the bodhisattva. This refers to the tenth bhumi. After attaining the purity of unobstructed understanding in the previous abode, the bodhisattva is fit to become a Dharma king and to receive consecration in the Dharma. He is able to attain immeasurable kinds of concentration without defilement. He does what the Buddha does, and obtains wonderful bodies and retinues equal to those of a Buddha. He attains great brightness, realizes the wisdom that works for the benefit of sentient beings, and acquires immeasurable dharanis for liberation, supernatural powers, insight, and other innumerable merits such as these. He often becomes a king of the gods (Mahesvara) of the formless realm. Equipped with provisions for the bodhisattva 76

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path, he is able to accept the great, subtle Dharma rain from the great Dharma cloud of the Buddha. His enlightenment, which is like a great cloud, can shower down the rain of the Dharma that washes away dust and helps roots of virtue grow and ripen. The extermination [of afflictions], the practices, the realizations, and the merits of each abode are not exclusive. They vary in each abode according to different degrees of perfection. The bodhisattva abode in the practice of supreme understanding tends to follow the practice of formlessness. This practice is still narrow, imperfect, and indefinite, while in the next six abodes [the bodhisattva] achieves the practice of formlessness and his practice becomes broad, faultless, and definite. In the last four abodes, the bodhisattva perfects the realization of purity and attains the fruition of his measureless practices. At the sixth abode in the practice of supreme understanding and faith, he does not backslide in faith and his roots of virtue cannot be destroyed. In the seventh abode, the bodhisattva's mind does not retrogress and he never reverts to either of the two vehicles. In the abode of ultimate joy, he never retreats from nor forgets his realizations. In the abode of formless effortlessness, he can progress in his practice with no 534c effort. Whatever he does, he does only to seek wisdom and to bestow benefit and happiness. Therefore, the bodhisattva knowingly keeps some delusions and thus willingly takes rebirth. This is why he does not exterminate all afflictions. There are five kinds of irths: 1. The birth that eradicates calamities (samsamani-utpatti). This means that through the mastery of vows, the bodhisattva takes birth as a great fish in order to feed the hungry, as a great doctor to help the sick, as a peacemaker to skillfully settle conflicts, as a great king to properly eliminate suffering, or as a great god to sever deviant views and acts. [He can transform into] fire, water, conveyances, boats, and so forth in order to avert disaster for various beings.

2. Birth of the same kind (sabhdga-anuvartinl). Through the power of self-mastery derived from vows, the bodhisattva may take 77

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birth [even] in the unfortunate realms of the animals and so on. However, he does not do evil as other beings do but does good that they do not do. For example, he goes to a tavern to help the drunken and to a brothel to show the faults of lust. He discourses upon the true Dharma to help rid beings of faults.

3. Noble birth (mahasattva-utpatti). This means that a bodhisattva is naturally born with supreme qualities, such as long life, pleasant appearance, nobility, and riches, with which he severs sentient beings' arrogance and other faults.

4. Advanced birth (adhipatya-utpatti). This means that the bodhisattva takes birth as one of the ten kings in order to teach sentient beings as needed.

5. Final birth (varamd-utpatti). In this birth a bodhisattva perfects his provisions [for enlightenment]. For example, Maitreya will take birth in the household of a brahman national master, and Sakyamuni took birth in a ksatriya household. [In his final birth] the bodhisattva manifests the attainment of Buddhahood and accomplishes all Buddha deeds.

The bodhisattva also encompasses sentient beings with four acts: 1. Sudden and universal gatherings. This means that at the time of arousing the initial aspiration for enlightenment, the bodhisattva universally encompasses all sentient beings as his retinue and resolves to do his best to benefit them.

2. Increased gathering. If the bodhisattva is the host of a family, he encourages his parents [to do good], he is aware of their kindness and favor, and he is filial to them. He provides his wife and children with necessities and he does not oppress his servants but is patient with them. When they are sick, he consoles them and cares for them as he would for himself. He does not belittle them. If he is a king, he does not punish people with weapons but benefits them with the Dharma and with valuables. He depends on his own lands for livelihood and does not invade other lands. He sees sentient beings as his own parents or children. He speaks truthfully, does not cheat, exhorts others to forsake evil, and teaches them to practice virtue.

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3. Inclusive gathering. This means that the bodhisattva equally and impartially takes in beings, but not for the purpose of fame, benefit, or service. He draws in his followers with undefiled thoughts. It is for their benefit that he teaches them proper practices. He does not trick them with false practice.

4. Gathering at proper times. This means to draw in and bring to maturity all sentient beings of inferior, medium, and superior faculties at the appropriate time, either for a long or short period of time.

The thirteen abodes are included in the seven bhumis-. (1) the bhumis of inherent nature (gotra), (2) of supreme understanding and practice, and (3) of pure supreme bliss—these three bhumis correspond to the first three abodes; (4) the bhumis of cultivating proper practices, which correspond to the next six abodes, (5) the definite bhumi (niyata-bhumi), which corresponds to the tenth 535a abode, for it falls in the third definite bhumi; (6) the bhumi of definite practice, which corresponds to the eleventh abode; and (7) the ultimate bhumi, which corresponds to the twelfth and thirteenth abodes because both cause and fruit are perfected.

Although the practices of a bodhisattva discussed previously are immeasurable, they can be classified into four kinds: (1) the practice of erfection, such as the six perfections or ten perfections (paramitas); (2) the practices leading to enlightenment (bodhyanga), such as the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, the four reflections, and all other wonderful practices; (3) the practices of supernatural powers, such as the six kinds of supernatural powers; and (4) the practices that bring sentient beings to maturity. Beings to be subdued are immeasurable and so are the skillful means [to fulfill this task]. The practices explained above concerning the object of practice, the method of practice, and the practitioners are all [encompassed by] bodhisattva practices. To courageously and earnestly cultivate and yet not to perceive the form of cultivation is what is meant by practice (hsing).

Why are the practices said to be "profound"? The Madhyamikans comment that because the subtle doctrine [of prajha] is profound 79

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and inconceivable, those of the two vehicles cannot comprehend it and common people cannot fathom it. Therefore, it is said to be profound.

The Yogacarins comment that ultimate truth (paramarthasatya), whether in its [function of] cognition (chih; jhana) or as an object of cognition (ching; visaya) is beyond words and speculation. It cannot be referred to by analogy and is so subtle that it is difficult to comprehend. It is replete with three unsurpassed qualities and seven characteristics. In its functioning it greatly benefits all beings, like a vast ocean of virtuous dharmas or a pool of wondrous treasures. No one except the great enlightened Lord of the Dharma Realm (i.e., the Buddha) can be said to have realized [ultimate truth]. Therefore, the practices to be cultivated are said to be profound, and the bodhisattva should diligently seek to realize them. [Another interpretation is that] it is difficult for the bodhisattva to perfectly realize the true form of suchness, to obtain illuminating wisdom, to express teachings in words, to achieve myriad practices, and to penetrate the existence and emptiness of the field of objects of ognition (visaya-gocara). The perfection of isdom is foremost and the others are supplementary. They are called "prajnd" and are therefore profound.

What is meant by "when" [in the second line of the Prajnapdramita-hrdaya-sutra]? The Madhyamikans comment that conventionally a bodhisattva arouses faith and cultivates in order to penetrate the truth of emptiness, while ultimately he realizes that the nature of dharmas is emptiness and cultivates wisdom (prajha). The time at which the practice is perfected is what is [indicated in the text] by "when."

The Yogacarins comment that unsurpassed enlightenment is broad and profound and cannot be attained with little effort. With regard to the [thirteen] abodes expounded previously, if counted in nights and days, it would take innumerable hundreds of thousands of millions of great kalpas or even longer to realize each and every abode. Or, if counted in great kalpas, which are beyond 80

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all measure, then it would take three immeasurable great kalpas to accomplish perfect realization. During the first immeasurable great kalpa, each practice is cultivated separately until the abode of ultimate joy is realized. During the second immeasurable great kalpa, within each practice all practices are cultivated until the abode of formless effortlessness is realized. With the purification of mental disposition and the definite vigor during the third immeasurable great kalpa, all practices are cultivated in all stages until the abode of the Tathagata is realized. For those who are constantly vigorous, it may not necessarily take so long. If the bodhisattva is extremely vigorous, as if standing on tiptoe, he can perhaps skip many medium or great kalpas but definitely not the immeasurable great kalpas. Therefore, in the causal stages, the bodhisattva has to go through various practices completely for three immeasurable great kalpas before the attainment of enlightenment, for it is only then that the five perfections are achieved. This is to say that the cultivation of the five aspects of wisdom is divided into stages of hree kalpas or is divided into stages according to the individual's mentality. When the practice [ofprajna] is perfected, this is [what is indicated in the text] by when. When the bodhisattva gets insight into emptiness, he will properly realize wisdom. Since he practices through stages, he has to go through them all. The pratyekabuddha, who has sharp faculties, still has to go through hundreds of kalpas of practice, let alone anyone who seeks Buddhahood but has not yet been equipped through many kalpas of preparation.

SUTRA: [KUAN-TZU-TSAI] HAD AN ILLUMINATING VISION OF THE EMPTINESS OF ALL FIVE SKANDHAS, AND SO FORTH.

Commentary: This passage shows that from the practice of profound wisdom the bodhisattva has obtained the eye of wisdom. Illuminating (chao) means penetrating into emptiness. The conditioned dharmas, such as form, feelings, and so on, are within the confines of the three periods of ime and are either external or internal, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, close or distant. 535b

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Skandhas (wen) mean the aggregates, which include form, feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness. And so forth (teng) refers to other dharmas such as the sense fields (ayatana). The Madhyamikans comment that the previous [passage of the sutra is to] break attachment to the perceiving subject by revealing its emptiness, while this passage is to break attachment to the perceived object by revealing its emptiness. If ne is obstructed by ignorance and confused about the principle of paramartha, and falsely takes the skandhas and others as existent, one is like a person who believes images seen in a dream to be real. If one correctly comprehends the principle of ltimate truth (paramartha-saty ) and does not become attached, one is like a person who awakes from a dream and realizes that the phenomena [seen in the dream] do not exist. Therefore, the practice ofprajha can illuminate the empty nature [of phenomena].

The Yogacarins comment that although all practices are nothing but the practice of prajha, realizing the true and expelling the false come from the wisdom that illuminates emptiness. Therefore, the text emphasizes this point. The word "emptiness" here signifies the three non-self-natures: the substance of everything with the nature of mere imagination (parikalpita) is nonexistent and lacks self-nature; therefore, it is said to be empty. [The nature of] arising dependent on others" (paratantra) [is analogous to the following:] form is like foam, feeling is like floating bubbles, perception is like the shimmer of heat (e.g., as in a desert mirage), impulses are like the plantain (i.e., hollow on the inside), consciousness is like the tricks of a conjurer; since they are unlike the way they are grasped [in ordinary perception] and lack a self-creating nature, they are also called "empty." According to another interpretation, it is the absence of parikalpita in paratantra that is the true nature (parinispanna), which is why the latter is called "empty." Actually, the three natures are neither empty nor non-empty. The implicit intent of calling them empty is to break attachment. The reason the last two (i.e., paratantra and parinispanna) are called empty is not because they are completely nonexistent. Buddha's implicit intent 82

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in calling them all empty is to indicate, in general, that [both] existence and nonexistence are said to be empty. The Buddha said: The ultimate truth is that the production of form is devoid of self-nature.

I have already taught that.

Anyone who does not know the esoteric intention of the Buddha

Loses the right path and cannot proceed to enlightenment. Furthermore, this emptiness is the essence of suchness, the 535c nature of hich is neither empty nor existent but is revealed through emptiness. In order to counteract attachment to existence, emptiness is spoken of provisionally (prajhapti). Foolish people who do not understand this assert that the five skandhas and other dharmas are definitely devoid of true existence; hence they discriminate between them (i.e., true existence and the skandhas). To trace them back to their original substance, they are nothing but suchness. For apart from the noumenal, the phenomenal has no separate nature. Therefore, a sutra claims that all sentient beings possess the tathagatagarbha, and all dharmas are nothing but suchness. The [sutra] claims that phenomena having marks (laksanas) are empty, without marks, in order to make sentient beings cut off the bond of marks.

There are five kinds of eyes: (1) the eye of flesh, which [sees], without meditation, the constructed pure forms; (2) the divine eye, which sees pure forms constructed by meditation; (3) the eye of wisdom, which is the wisdom that illuminates the principle of emptiness; (4) the Dharma eye, which is the wisdom penetrating the teachings; and (5) when the previous four [eyes] are fully awakened, they get the name "Buddha." In the causal stages, [the bodhisattva with] the wisdom eye penetrates emptiness and contemplates clearly. This is called "illuminated vision." However, in the stage of preparation, to get insight into the nature of emptiness, he hears and reflects on it. This is mainly a practice of faith and understanding. Only after the stages of intensified cultivation 83

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does he exclusively cultivate contemplation. Although in both stages the bodhisattva's insight into emptiness is called "illuminating," he has not yet realized the truth, because it is still accompanied by [attachment to] marks. In the tenth bhumi, when he arouses the contemplation without defilement that penetrates truth, this is truly "illuminating emptiness." In the stage of the Tathagata, illuminating is perfected and he knows that the object of cognition (visaya) beyond words is provisionally (prajnapti) called "empty." Although emptiness includes both the emptiness of self and dharmas, in order to teach Sariputra only the emptiness of dharmas is mentioned here, because Sariputra s attachment to the self has long been eliminated and need not be eradicated. Or, since attachment to the self arises due to attachment to dharmas, if one contemplates the emptiness of dharmas, the self will become empty, too.

Although the substance of emptiness has no distinctions, it appears differently in phenomena. According to the Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra, there are sixteen kinds of emptiness: (1) the emptiness of internal elements; (2) the emptiness of external objects; (3) the emptiness of both internal elements and external objects; (4) the emptiness of the great; (5) the emptiness of emptiness; (6) the emptiness of ultimate reality; (7) the emptiness of the conditioned; (8) the emptiness of the unconditioned; (9) the emptiness of the ultimate; (10) the emptiness of the unlimited; (11) the emptiness of non-dissipation; (12) the emptiness of riginal nature, (13) the emptiness of all marks; (14) the emptiness of all dharmas; (15) the emptiness of non-[self-]nature (wu-hsing k'ung; nihsvabhava-sunyata); and (16) the emptiness of the self-nature of non-[self-]nature (wu-hsing-tzu-hsing k'ung; nihsvabhavasvabhava-sunyata). Or, it is said that there are seventeen kinds of emptiness, that is, [the sixteen emptinesses above] plus the emptiness of nonattainment. Or, there are eighteen kinds of emptiness, including the emptiness of elf-nature (svabhciva-sunyata). Or, there are nineteen kinds of emptiness, including both the emptiness of the highest object-support (alambana) and the emptiness of mutual nonexistence. Or, there are twenty kinds of emptiness; that is, 84

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of the eighteen emptinesses, the emptiness of non-dissipation is divided into the emptiness of dissipation and the emptiness of the unchangeable, and the emptiness of marks is expanded to the emptiness of wn-mark (svalaksana) and the emptiness of general mark (samanya-laksana). A verse explains: The eater and the eaten,

These depend on a body and where it abides. Anyone seeing the principle like this Has found the two truths of emptiness. For the sake of benefiting sentient beings, So as not to reject samsara,

And in order to perform good [deeds] without limit, Thus one contemplates these as emptiness. For the purification of inherent nature, For the attainment of good marks,

And for the purification of the Buddha-Dharma, The bodhisattva contemplates emptiness. Pudgala (person) and dharmas

The real nature of both does not exist. This is the nature of their non-[self-]nature. Therefore, the two emptinesses [of self and dharmas] are specifically established.

SUTRA: THUS, HE OVERCOMES ALL SUFFERING AND ILLS. Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that this passage briefly explains that when the two attachments [to self and to dharmas] are severed and the two emptinesses are revealed, all suffering can be overcome. Attaining insight into the emptiness of [self-]nature and getting away from discrimination are like a moth coming out of a cocoon, leaving behind its bondage forever. One can then overcome all suffering and ills and quickly realize nirvana. Although ultimately there is nothing to be overcome or attained, conventionally there is something to be overcome and attained. 85

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The Yogacarins comment that through insight into the emptiness of [self-]nature, one can transcend cyclic existence (samsara). [This passage] reveals the benefit from previous practices and the third fortification of mind"; [the bodhisattva] contemplates overturning the basis (asraya-paravrtti), which is deep, subtle, and difficult to realize. If he is thinking of withdrawing [from practice], he should fortify himself thus:

Sentient beings in the world who practice crude forms of giving and other practices can incur superior fruition at the end of life, let alone I who now cultivate unobstructed and wondrous virtues. Would I not realize the overturning of the basis that overcomes suffering, just like others who, through the practice of wisdom, overcome suffering, forsake coarse afflictions, and attain freedom from afflictions? So, I should do the same."

He thus encourages himself to increase practice. He does not belittle himself or retrogress.

Overcomes (tu) means to transcend. Suffering means that sentient beings and the worlds of the three realms are produced from the afflictions of arma (karma-klesas), are contaminated (sasrava), and are nothing but suffering. There are generally three kinds of suffering. All contaminated dharmas are by nature transient, oppressive, and disturbing. These are called "suffering [resulting] from karmic conditioning" (hsing; samskaras). All worldly pleasures will eventually come to an end. Whatever dependently arises [through conditions] is bound by suffering. [Pleasure and pain] are both called "suffering caused by destruction." The suffering whose nature is oppressive and which causes unbearable and repeated pain is called the "suffering of suffering." This suffering refers to all disasters and adversities.

There are also eight kinds of suffering. The suffering from abiding in the womb, coming out from the womb—these are the roots of suffering and are called "suffering caused by birth." The decay caused in the course of time is called "suffering from old age." That the 86

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body becomes weak and sick is called "suffering from sickness." That life comes to an end is called "suffering from death." The appearance of the undesired is called "suffering from encountering what one hates." When a loved one has departed, this is called "suffering from parting from what one loves." Not getting what one wants is called "suffering from unattained desires." All contaminated samskaras are called "everything gathered into the five skandhas of appropriation" (pahca-upadanaskandhah).

Ills (erh) refer to the eight difficulties, fears, the three minor calamities, and so forth. Due to failure to attain insight into emptiness, one clings to the marks of objects of cognition (ching hsiang), develops discrimination in the mind, and produces afflicted actions. [As a result,] one suffers birth in the five destinies. Once a person sees the three types of non-natures as empty or perceives that the skandhas, [ciyatanas, dhatus,] and so on are the emptiness of suchness and does not develop discrimination, that person can eradicate evil effects and consequently transcend and overcome all suffering and adversities. A verse says:

The bonds of the marks binding sentient beings, Who are bound by the crude barriers (dausthulya) Only by cultivating both calm (samatha) and insight (vipasyand) well

Can they be totally liberated.

Depending on the true, one gains insight into emptiness through which illusory karma is overcome. Through overcoming suffering, fruition manifests in great magnitude. The mark of emptiness is illuminated through hearing and reflecting on the teachings in the stage of preparation. In the sixth stage of the tenfold mind, faith does not backslide and the wholesome roots (kusala-mula) cannot be severed. Hence, the most serious suffering and ills are subdued forever. Therefore, a verse in a sutra says:

If there is anyone in this world who accomplishes The highest correct view,

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Although he might have to go through thousands of transmigrations,

He will not fall into the evil destinies of rebirth. After the fourth of the ten abodes, the crude barriers and ignorance do not occur and the suffering and ills of the evil destinies can be subdued. In the "abode of acquiring the Tathagata nature," the bodhisattva eradicates afflictions without remainder forever, leaves behind birth and death, and transcends the three realms. The Sutra on Pratityasamutpada (Yuan-ch'i-ching) says:

The samskaras of on-Buddhists and ordinary people are conditioned by four kinds of olly. If uddhists and ordinary people are lazy [in applying themselves to overcoming the barriers], their "fortunate" (fu) and "not moving" (pu-t'ung) samskaras are conditioned by three types of olly. Those who are not lazy, I would not say they are conditioned by ignorance. Therefore, after this stage all suffering and ills of the evil destinies are subdued.

After the seventh abode, the bodhisattva does not retrogress and leaves behind all the suffering and ills of the two vehicles. In the stage of penetrating understanding, he first realizes true emptiness and then overcomes all suffering, the ills of the three evil destinies, and the eight kinds of affliction. Or [some sutras say that in this stage] the bodhisattva can forever leave behind all the suffering, ills, fears, and afflictions of the three realms. [Some others claim that] it is only in the eighth bhumi that he is rid of the ills, for until the seventh bhumi some afflictions remain. In the tenth bhumi insight into emptiness is perfected, all defiled seeds are eliminated forever, and the suffering [resulting from] from mortal changes are all exhausted. In the stage of the Tathagata, he benefits sentient beings. The bodhisattva manifests to benefit beings from time to time, while actually he has not [yet reached the stage of the Tathagata],

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Kuan-tzu-tsai Bodhisattva has not yet become a Buddha; however, because of his insight into emptiness, he will certainly eradicate [all suffering]. Overcomes all is said to encourage the arousal of aspiration.

SUTRA: SARIPUTRA,

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that beings are established through dharmas, and dharmas are the cause of beings. Here the emptiness of eings is revealed first and then that of harmas. The Yogacarins comment that in the following portion of the text, Sariputra is mentioned as one who responds [to the teachings] and as an example, to show the superior practice of eradicating the four barriers. The following section of the text can be divided into three parts. The first part, beginning with "Sariputra," is to present the teachings on emptiness generally. The next part, beginning with "therefore," is to show specifically what should be seen as empty. The last part, beginning with "because of non-attainment," is to expound the principle of emptiness.

The Sanskrit word sari refers to a kind of small, freshwater bird. Sariputra is so named because of the eloquence of his mother [Sarika]. Also, to show that he was the son [of Sarika], he was called putra (son). Because his mother was quite skilled at debate, her son was named after her so as to defend good and destroy evil. Sariputra understood much even from hearing only a little. When the Buddha expounded teachings [on emptiness], Sariputra was the first to comprehend [them]. Now, when the sutra expounds the doctrine of emptiness, he is called upon as an example. Only the supreme teaching that encompasses all dharmas is expounded to show the principle of mptiness. Although only the venerable [Sariputra] is called upon as one who is responding [to the teachings], actually a multitude is included, too. They are called upon but they have not awakened to emptiness. Therefore, they are first encouraged and then urged to eradicate the four barriers [of desire, anger, fear, and ignorance].

536c

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A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra SUTRA: FORM DOES NOT DIFFER FROM EMPTINESS, AND EMPTINESS DOES NOT DIFFER FROM FORM. FORM ITSELF IS EMPTINESS, AND EMPTINESS ITSELF IS FORM.

Commentary: The four elements and their productions, such as the ten spheres of form" (rupa-ayatana; i.e., the five sense organs of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body and their associated sense objects of shape, sound, smell, taste, and touch) and the "sphere of dharma" ('dharmayatanikani rupani; i.e., the five types of onceptualized forms), whose nature is to constantly change in the present, are generally called "form."

The Madhyamikans comment that this passage extensively expounds the emptiness of dharmas. The Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra states:

Why is that? Form is by nature empty, for it does not need to be emptied. The emptiness of form is not form, yet form is not apart from emptiness, and emptiness is not different from form. Form itself is emptiness, and emptiness itself is form. This is to break two kinds of attachment. The phrase "form does not differ from emptiness, and emptiness does not differ from form" is to break attachment to the notion that apart from conventionally grasped form (grahya-rupa) there is true emptiness. Beings do not understand true emptiness and thus cling to form, erroneously increase deluded karma, and revolve in samsara. Now, [this passage] shows that the form of a flower seen through a cataract is actually caused by the diseased eye and is nothing but empty existence. Ultimately, form does not differ from emptiness. According to the Holy Teaching, whatever dependency arises is completely empty. Form itself is emptiness, and emptiness itself is form." This is to break foolish people's views that it is only when form has become nonexistent that it becomes empty. People permit various discriminations with regard to form and emptiness. Now, according to the ultimate teaching, form is originally empty by nature. [But] there is a distinction between how the emptiness and form of 90

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objects (artha) and mental images (birnba) are understood at the deluded and awakened stages.

Why does one have to wait for the destruction of form to see emptiness? It is like an [imaginary] flower seen [with an eye that has] a cataract; the flower is by nature nonexistent. Why should one have to wait for the destruction of the flower for it to become empty? Therefore, one should not be attached to form or emptiness; rather, one should eliminate erroneous views so that nirvana can ultimately be attained. What these two sentences of the sutra mean is that form is by nature empty; it is not that form becomes empty only after it is destroyed.

The Yogacarins comment that, according to ultimate truth, all dharmas are empty and nonexistent. Although this sounds reasonable at first glance, actually it is not necessarily so. The true and the conventional mutually shape each other, for if the conventional is not existent, the ultimate ceases. Form and emptiness are mutually dependent, for if form ceases, emptiness disappears. Therefore, the substance of form is not originally empty.

The Madhyamikans comment that actually emptiness is neither empty nor not empty. It is for the purpose of turning confusion into understanding that form is said to be empty. It is not that the emptiness of form is definitely empty, for emptiness is also empty. The Yogacarins comment that if form produced through conditions is originally nonexistent, then the fool would originally be wise, and common people and a sage would be mutually interchangable. If we all consider ourselves teachers, who are the confused? The Madhyamikans comment that afflictions (klesas) become enlightenment. Samsara is nirvana. The troubles of the world are 537a the seeds of Tathagatahood. All sentient beings are originally in quiescence. Are not the foolish originally wise? The Yogacarins comment that [there are two extremes: one claiming that form and emptiness are radically different, and the other claiming that they are identical.] If one asserts that things of orm (se-shih; rupa-vastu) are separate from the principle of emptiness, then one [can] reject form as delusion and seek emptiness 91

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[alone] for enlightenment. If [on the other hand] emptiness already is originally form, wisdom becomes identical to stupidity (yti). [If so,] wouldn't it be perverse to seek wisdom and reject stupidity? Furthermore, why abhor samsara and seek nirvana if ain (duhkha) and pleasure (sukha) are not distinct? [If they are the same,] what is the use of seeking nirvana? Stupid people (yii fu) in samsara would have already attained nirvana, and sages seeking the highest accomplishment would be committing heretical error. The Madhyamikans comment that worldly affairs, delusion (mi) and awakening, seeking the state of a sage, and forsaking worldliness are all ultimately empty, so why [should one] seek one and forsake the other?

The Yogacarins comment that if the phenomenal is allowed to be called nothing but emptiness, then in ultimate truth there is self-contradiction, because it would be as if the unenlightened realize that form is emptiness, while the enlightened do not realize the emptiness of form; that the diligent sages are pitiable and detestable, and the indolent and foolish are admirable. The Buddha said, "How does a bodhisattva comply with the perfection of skillful means? If sentient beings do not understand the sutra in which the Buddha expounds all dharmas as devoid of self-nature, existent things, production and extinction, and as like an illusion and a dream, then the bodhisattva should explain to them that the sutra does not mean all dharmas are nonexistent; rather, it means that only the self-nature of dharmas is nonexistent. Therefore, all dharmas are said to be devoid of self-nature. Although there are designations of things depending on [whatever level of] discussion is yet possible, according to ultimate truth, their expressible nature is not their own true nature. Therefore, it is said that all dharmas are nonexistent.

If in theory the self-nature of all dharmas is originally nonexistent, what then is produced and what is destroyed? Hence, all dharmas are said to be neither produced nor destroyed. Illusions and dreams are not real or existent as they appear, but it is not that their shapes or images are nonexistent. Similarly, all dharmas 92

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are not as real and existent as foolish people habitually think they are, and yet it is not that all dharmas, though ultimately beyond language, are, in themselves, entirely nonexistent. When one awakens to the fact that all dharmas are neither existing nor nonexisting, this is like [awakening] from an illusion or a dream whose nature is nondual (i.e., dream realities are neither entirely existent nor nonexistent). Therefore, it is said all dharmas are like an illusory dream. With regard to all dharmas in the Dharma realm (dharmadhatu), the bodhisattva does not become attached to or forsake them even a little bit, nor does he increase, decrease, or destroy them. If the dharmas are truly existent, he sees them as existent, and if they are truly nonexistent, he sees them as truly nonexistent. To instruct others like this is what is meant by the bodhisattva s complying with skillful means.

What the above passage means is that foolish people get at- 537b tached to either the notion that the self-nature of dharmas substantially exists, or to the notion that [all dharmas are] without self-nature, like an illusion and a dream, without existence or production and extinction. It is not that sagely knowledge does not exist. The Dharma-nature beyond words of the objects of cognition (visayas) of the ultimate and conventional truths is not like an illusion or a dream, whose shapes and images and essence are totally nonexistent, and called non-nature, and so on. Understanding that "what is attached to" (parikalpita) is nonexistent is called awakening to what is not existent; and understanding that the objects of cognition [cognized by the] sage (cirya) exist is called awakening to what is not nonexistent. Therefore, the sutra says that the bodhisattva does not become attached to what is nonexistent, nor does he forsake what is existent even a little bit. He understands what is nonexistent as nonexistent, and what is existent as existent. If one [erroneously] understands according to the ultimate truth that the substance of dharmas is empty and not existent at all, this is not skillful means. If one claims that enlightenment is not nonexistent and thus does not forsake it even a bit, this is also a vain supposition, for it diminishes and loses the actual truth.

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Therefore, this passage of the sutra is aimed at breaking attachment to the existence of form, as previously [explained], and thus it says that form is empty. Emptiness means nonexistence (urn). It is not that Dharma-nature is empty; rather, what the foolish attach to as inherent nature when sensing the marks of form does not exist. The attachment to [the notion of the] nonemptiness [of form] and [the attachment to the notion that] form becomes empty only after it is destroyed are two erroneous views. They should be eliminated. [This passage of the sutra] reveals the true meaning of form in distinction from what people [conventionally] understand. One should not develop erroneous sentience and perverted views. When erroneous sentience is cut off, grasped forms disappear. Therefore, one should break attachments to whatever arises from dependent nature (paratantra) and mere imagination (parikalpita). This is just as when the cataract is removed, the [imaginary] sky-flower [seen through a diseased eye] disappears. The activities (tso-yung) of the reality which the two vehicles and non-Buddhists cling to as Dharma-nature produced by causes and conditions are not existent at all. Therefore, the Holy Teaching claims that the causally produced dharmas are empty, but this does not mean that illusory forms of dependent nature are all empty. A verse says; The nature of erroneous discrimination (parikalpita), Can be established because of this [interpretation]. It is neither substantially existent nor totally nonexistent, So that the cessation [of defilement] and liberation are possible.

The Holy Teaching again claims that all dharmas are not produced by themselves nor by others, nor by both themselves and others, nor not by both themselves and others. Although there are no causes and effects to grasp on to, there are attainable functions and effects. Otherwise, there will be no conventional truth; and if there is no conventional truth, there is no ultimate truth either. Depending on whom, then, can one attain liberation? Or, this emptiness refers to the emptiness of the Dharma-nature. If one holds 94

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the notion that the form attached to by mere imagination and the form of dependent nature are definitely different from true existence, then one sees that the true and the conventional definitely discriminate against each other. This can easily cause confusion. [The text] now reveals that the nature of the two forms is empty, without marks, unconditioned, and does not account for cognition (chih; jnâna) or objects of cognition (visayas). One should get rid of the two attachments and seek true emptiness. Therefore, resorting to emptiness, one can eliminate both erroneous views. The form of Dharma-nature, in itself, is the true mark (chen hsiang), which is not different from emptiness and is nothing but emptiness. What doubt can there be?

The two truths of the Holy Teaching are different in depth. They mutually contain the true and conventional aspects, including: "worldly conventional convention," "worldly conventional truth," "truly true truth," and "truly true convention." The con- ventional is the convention of the true, and the true is the truth of the conventional. Where there is the conventional, there is the true. When the conventional is not existent, neither is the true. It is not that there is emptiness apart from form, and it is not that form and emptiness are definitely the same or different from each other. Therefore, true emptiness and form are neither different nor not different and neither the same nor not the same. To counteract [the view that they are] definitely different, [the sutra] says that they are the same and not different. However, [the sutra's assertion that they are] the same and not different also means that they are not the same nor not different. The Madhyântavibhâga[-sâstra] says. The unreality of both [object and subject],

And the reality of this unreality are

Neither existent nor nonexistent,

Neither different nor the same.

This is characteristic of emptiness.

Now, [the sutra] speaks of the mutual revelation of form and emptiness in order to make the meaning clearer and to break doubts 537c

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and attachments. Previously, the name of Kuan-tzu-tsai was mentioned in order to fortify the mind; now form and emptiness are spoken of in order to eradicate the four barriers: 1. The thoughts of [those of] the two vehicles are narrow and inferior, for they loathe the world and do not take delight in benefiting others.

2. They erroneously infer and arouse doubts with regard to the Mahayana.

3. When hearing, reflecting, [and meditating] on the term "self," they give rise to a plethora of dharma attachments. 4. They become attached to the discriminations in the provisional explanations of the teachings presented to them, from the lowliest pieces of form all the way up to bodhi. Now, the sutra s proclamation that form and other aggregates are not different from emptiness is to make one eradicate the inferior thoughts of [those of] the two vehicles and other hindrances so that one can obtain nondiscriminating wisdom and achieve the transcendent practices.

SUTRA: SO ARE FEELING, PERCEPTION, IMPULSES, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND SO FORTH.

Commentary: Fearing that people might hold the wrong notion that only form is not different from emptiness, and only the substance of form, not the others, is empty, the sutra further mentions that feeling and so forth are empty, like form. Feeling refers to the unpleasant, pleasant, or neutral sensations that are experienced through contact with the physical world. Perception means to conceptualize the distinctions between marks and no-marks, small and large, immeasurability and scarcity. Impulses refers to good, bad, and neutral volitional thoughts and all other mental activities. The mind, thought, and perception are capable of making distinctions and they are generally called "consciousness," which includes the four abodes of consciousness and the consciousness able to abide in them. From form comes feeling, from feeling comes perception, from perception comes action, and from action comes comprehension. 96

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Therefore, the sequence is from form to feeling and so forth. Because people grasp the five aspects with regard to the self— self-body, self-feeling, self-speech, self-activity, and self-substance— [the sutra says that] the skandhas have only function but no self-nature, for the self and its possessions are nonexistent. [The sutra] only says that the five [skandhas] are neither decreasing nor increasing. Foolish people do not understand that in order to break attachment to the self (dtma-grcLha), the sutra provisionally speaks of skandhas while actually there are no existing skandhas. Thus, they hold them as existent. To counteract this wrong notion, [the five skandhas] are said to be empty. The Vimsatika (Twenty Verses) says, "Sentient beings have no self ut only causes of he dharmas. And so forth refers to the five kinds of skillful means with regard to the [twelve] sense fields and the [eighteen] realms. The Mahaprajhaparamita-sutra says, "From form up to enlightenment, everything is empty. Even if there is a dharma that surpasses nirvana, I will say it is still as an illusion or a transformation." 538a Therefore, the phrase "and so forth" (teng) encompasses all dharmas. The Madhyamikans and Yogacarins have the same interpretation in regard to this.

The Mahaprajhaparamita-sutra says, "The self-nature of feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness is empty and does not need to be emptied." It then goes on to expound extensively that feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness are empty, and emptiness is feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness. Why is this so? Bodhi is nothing but a designation and is therefore called "emptiness." So are form, feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness. SUTRA: THEREFORE, SARIPUTRA, ALL DHARMAS ARE MARKED WITH EMPTINESS: THEY ARE NOT PRODUCED NOR EXTINGUISHED, NOT DEFILED NOR IMMACULATE, NOT INCREASED NOR

DECREASED.

Commentary: The previous passage indicates the emptiness of the substance of dharmas, while this passage indicates the emptiness of the referent (yi; artha) of dharmas. All dharmas refer to 97

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those of form, feeling, and so forth. Produced means to come into being from what is originally not existing. Extinguished means that which temporally existed before no longer exists. Defiled refers to the taint of indrance; its opposite is called immaculate. When form is broadened, it is increased; its opposite is decreased. The Madhyamikans assert that according to conventional truth, since form and other dharmas are existent, they are produced and so forth. According to the ultimate truth, form and so forth are originally empty. How can they be produced from emptiness? Therefore, the empty forms of production, extinction, and so forth are nonexistent.

The Yogacarins say that whatever dharmas are produced from mere imagination (parikalpita) and dependent nature (paratantra) are devoid of self-nature. The essential nature of form and so forth is empty in substance. It does not have the characteristics of production and so forth to which those of the two vehicles are attached. Therefore, [the sutra] says that the emptiness of form is neither produced nor destroyed and so forth.

Furthermore, if one clings to the notion that the mutability of the conditioned is definitely produced and destroyed, that the unconditioned before and after its transcendence of bondage substantially possesses [the qualities] of defilement and purity respectfully, and that before and after enlightenment the conditioned and the unconditioned decrease and increase respectively, then one is holding on to strong attachments. Therefore, substance and form are all nonexistent. How could it be like the attachments of [mundane] people [who see] that the conditioned is produced and extinguished, and that the unconditioned is defiled and purified? The principle is the same with "increase" and "decrease." This is like seeing a mirage [and believing it to be] real water. The mistaken water is originally empty; how can it be produced? Nonetheless, [the image of] water appears [in the distance due to] the sun's blaze.

Again, someone might rebut: If the phenomena of dependent nature are by nature empty, and if they are produced 98

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and extinguished, this [emptiness] should also be [produced and extinguished]. The answer to this is that, just as forms arise and cease in the sky (t'ai-k'ung) but the marks of emptiness are absent, similarly although paratantra has arising and ceasing, true emptiness is not like that.

Again, someone might rebut: If all dharmas are nothing but true emptiness, the mark of emptiness pervades defilement such as greed and pervades purity such as faith; then it should be either defiled or pure. The answer to this is that just as in space, form is either pure or defiled, but not so with the mark of emptiness, so although dharmas are pure or defiled, the mark of emptiness is not so. A verse says:

It is neither defiled nor undefiled,

Neither pure nor impure.

The nature of mind is originally pure

But is tainted by adventitious defilement.

Perhaps someone might rebut: If dharmas are all true without distinct marks, and if the sweet, dewlike Holy Teachings increase and decrease, then so should true emptiness. The answer to this is that, just as in space, the marks of form increase and decrease but not the marks of emptiness, so the Holy Teachings increase and decrease, but not the nature of mptiness. This is due to the difference between noumena and phenomena and between substance and marks. If all dharmas are nothing but emptiness and suchness, how can there be phenomena such as increasing, decreasing, and so on? What is expounded above generally indicates that not only is the substance of form not different from emptiness, but the differentiations produced from form are not different from emptiness. Here only three sets of dualities (i.e., produced and extinguished, defiled and immaculate, increased and decreased) are negated, while actually they are not exclusive with regard to the form of emptiness.

The Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra says that self-nature is neither produced nor extinguished, defiled nor pure. When a bodhisattva 538b

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practices prajhaparamita, he does not see arising or ceasing and he does not see defilement or purity. Why? It is because designations are expediently used to distinguish various dharmas. However, following the establishment of designations, discrimination and attachment arise accordingly. When the bodhisattva practices prajnaparamita, he does not perceive all [designations]. Because he does not perceive them, he does not give rise to attachment.

SUTRA: THEREFORE, IN EMPTINESS THERE IS NO FORM, FEEL ING, PERCEPTION, IMPULSES, NOR CONSCIOUSNESS.

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage expounds the undiflferentiation and identification of form with emptiness. For fear of an unclear meaning, and in order to make [one become] skillful in contemplation, the text indicates other dharmas which also do not exist in emptiness. Therefore is used to continue the passage and to indicate that in emptiness there are no other dharmas.

The Yogacarins comment that those of the three vehicles generally practice five kinds of skillful means, namely, the [five] skandhas, the [twelve] sense fields (ayatanas), the [eighteen] realms, dependent arising, and the [Four Noble] Truths. According to their own need, they practice either "close contemplation" or "distant contemplation. Since those of the two vehicles are attached to existence, nonexistence is expounded to counteract it. The substance and the referent (artha) of what one attaches to as emptiness are both made tranquil; therefore, the nature of what is attached to as skandhas is nonexistent. Nevertheless, the Buddha expediently set up the conditioned dharmas as skandhas and broke [the attachment] to the five aspects regarding the self so as to lead [people] to gradually enter true teachings. This is just skillful means; it does not mean [that the dharmas are] truly existent. Hence, a verse says: [The conditioned dharmas are] like the starry cataract, Illusion, dew, bubbles, dreams, lightning, and clouds Which come into being from the combination of conditions. One should perceive them like this.

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Even the conditioned dharmas are not determined skandhas; how much less can attachment to skandhas be true? The nature of the Dharma is empty; therefore, it is without the mark of the skandhas. Hence, there are no five skandhas in emptiness. The Mahaprajhaparamita-sutra says:

Furthermore, Sariputra, when bodhisattvas practice the prajndpdramita, they should contemplate like this: Bodhisattva" is nothing but a designation; "prajndpdramita'' is nothing but a designation, so are form, feeling, perception, impulses, and consciousness.

The sutra goes on to expound extensively.

SUTRA: NO EYE, EAR, NOSE, TONGUE, BODY, MIND; NO FORM, SOUND, SMELL, TASTE, TOUCHABLES, NOR OBJECT OF MIND, Commentary: This passage indicates that there are no twelve sense fields (dyatanas) in emptiness. The Madhyamikans comment that the Buddha expediently spoke of the [twelve] sense fields to lead [beings] to the true. After having led them to the true, he spoke of emptiness according to its true meaning.

The Yogacarins comment that it is only through contact between the sense organs and sense objects that the six consciousnesses arise. This is what is meant by sense fields. The worldly phenomena include seeing [through the eye], greeting [through the ear], smelling incense [through the nose], tasting food [through the tongue], serving [through the body], and discerning [through the mind]. The Buddha spoke of the sequence of sense fields like this:

In the causal stage, the eye and ear do not reach what they are able to grasp (i.e., they do not directly contact their objects but perceive them from a distance). Nose, tongue, and body do reach what they are able to apprehend (i.e., they have direct contact with their objects). Intentional thought (manas) is the eight consciousnesses. In the effect stage, both sets [of senses] are karmically indeterminate (pu-ting; aniyata). The function of the 538c

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eyes and ears is superior, and so gets the name "divine." Their transformations are unreal, only [active in] the desire and form realms. The consciousnesses of he lower realms depend on the higher realms through which karma, conditions (pratyaya), supernatural power, concentration, and the power of he Dharma arise. According to different stages of attainment, their functions are accordingly inferior or superior. [The arising of the eye consciousness requires] nine conditions; [the ear consciousness,] eight conditions; [the consciousnesses of nose, tongue, and body,] seven conditions; and [the mind consciousness,] five conditions.

Form refers to manifestation, shape, and appearance. Sound refers to the noise produced either through contact with the "great elements" [earth, water, fire, and wind] or without contact with the "great elements." Smell refers to natural, combined, and changed odors. Tastes refers to the bitter, sour, sweet, hot, salty, and mild [flavors]. Touchables refers to the four elements and that which is created by the four elements. Mental dharmas refers to the dharmas that do not "resist" each other (apratigha), other mental activities, elements not associated with the mind, and the unconditioned. The first five [organs] have only the two characteristics [of ripening {vipaka) and nourishing (aupacayika)]; and the rest (i.e., the mind) also have the characteristic of outflows (nisyanda) [in addition to the two characteristics mentioned above], Vipaka exists only in the realms of desire and form, while the other two exist in all three realms. Form and sound are manifested, and mind and its objects have all three [characteristics]. The ten kinds of form are either karmically indeterminate (avyakta) or beneficial (kusala), and are provisionally designated (prajnapti) according to either their separation from or dependence on existence. All [sense fields] are either defiled or nondefiled. The Vimsatikd says:

Conforming to the beings of birth by transformation, Out of hidden intention, the World-honored One

Said there are sense fields of form and so forth, Which are just like beings of transformational birth. 102

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This [verse] means that for [those] beings who falsely cling to the existence of self and thus have long been immersed in the cycle of samsara, but who do not wish to seek liberation and take the improper as a guiding principle, the Buddha, in order to counteract their nihilistic views, taught with secret intention that there are beings of transformational birth so as to lead them to enter the true and abandon clinging to a self. Those of the two vehicles who do not understand [the Buddha's] expedient teaching hold it as true. Now the text shows that which is clung to is originally nonexistent. Since there are no true sense fields in the dharmas of dependent arising, their external forms are also nonexistent, because the nature of dharmas is empty. To continue from the previous passage, this passage concludes that the sense fields are nonexistent. The Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra says, "The sense of the eye is nothing but a designation, so are other senses up to that of dharmas. The sense of the eye is empty; so are the other senses up to that of the objects of mind."

SUTRA: NO SIGHT-ORGAN REALM, AND SO FORTH, UNTIL WE COME TO NO MIND-CONSCIOUSNESS REALM.

Commentary: This passage indicates that in emptiness, there are no eighteen realms (dhatus). The Madhyamikans comment that the elements of eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, smell, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touchables, and body consciousness; and mind, dharmas, and mind consciousness are [collectively] called "the eighteen realms."

Here [the passage mentions only] the first and last realms to cover all [eighteen]. Conventionally, they are said to be existent; ultimately, they are nonexistent and are only designations, because their self-nature is empty.

The Yogacarins comment that because the sense organs and the sense objects can support the six consciousnesses and have the relation of cause and effect among themselves, they are called "realms." The realms of onsciousness arise according to the sequence 539a

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of the sense fields. Therefore, the eighteen realms are in this particular order. The six sense organs that come in contact with their objects are called "the six internal realms." The objects of the sense organs eyes and so forth—are the six "external realms," and the senses that result from contact between the organs and their objects are the six consciousnesses. Among them, the realm of mind consciousness refers to the mind (hsin), mental consciousnesses (yi), and consciousnesses (shih). Mind denotes the eighth consciousness (alayavijnana), which holds the "seeds" (bljas) perfumed [by karma] that take rebirth. Its nature is good and non-covered (wu-fu; anivrta) and it can transform the body receptacle, which is considered the base of sentient beings. It has three meanings: (1) considered as attached to the self, it is called alaya, which means "store," for it can store, is stored, and is the object of attachment; (2) considered as the effect of good or bad karma, it is called vipaka (hsi-shou), for it is the result of good or bad deeds; (3) considered as continuously holding together [karma], it is called adana, meaning holding together, in that it maintains the sentient organism.

Denoting the seventh consciousness that holds on to the defiled characteristics of self, mentation (manas) is the basis of contamination (asrava); it is pure and always equalized, and good (kusala) but covered (nivrta). It also has three names: (1) considered as responding to attachment to the self, it is called "covered manas," for it takes the alaya as the self; (2) considered as responding to attachments to dharmas, it is called "non-covered manas" since it holds dharmas when they are in the condition of vipaka (i.e., ripening, or reaching maturity; vipaka is always karmically neutral); (3) considered as having the nature of cogitation and intellectualization, it is simply called manas, because through adana (attachment) it gives rise to thinking and calculating. The cognizer (alambaka) and the object-support (alambana) are equal. Both the seventh and eighth consciousnesses have three names: Their first two [names] are contaminated (sasrava), while their third name has the characteristics of noncontamination (anasrava). 104

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Consciousness (vijnana) denotes the first six consciousnesses. Their names are self-explanatory [in their meaning]. They all have the three [good, bad, and undefiled] characteristics. In the stage of Buddhahood, the alaya is transformed into great mirror wisdom (maha-adarsa-jnana), because it manifests the [illusory] images explained through nine similes.

In the first bhumi, manas is transformed into the wisdom of equality (samata-jnana), which possesses the characteristics often equalities. In the stage of insight of those of the three vehicles, the sixth consciousness is transformed into the wisdom of rofound contemplation (pratyaveksana-jnana), which is perfected with ten superior functions. The first five consciousnesses are transformed into the wisdom of perfect achievement (krtyanusthdna-jnana), which brings forth the fulfillment of the ten actions and the original vows. In the causal stages, one characteristic of the consciousnesses is discrimination, while in the resultant stage [discrimination is] eliminated, so they are called "wisdom." The eight consciousnesses encompass the seven mental realms. The fourth wisdom, (i.e., great mirror wisdom) is solely wholesome and classified as belonging to the Dharma realm. The third wisdom illuminates existence and emptiness and encompasses ultimate and conventional knowledge. The wisdom of performed action illuminates conventional, not true, knowledge. Great mirror wisdom and the wisdom of equality are forever immovable. The former is perpetual and pervasive and is also called "omniscient" (sarvajna). The wisdom of profound contemplation and the wisdom of perfect achievement are sometimes interrupted. Although these four wisdoms possess various qualities (gunas), according to their own characteristics their qualities increase differently.

The Buddha spoke the Dharma in both brief and extensive ways. With regard to the meaning of skandhas, form and consciousness were briefly explained, while the [meaning of] the sense fields and the [eighteen] realms was extensively explained. When mental activities are broadly explained, the meaning of sense fields and realms 539b

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is briefly explained. For the sake of nintelligent people of the three vehicles, the skandhas are said to be conditioned, the sense fields are said to include two attachments [i.e., attachment to the internal six sense fields and the external six sense fields], and realms are said to include the objects of attachments [in addition to the twelve sense fields]. In order to break attachment to self, they are provisionally called "realms" (dhatus). Those of the two vehicles do not understand [the Buddha's intention], and thus cling to the realms as real. Actually, what they are clinging to is empty. Continuing from the previous passage, these [eighteen realms] are also negated.

SUTRA: NO IGNORANCE, NO EXTINCTION OF IGNORANCE, AND SO FORTH, UP TO THERE BEING NO OLD AGE AND DEATH, NOR NO EXTINCTION OF OLD AGE AND DEATH.

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage indicates no "distant contemplation," and the next passage no close contemplation," while this passage indicates that there is no "close contemplation" for the ratyekabuddha. Therefore, a sutra says that for anyone seeking the solitary enlightenment [of the pratyekabuddha,] the twelve links of dependent arising are taught. There is another interpretation. From ignorance up to old age and death, these are only designations because their self-nature is empty. Therefore, they are said to be nonexistent. Extinction means emptiness. Emptiness is also empty. Hence, the sutra says, "No extinction of ignorance and so forth, up to there being no old age and death, nor no extinction of old age and death." The twelve links of dependent arising are neither existent nor empty. The same is true of the others, which can now be reflected [from the example of the first link].

The Yogacarins comment that Maitreya said there is a forward (anuloma) and a reverse (pratiloma) way to view these [links of dependent arising] from both defiled and pure aspects. The forward way is to perceive defilement in accordance with the cycles of birth and death, while the reverse way is in accordance with increasing 106

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practice [to break the links]. The forward way of perceiving purity is based on the severance of the fundamental hindrances, while the reverse way is based on repeated contemplation after severance. The forward way of perceiving defilement is, first, to perceive that the substantial nature [of life] contains twelve links {nidanas): (1) ignorance (avidya), meaning to be deluded about the internal and foolish (yu) about the external; (2) karmic conditioning (,samskdra), which means [moving on to] fortunate or unfortunate [circumstances or rebirths] or not moving [up or down in the next life]; (3) consciousness (vijhana) means the karmic-maturing (vipaka) consciousness; (4) name and form inamarupa), meaning the five skandhas', (5) six sense spheres (sadayatana), meaning the six sense organs; (6) sensory contact (sparsa), meaning contact with objects; (7) feelings (vedand), meaning painful and pleasurable sense objects; (8) desire (trsnd), referring to clinging to the three realms; (9) appropriation (upadana), meaning afflictions (,klesas); (10) becoming (bhava), meaning the seeds—[developed] from "karmic conditioning" up to "feeling"— moistened by desire and appropriation, [engendering fruit that] leads from one existence to another; (11) birth (jdti), the reappearance of suffering resulting [from previous existence]; and (12) old age and death {jard-marana), that is, [the physical] changing, weakening, and ending of life.

Next, one should contemplate that erroneous actions produced from ignorance can result in the consciousness that manifests [seeds of] past karma. Then, the characteristics of the five skandhas appear and the sense organs develop. After contacting and feeling the field of objects of cognition (visaya-gocara), the "seeds" establish results. Indulging in desires, one increases klesas that in turn "moisten" previous karma. [Consequently] the suffering of the five destinies (gati)—birth, old age, death, sorrow, and misery-arise. Therefore, the sutra says ignorance conditions samskdras and so forth, until we come to birth conditioning old age and death. The five links of consciousness and so forth are not necessarily in sequence and, therefore, according to whatever 539c 107

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should arise, they become the condition for the arising of heir next link. The reverse way of perceiving defilement is to contemplate in accordance with the established [Four] Noble Truths. That is to contemplate the suffering of old age and death, the cause of old age and death, the cessation of old age and death, and the practice resulting in the cessation of old age and death. In the same fashion (going backward to birth, then becoming, and so on), the other links should be contemplated.

Because the link of old age and death comes under the truth of suffering, among the [twelve] links of dependent arising one contemplates it in reverse at first. With three kinds of characteristics, one looks into the link of old age and death: (1) "subtle dependent arising"; (2) "coarse dependent arising"; and (3) "not undetermined." The causal conditions that bring about birth are called "subtle dependent arising," namely, craving, grasping, and existence. Birth itself is called "coarse dependent arising," that is, the link of birth. Due to these two kinds of dependent arising, old age and death are brought forth.

"Subtle dependent arising" is the cause of old age and death in future lives, and coarse dependent arising" is the cause of old age and death in the present life. Except for these two kinds of dependent arisings, there is nothing that can bring about the result of ld age and birth. This is called "not undetermined." Although one might contemplate the truth of suffering of old age and death, this does not cover [contemplation on] the truth of the cause resulting in future suffering brought about by craving. Therefore, one should again look into the factors and conditions of the cause of present suffering, that is, contemplate in reverse the links of feeling, contact, the six "places" (i.e., sense organs), name and form, and consciousness. To contemplate future suffering is [contemplation of] the truth of suffering, and to contemplate the cause of [the factors and conditions that bring about suffering] is [contemplation of] the truth of the cause [of suffering]. When looking into the cause through which the cause of future suffering originates, one realizes it is due to past causes that present 108

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suffering arises. After understanding that [present suffering cornes from] past causes, one would no longer wonder how [present suffering] comes into being. Because consciousness and name and form are like bundles of reeds, which depend on each other without one being dominant, one contemplates the links of consciousness after that. Thus, contemplation of [the truth of] suffering and its cause, whether forward or backward, covers only ten links. Next, one should contemplate the truth of the cessation [of suffering] from old age and death up to ignorance. How can all [suffering] completely cease? It is through not creating new karma caused by ignorance that suffering can cease.

Next, one should seek the ways leading to the cessation [of suffering]. One should try to remember the teaching on dependent arising as taught by the Teacher (i.e., the Buddha) so that the proper view with regard to the world and wisdom can manifest. To contemplate again and again in this way causes the proper view to increase. These are the forward and reverse ways of perceiving defilement. Employing the previously accumulated provisions of proper view, one gradually attains the pure and wise views of the saiksas (i.e., those in training for enlightenment, but not yet enlightened) and arhats. One can thus completely cut off ignorance, craving, and also birth caused by ignorance. Within the present situation, one can realize wisdom and liberation. Because feelings, [dharmas] associated with mind (citta-samprayukta), craving, and afflictions are severed, one realizes liberation of the mind (cetovinrukti). When ignorance ceases, [the links of] karmic conditioning (sarnskaras) and consciousness down to feelings do not arise. Therefore, a sutra says that because ignorance ceases, karmic conditioning ceases, and so on up until we come to [the link of] sensory contact ceasing, then feeling ceases. Since feeling does not arise, there is nothing to cause desire. Hence, it is said that when feeling ceases, desire ceases, and all sorrows and miseries likewise cease. What is left is nothing but purified consciousness that abides in the realm of "nirvana with remainder." This is called the realization of nirvana in the present. When all contaminations are eliminated one abides in the traces of 540a

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the eternal truth, which is called "nirvana without remainder." The reverse way of perceiving purity is to look backward into the way of destroying [endless samsara]; that is, what should be destroyed so that birth and death cease to arise? [From this contemplation] one realizes that if dependent arising is inoperative, the seeds (bijas) [of past actions] and present activities are both nonexistent, so old age and death, [which would otherwise result from past and present actions,] are also nonexistent. When the impermanent conditions that give rise to [the seeds of the past becoming present activities] cease, then old age and death cease. Likewise, if dependent arising is inoperative, then the proclivities (anusaya), delusions, and ignorance do not exist, and thus karmic conditioning does not exist. When ignorance that is conditioned by impermanence ceases, karmic conditioning ceases. These are the reverse and forward ways of perceiving purity. [Some interpretations of] the forward way of perceiving defilement do not include the link of birth, because it awaits the opportune moment [to arise]. The reverse contemplation only covers nine [links], because [the link] of consciousness is not taken as a cumulative condition. Or, [one may] contemplate eleven links, since [the link of] ignorance is without cause and lacks the seed of wisdom. The Buddha expediently set up [the teaching on the twelve links of dependent arising] so that thepratyekabuddhas can attain bodhi by themselves. But they do not understand and mistakenly hold on to the reality of the dependent arising of defilement and purity. Now, [in this sutra, the twelve links] are said to be nonexistent, so that attachment to them can be forsaken. Of the defiled aspect it is said, "There is no ignorance, up to there being no old age and death." Of the pure aspect it is said, "There is no extinction of gnorance, up to there being no extinction of old age and death." The reverse way of observation should be done in the same fashion as the forward way. Once the existence of the first link is negated, so are the other links [one by one in sequence].

Although a bodhisattva in the sixth bhumi observes in this fashion, he still holds on to the reality of the production and 110

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extinction [of the twelve links]. Only after the seventh bhumi is a bodhisattva rid of the notion of production and extinction. P?oduction denotes defilement observed from the forward way of contemplation; that is, to observe "no ignorance up to no old age and death." Destruction denotes purity observed from the reverse way of contemplation, that is, to observe "no extinction of ignorance up to no extinction of old age and death." What is negated here is the attachment to the two types of dependent arising as eternally abiding (existent). [The sutra] does not negate that dependent arising operates (kung-neng) in principle. This is why a sutra teaches that through conventional truth, one enters ultimate truth, and that although there is no reality of the doer [of karma], karma [nonetheless] exists.

It is not that the nature of dependent on others (paratantra) is the definitive (ting) mark of dependent arising, while the destruction of ignorance, and so on, is the true principle. Therefore, [the sutra] negates both [extremes]. If good and evil karma are entirely nonexistent, the sutra should only say that dharmas are not existent. Why then does it also explain in detail that they are not nonexistent? Depending on causes and conditions, dharmas are

established. This teaching itself s very important, and thus it should be explained in detail.

SUTRA: NO SUFFERING, NO CAUSE, NO CESSATION, AND NO PATH. Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage denies the "close contemplation" of the pratyekabuddha, while this passage denies the "close contemplation of the sravaka. Therefore, a sutra says that for those who seek [the fruition of] a sravaka, the Four Noble Truths are expounded. It further says that the Four Noble Truths are merely a designation, since they are empty of self-nature. However, these two passages address the same object. [Practicing contemplation] on dependent arising includes 540b the practice of contemplating the Noble Truths. Therefore, once [the existence of the twelve links of] dependent arising is negated, the [Four Noble] Truths would be as well.

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The Yogacarins comment that the Srlmaladevi-sutra speaks of the four "established Noble Truths" and the four "unestablished Truths.' These eight Noble Truths are unknown to those of the two vehicles. Birth and death resulting from karma in the three realms is called suffering. Affliction and defiled actions are the causes [of suffering]. Nirvana is the cessation [of suffering], and ways bringing forth the realization of the wisdom of emptiness is the path.

The established Truth denotes what is known through coarse, obvious, and shallow knowledge. Birth and death resulting from change is suffering. The obstacle of the known (jheyavarana) and undefiled discriminative karma are the causes [of suffering]. Non-abiding nirvana with pure nature is the cessation [of uffering,] and the ways to the realization of the wisdom of the empty nature of the dharmas is the path. The non-established Truth is subtle, hidden, and difficult to comprehend.

Combining these two explanations (established and nonestablished Noble Truths), generally speaking, oppression by contamination is suffering. What causes future existence is called the cause [of suffering]. Hence, the neutral dharmas [which are neither good nor bad] do not belong to the truth of the cause [of suffering]. This is a brief explanation of birth and death as effects of causes. The four kinds of irvana denote the cessation [of suffering]. The uncontaminated conditions (anasrava-samskrtas) of the way to realize the cessation [of suffering] is called the path. This is a brief way of explaining transcendence of the world as the effect of causes. Just as a patient should know his own illness, the cause of his illness, the cure, and the methods (dharmas) of the cure, so [should a person] contemplate the suffering of samsara, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the methods [leading to the] cessation [of suffering]. Only what sages cognize can truly be called the "Noble Truths."

There is another interpretation. One can contemplate nothing but the suchness of the two emptinesses. This is a contemplation based on the synthetic view. Each of the Four Noble Truths has its 112

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own four practices, namely, impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and selflessness; causes, accumulation, production, and condition; cessation, calmness, subtlety, and detachment; and path, suchness, practice (hsing), and transcendence.

From the practices of the truth of suffering, the four perverted views (viparyasa) can be eradicated. In order to get insight into truth, one has to contemplate through intensive practices not only suffering but also the "unestablished truth" from which one gets insight into the truth. The Buddha spoke of suffering and so forth, while actually there is no suffering and so forth. The sravakas do not understand this, so in order to break their attachment [the sutra] says that there is no suffering and so on. Since dharmas of dependent nature are not necessarily a mark of suffering or the cause of suffering, how can they truly be differentiated? Therefore, [the Four Noble Truths are] negated. Although [a bodhisattva] in the fifth bhumi contemplates like this, he still holds the coarse forms of defilements and purity as real. It is in the sixth bhumi that he removes the obstacles derived from attachment to defilement and purity. Defilement is contamination. Without attachment to it, one realizes the two truths of suffering and the causes of suffering. Purity is noncontamination. Without attachment to it, one realizes the two truths of cessation and the path.

SUTRA: THERE IS NO KNOWLEDGE AND NO ATTAINMENT.

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage negates the "close contemplation of the sruvaka,, while this passage negates the "close contemplation" of the bodhisattva. The way that leads to realization is called "knowledge," and the object [of practice] realized is called "attainment." Where there is realizable knowledge, there is attainment. Realizable knowledge is empty; so is attainment. A sutra says that for those who seek bodhisattva-hood, the sixparamitas are taught. However, the sutra also speaks of no knowledge and no attainment. If dharmas are not empty, then when at first there is practice, later there will be attainment. Since dharmas are nonexistent, then when there is no 113

A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra 540c practice in the first place, later there will be no attainment. The Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra says that all kinds of knowledge are empty and even the unsurpassed bodhi is also empty. The Yogacarins comment that the bodhisattva contemplates only the nonestablished [truths], hence, generally speaking, [in terms of] the close [contemplation], there is no "knowledge" nor "attainment." A verse says:

Since the existence of consciousness is apprehended 0suo-te; upalabdhi),

Nonexistence of sense objects is apprehended. Since the nonexistence of sense objects is apprehended, The nonexistence of consciousness is apprehended. When one realizes suchness through nondiscriminative cognition (nirvikalpa-jnana), the mind and objects of cognition (visaya) are unified and equal. The grasper (grahaka) and the grasped (grahya) are nonexistent. In subsequent wisdom (prsthalabhajnana), there is no bondage from forms, illusory grasping, nor the two kinds of attachment. Another verse says: Due to the nature of apprehending the existence of consciousness

And establishing that nothing is apprehended, Hence know that in apprehending existence of the two (i.e., consciousness and its object),

They are equally unapprehended.

Because those [other than the sravakas and bodhisattvas] have never cut off the roots of attachment, their contemplation doesn't clearly distinguish the two graspings (i.e., grasper and grasped). There are two attachments. In order to break the notion that there is a real agent of grasping, [the sutra] says, "There is no knowledge." To break the notion that something can be grasped, [the sutra] says, "There is no attainment."

The two negations (i.e., no knowledge and no attainment) can counteract both graspings. No attachment is to counteract the two 114

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graspings separately, for it breaks the notion of the existence of the grasped. No knowledge is to counteract the notion of the existence of subtle functions, for it eliminates the notion of the existence of the grasper.

This interpretation is to eradicate the attachment derived from mere imagination (parikalpita). The illusory phenomena (shih) of paratantra cannot be definitively [classified] as either "knowledge" or "attainment" (i.e., belonging to either grasper or grasped). Suchness is essentially tranquil and devoid of the two characteristics [of knowledge and attainment]. Therefore, according to the three natures, it is said there is no knowledge and no attainment. That which does not arise from true cognition (chih;jnana) is not existent. Cognition and its object-sphere are calledprajna, since if there is no mark of grasping, there is no grasping of marks. SUTRA: THEREFORE, BECAUSE OF NON-ATTAINMENT,

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that although the previous section [of the sutra], which states In emptiness there is no form," concludes that form is not different from emptiness and is devoid of production and extinction, it does not explain the reason why form and so forth are nonexistent. Now, this passage reveals why there are no dharmas in emptiness. If the substance of form exists even slightly, according to ultimate truth, there will be some attainment. Since there is no attainment at all, originally all are empty. As the Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra says, "Because the selfnature is empty, all are empty."

The Yogacarins comment that the Madhyantavibhaga[-sastra] says that a bodhisattva primarily practices ten [types of] skillful contemplations on: (1) the skandhas; (2) the sense fields; (3) the [eighteen] realms; (4) the dependent arisings; (5) the abodes and non-abodes; (6) the sense organs; (7) the world; (8) the truths; (9) the vehicles; and (10) the conditioned and unconditioned. Because Sariputra was gradually awakened to the Mahayana, the sutra does not mention the six characteristics of the three vehicles, namely: the general, the particular, the close, the distant, the intensified, 115

A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra and the fundamental practices. Through the two true contemplations, one realizes the noumenal and phenomenal aspects of the Dharma. These six characteristics that are grasped are nonexistent. The dharmas of dependent and consummate natures are definitely not of the six characteristics. Therefore, non-attainment 54ia is used to explain the nonexistence [of the dharmas mentioned above]. The Mahaprajndparamita-sutra says, "Form and other dharmas are nonattainable, so is profound wisdom (prajna)." SUTRA: THE BODHISATTVA, HAVING RELIED ON THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM, ABIDES WITHOUT MENTAL OBSTRUCTIONS. BECAUSE OF THE NONEXISTENCE OF MENTAL OBSTRUCTIONS, HE HAS NO FEAR, HAS OVERCOME ALL PERVERTED VIEWS, HAS LEFT DREAMLIKE THOUGHTS FAR BEHIND, AND IN THE END ACHIEVES NIRVANA. Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the first part of this passage refutes two kinds of attachment and broadly expounds two kinds of emptiness. The second part praises two kinds of reliance through which two kinds of benefit are obtained; that is, praising causal reliance, which severs obstructive defilements, and praising beneficial reliance, which is another name for the practices expounded previously.

Kua means obstruction, and ai means restrain. Kung means fear, and pu means timidity. If one does not rely on wisdom, one will be obstructed by the impediments of form and so forth, and will sicken in suffering and fear. Due to this suffering and fear from the obstructions of illusory thought and samsara, one brings forth the aspiration for ultimate nirvana. By relying on wisdom through which one realizes that form is emptiness, one will be free from hindrance, suffering, fear, and mental obstructions. Because form and samsara are nothing but nirvana, why seek illusorily for ultimate nirvana? Therefore, by relying on wisdom, one leaves behind all [erroneous views].

The Yogacarins comment that the next passage [of the text] indicates that one leaves behind suffering and achieves perfect realization by relying on virtue and superior benefits to others. 116

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This passage is to praise the benefits derived from the practices in the bodhisattva's causal stage. The bodhisattva constantly elucidates the literary meaning [of prajna], trains to contemplate and meditate on the true form [of prajna], and cultivates prajna with a retinue. He does not seek illusorily to know all external phenomena. This is what is meant by "having relied on the perfection of wisdom."

Kua refers to the obstruction of the afflictions (klesavarana), which prevents one from reaching nirvana; ai refers to the obstruction of the known (jneyavarana), which prevents one from attaining enlightenment. Or, it may be said that kua is ai, for both denote the two obstructions [of affliction and of the known]. Fear is of five kinds: (1) fear of mortality, arising from the craving for one's existence; (2) fear of infamy, arising from not benefiting others and from having desires; (3) fear of death, arising from having the thought of the destruction of one's self; (4) fear of evil transmigrations, arising from not meeting with the Buddhas and from evil karma; and (5) fear of others, arising from seeing oneself as inferior and others as superior.

Perverted views (viparyasa) refers to seven wrong notions. They are those of: (1) conceptualization (samjna); (2) views (drsti); (3) mind (citta); (4) seeing permanence in the impermanent; (5) seeing pleasure in suffering; (6) seeing purity in impurity; and (7) seeing the self in the selfless. The last four kinds of erroneous conceptual discriminations are called "conceptual perversions. Agreement with, longing for, building up, and attachment to desires are called "perverted views." Mental perversions are Mesas which include three kinds: (1) the fundamental, referring to stupidity and doubt; (2) the substantial, referring to extremely one-sided views, heterodox ascetic views, views one desires and grasps, and views of a real self (satkayadrsti); and (3) flow of the same type (nisyanda), which refers to all other kinds of afflictions. Dreamlike thoughts means that one is not really awakened to wisdom and thus is as if always abiding in a dream. Because of this, the Buddha said that samsara is like a long night. Dreams 117

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54ib are caused by thought, so they are called "dreamlike thought." The seven perverted views mentioned above are caused by erroneous thought. To act as if in a dream is called "dreamlike thought." Or, it can be explained that the perverted views mentioned above are the causes of samsara and that dreamlike thought is the result of samsara, which is like the many bodies and objects seen in dreams; therefore the result [of samsara] indicates dreamlike thought. Nirvana means perfect cessation (yuan-chi). Its substance pervades universally and its nature is profound. It accords with the nature of suchness, which is nondual and nondiscriminative. According to the realization of the cessation of the conditioned, there are four kinds of nirvana: (1) nirvana that is pure in its essential nature, referring to the real mark of the suchness of all dharmas; (2) non-abiding nirvana that is pure suchness, which is always assisted by great compassion and wisdom, and which transcends the obstruction of the known (jheyavarana)\ (3) nirvana with remainder, referring to the suchness revealed after the cessation of the cause [of suffering]; and (4) nirvana without remainder, referring to the suchness revealed after the cessation of suffering. As for the first kind of nirvana, it is commonly possessed by both ordinary people and holy ones, for all sentient beings have no birth and death and are originally in nirvana. As to the second kind [of nirvana], the bodhisattva abides in the [nirvana of] nonabiding. The sravakas cannot attain this kind of nirvana. With regard to the last two kinds of nirvana, all those of the three vehicles can obtain liberation.

In summary, relying on the perfection of wisdom, the bodhisattva is awakened to the three non-natures and the emptiness of all things manifested through the two emptinesses of self and dharmas. His mind is not obstructed by the two kinds of hindrance, not disturbed by the five kinds of fear, not bound by the seven perverted views, and not deluded by the obstructions of dreamlike thoughts. He can ultimately realize nirvana.

Or, [it may be explained that] by relying onprajha[-pdramita], the bodhisattva, in the stage of superb understanding in the path 118

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of provisioning, gradually subdues discrimination of the two obstructions present before him. In the stage of intensified effort, he can either suddenly or gradually subdue the two inherent obstructions. His mind is free from hindrances. In the stage of the path of vision, he can then eliminate discrimination and attachment. His aspirations are fulfilled and he has no fear. In the stage of the path of cultivation, he increases his understanding and practice, cuts off all perverted views, and detaches from the dreamlike thoughts of birth and death. In the stage of no more to learn, he [realizes] ultimate nirvana, since what he practiced in the previous four stages has progressed [to this point].

In the abode of ultimate joy, all the afflictions of the evil destinies and the obstructions of the known, which are as coarse as skin, are eliminated forever. All afflictions (klesas) no longer appear and the mind is free from obstructions, for [the bodhisattva] has attained uncontaminated wisdom. In the abode of formless effortlessness, [the bodhisattva] cuts off forever all afflictions (klesas) that obstruct the wisdom of no-birth and the obstruction of the known, the crude barriers that were skin-deep. Because no klesa appears, the bodhisattva has no fear. The cause is followed by the result, and in the resultant stage, all [fears] are severed. In the abode of ultimate fulfillment, [the bodhisattva] eliminates forever all klesas, karmic habits (vasana), proclivities (anusaya), and the obstruction of the known, which were the crude barriers [at the level of] his bones. After entering the abode of the Tathagatas, [the bodhisattva] leaves behind perverted views and dreamlike thoughts. Since the two kinds of obstruction have been eliminated in the three abodes, the bodhisattva has reached Buddhahood, final nirvana. SUTRA: ALL BUDDHAS OF THE THREE PERIODS OF TIME, AFTER RELYING ON THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM, REALIZE UNSURPASSED, RIGHT, COMPLETE ENLIGHTENMENT (ANUTTARA-SAMYAK-SAMBODHI). Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage praises the cessation of the obstructions and the defiled 541c

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benefits in the causal stage, and that this passage praises the attainment of bodhi benefits in the resultant stage. Three periods of time (san-shih) means past, present, and future. All Buddhas means not only one Buddha. The Sanskrit word buddha is abbreviated as f°> meaning "lord of isdom." The Chinese translation of Buddha is Chueh-che ("Enlightened One"). Te means to realize. A (an) denotes negation. Nou-tou-luo {uttara) means nothing goes beyond. Sam (sam) means right. Miao {yak) means complete. Sam again means right. Pu-t'i {bodhi) means enlightenment. Marga means path; it is omitted in the text. Unsurpassed {anuttara) means not surpassed. To know completely the noumenal and phenomenal is what is meant by right and complete. To leave behind the false and to illuminate the true is called 'right enlightenment." Thus anuttara-samyaksambodhi means nothing-beyond, right, complete enlightenment. The Mahaprajndpdramitd-sastra {Ta-chih-tu-lun) says that [both] wisdom [itself ] and the object of isdom are called "prajha." The enlightened ones of the past, present, and future have all relied on it. To realize right enlightenment is to realize wisdom and comprehend emptiness. Or, [it may be explained that] the nature of emptiness is enlightenment and that the subtle substance of the Tathagata is the dharmakaya.

The Yogacarins comment that to transcend samsara and to awaken to wisdom is likened to waking from a dream. To tally with the nature of the Dharma, and to explain it, is likened to the blossoming of a flower. After attaining true and conventional wisdom, accomplishing enlightenment for oneself and others, and perfecting knowledge and practice, one is called a "Buddha." [Although a Buddha] does not need further practice after the perfection of enlightenment, he does not forsake [the practice] of helping sentient beings. Therefore, it is said, "The Buddhas have relied on prajha. Reliance can also denote [the results of prior] practice. In other words, in the causal stage the Buddhas have relied on the practice of prajha and thus have attained complete enlightenment. This reveals five characteristics. The pure Dharma realm, which is the Buddha's dharmakaya, suchness, and nirvana, possesses truly 120

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wonderful merits and results from contemplating the principle of emptiness. The other four kinds of isdom refer to conditioned qualities, that is, the fruition of realized sambhogakaya, which results from the practice of self-benefit. The pure and magnificent Buddha body that manifests for the Mahabodhisattvas (Great Bodhisattvas) is called the "sambhogakaya for others' benefit." The Buddha body that manifests undeterminedly, either in a pure or defiled form, for those of the two vehicles is called the "nirmanakctya." Both bodies appear in response to others' needs in order to benefit them. The "sambhogakaya for own enjoyment" possesses one hundred forty uncommon qualities, such as the Tathagata's thirty-two marks of a great person; the eighty subtle characteristics; the four kinds of purity; the ten powers; the four fearlessnesses; the three mindfulnesses (tri-smrtyupasthanana); great compassion; never forgetting the Dharma; permanent severance of habit; all types of subtle wisdom; the eight liberations; the eight stages in meditation; the samadhis of nine degrees; the ten universals [of contemplating the universe from ten aspects]; the four immeasurables; the three emancipations; the three kinds of realization of no rebirth; the thirtyseven dharmas [factors] leading to bodhi; the five eyes; the six supernatural powers; the four unobstructed understandings; wisdom from the vow of being non-disputatious; constantly dwelling in equanimity; the eighteen uncommon characteristics of a Buddha, and so forth, up to omniscience (sarvajha) and immeasurable qualities which are too many to mention.

The "sambhogakaya for others" and the nirmanakdya also have similar qualities. The conditioned qualities are subsumed under the four kinds of wisdom. Wisdom is the core of bodhi-jnana (knowledge of enlightenment). The suchness of the dharmakaya is called the bodhi that cuts off [afflictions]. A sutra says that both bodhijnana and the bodhi that cuts off [afflictions] are generally called "bodhi." Thus, those who know bodhi are provisionally called Buddhas, which, in general, is a heuristic for realizing and attaining the special Dharma. Hence [the sutra] says that Buddhas attain bodhi, which includes exhaustive qualities. Wisdom that cuts 121

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off [the obstructions] and is perfectly fulfilled is called "unsurpassed awakening." The knowledge of ordinary people can only be called "right enlightenment." The partial wisdom of those of the two vehicles can only be called "equal enlightenment." The incomplete wisdom of the bodhisattva can only be called "right enlightenment. Only the perfect realization of the Buddha can be called "unsurpassed, right, complete enlightenment" (anuttara-samyaksambodhi). The Vajracchedikd-prajnaparamita-sutra says that all Buddhas and all Tathagatas are born from this sutra. Therefore, the three bodies of he Buddha are all bodhi. The Adhyardhasatika-sutra says that one who has faith in and studies this sutra can quickly fulfill bodhisattva practices and immediately realize unsurpassed, right, complete enlightenment. Therefore, sambodhi is attained through this (prajnaparamita).

SUTRA: THEREFORE, ONE SHOULD KNOW PRAJNAPARAMITA AS THE GREAT MARVELOUS MANTRA, THE GREAT ILLUMINATING MANTRA, THE UNSURPASSED MANTRA, THE UNEQUALED MANTRA

Commentary: The Madhyamikans comment that the previous passage has already separately expounded the two causal reliances and the two resultant benefits. This passage summarizes and praises the supreme function ofprajha. To continue from the previous passage to the next, [the phrase] therefore, one should know is used.

Shen means marvelous, unlimited function. Illuminating (ming) means shining through all darkness. Unsurpassed (wu-shang) means the utmost. Unequaled (wu-teng-teng) means incomparable. The Great Master's (i.e., the Buddha) secret Dharma reveals the orthodox, destroys the heterodox, eliminates evil, and attends to goodness. It is respected and followed by spirits and holy ones. Its great power is beyond measure and is therefore called a "mantra." The Yogacarins commented that the Sanskrit word dharani was translated [in Chinese] as tsung-ch'ih. Briefly there are four kinds: (1) Dharma [dharani,\ which encompasses the comprehensive [Dharma] 122

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in a condensed [mantra]; (2) meaning of [dhârani,] which encompasses the comprehensive meaning [of the Dharma] through the concise meaning [of the mantra]; (3) the dhârani that is able to cause a bodhisattva to attain the belief in no rebirth. Maitreya Bodhisattva said, "Yi-t'i-mi-t'i-chi-t'i-p'i-ch'an-t'i po-t'o-ni sha-ho"; (4) mantra—in the Mahâprajhâpâramitâ-sütra this mantra is found: Na-mu-po-ch'ieh-fa-ti po-la-huai po-lo-mi-to-i tan chih-t a shihshai-i shih-shai-i shih-shai-i shih-shai-i hsi-sha-ho (Namo bhagavate prajnâpâramitâye tadyathâ sriye sriye sriyase svâhâ). The extraordinary power of this mantra is extensively expounded in sutras. The mantra is comprised of recollection, wisdom, and myriads of qualities. According to the old tradition, [dhârani] is generally called "mantra." The previous section of the sutra elucidates the essential meaning, while this section teaches a mantra. From the mantra come forth the four categories of sentient beings: common people, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. [From the mantra comes forth] the marvelous function of the text and terms; the perfect illumination of the contemplative [prajnâ], the superior beneficial [prajnâ with a] retinue, the incomparable true form [of prajnâ], or all four aspects [of prajnâ]. Therefore, prajnâ is called "the great marvelous mantra and so forth, up to the "unsurpassed mantra."

To exhort learners to practice the ten practices according to this sutra, Maitreya spoke this verse:

Copying [scriptures], making offerings,

Giving to others, listening [to others' recitations], reading [sutras],

Upholding [the Dharma], explaining to others, Reciting, pondering, and putting into practice; One who cultivates these ten practices

Attains immeasurable blessings.

[These ten practices are] superior and inexhaustible, Because they never cease benefiting beings. 542b

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SUTRA: WHICH ELIMINATES ALL SUFFERING.

Commentary: The previous passage indicates the qualities [of the mantra], and this passage indicates that it can destroy evil. To have faith in, learn, realize, and expound it can eliminate suffering. Therefore, the Mahdprajnaparamita-sUtra says that one who practices the ten practices with regard to this sutra will not be tainted by any obstacles. Although one might create the most seriously vicious karma, one can get away from all evil destinies. Even if one had killed all beings in the three realms, one would never fall into the destinies of the hell beings, animals, or hungry ghosts. [Even] if one abides in all kinds of afflictions, one is like a lotus flower untainted by mud. One always comes together with all good things and attains unobstructed wisdom with regard to the Dharma and beings. One can skillfully comprehend the nature of equanimity and subdue one's own and others' anger. To one's present enemies, one brings forth compassionate thoughts. One can always see the Buddhas, attain the power to know all previous transmigrations, and remember the true Dharma one has heard.

All kinds of joy and happiness frequently manifest before oneself. One is always vigorous in practicing good dharmas; thus, no evil demons or heretics can linger and the four heavenly kings always accompany and protect [one]. One will never suffer a violent death nor encounter disasters. At all times, all Buddhas and bodhisattvas protect and help [one] to increase good and decrease evil. As one wishes, one can be bom in any Buddha land one wishes. One does not fall into the evil destinies but swiftly fulfills all bodhisattva practices and quickly realizes unsurpassed, right, complete enlightenment (anuttard-samyak-sarnbodhi). Regardless of hat one wishes for, there is nothing that one cannot do. Hence, as soon as the four assemblies [of uddhists] (i.e., monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen), at the king's capital have recited [the mantra], all demons are subdued. As soon as it is upheld by Avalokitesvara who has one thousand eyes, enmity disperses. How much more so [would benefits ensue] if a person deeply and sincerely cultivates the cause [of bodhi] and 124

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its perfect fruition? How could [such a person] not transcend the five paths of transmigration and become a master striding over the ten directions?

SUTRA: IT IS TRUE.

Commentary: This is repeated to eliminate doubt and to promote faith. How can the Holy One (the Buddha), who renounced the position of a cakravartin, who stayed in quiet woods, who gave up all his possessions, who was honored as a kind father and a Dharma king, who practiced all practices, who guided great sages and heavenly beings, deceive people? This is not possible. Therefore, this sutra states that the Tathagata is one who speaks the truth and only the truth. So one should have faith and not give rise to alarm and doubt.

SUTRA: BY PRAJNAPARAMITA HAS THIS MANTRA BEEN DELIVERED. IT GOES LIKE THIS: GONE, GONE BEYOND, GONE ALTOGETHER BEYOND, OH! WHAT AN AWAKENING! ALL HAIL! (GATE GATE PARAGATE PARASAMGATE BODHISVAHA)

Commentary: The doctrine and meaning expounded above is to exhort people to bring forth faith and to study, and in order to help them quickly get the essence, the mantra is taught. Because wisdom and compassion are difficult to practice in the era of the great kalpa, the Buddha vowed to employ concise words. The intention [of the mantra] is profound and its doctrine abstruse and broad. It is not easy to comment on it in detail.

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