T1585 Three Texts on Consciousness Only

THE TREATISE IN TWENTY VERSES ON CONSCIOUSNESS ONLY

Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only to eliminate gradually the grasper and the grasped. What are its characteristics?

Setting the least thing before one, Saying, it is of the nature of consciousness only, One does not really abide in consciousness only, Because there is something obtained. (27) The third is the state of thorough understanding [prativedhaavastha], That is, the path of insight [darsana-marga\ dwelt upon by all bodhisattvas. Abiding in the state of thorough understanding is like the real thorough understanding [itself]. What are its characteristics?

Whenever, regarding the objective realm, Knowledge is completely devoid of something obtained, Then it dwells in consciousness only, Because it is divorced from characteristics of the twofold grasping. (28)

The fourth is the state of cultivation [bhâvanâ-avasthà]. That is, the path of cultivation [bhâvanà-mdrga] dwelt upon by all bodhisattvas. The state of cultivation is like really perceiving the noumenal reality and cultivating it over and over. What are its characteristics? Devoid of anything obtained, inconceivable, This is supermundane knowledge.

Because of abandoning the twofold coarseness, One realizes the transmutation of the support [aéraya-paravrtti]. (29)

The fifth is the state of culmination [nisthà-avasthâ]. That is, abiding in supreme, perfect bodhi. By escaping the obstacles, perfect and bright, it has the ability to change sentient beings forever. What are its characteristics?

It is the pure realm,

Inconceivable, good, eternal,

Blissful, and the body of liberation, Which in the great muni is named Dharma [body], (30) 383

L

THE TREATISE IN TWENTY VERSES ON CONSCIOUSNESS ONLY by

Bodhisattva Vasubandhu Translated into Chinese by the Dharma Teacher of the Tripitaka, Hsuan-tsang of the Great T'ang Dynasty Translated from the Chinese (Taisho Volume 31, Number 1590) by

Francis H. Cook

Introduction to the Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

-

Introduction to the

Treatise in Twenty Verses

on Consciousness Only

The brief verse work translated here and known commonly as the "Twenty Verses" should be read along with its companion piece, the "Thirty Verses," which appears previously in this volume. These two short verse treatises by the Indian Buddhist scholar-monk, Vasubandhu, who lived during the fourth century, set forth the philosophical position that characterizes the Yogacara School. But whereas the "Thirty Verses" is devoted to systematically discussing kinds of consciousness, the theory of seeds stored in the store consciousness, the nature of delusion and enlightenment, the process of liminating false imagination and discrimination, and other aspects of ogacara thought, the "Twenty Verses" is devoted to defending this teaching against possible counterarguments by Buddhists and non-Buddhist opponents.

The "Twenty Verses" is a series of hypothetical objections by possible opponents with replies by Vasubandhu. The objections of opponents are philosophically realistic arguments. In all cases, the opponent takes the realistic, no-nonsense position that the things seen, heard, smelled, etc., are real things that exist in the world outside the mind. The opponent typically offers an argument as to why it. cannot be possible for perceived objects to be merely mental constructs (vijnapti) and nonexistent apart from consciousness, which is Vasubandhu's position. Along with this, he offers reasoned arguments as to why perceived objects must necessarily really exist apart from consciousness. That is why he is a realist. Vasubandhu counters each argument, explaining why the realistic argument is faulty and, at 387

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

the same time, why objects of perception cannot rationally be considered to exist apart from consciousness.

Consequently, Vasubandhu's work is to respond to what may be seen as the main counter-arguments to the Yogacara position. He responds to such arguments as the claim that if perceived events do not exist outside consciousness, we ought not to be held karmically responsible for our deeds, which do not really exist apart from mind. He responds also to the argument that since we all have diverse karmic histories, we ought not all to see the same things at the same time if these events are only mental fabrications. Commonality of experiences argues for their objective reality. Likewise, he counters the argument that if other beings are only mental constructs, either we cannot meaningfully speak of knowing another's mind or else the other really does exist outside of mind. In arguing against these and a number of other objections, Vasubandhu displays a powerful grasp of Buddhist doctrine and an impressive mastery of logical reasoning. The "Twenty Verses" is no. 1590 in vol. 31 of the Taisho shinshu daizokyo. The text, translated from the Sanskrit by the Chinese monk Hsiian-tsang, consists of a series of verses interspersed with prose commentary, Vasubandhu's own commentary (vrtti) on his verses. I have numbered the verses for the convenience of the reader because on several occasions the verse is commented on in pieces. I have thus labeled the four naturally occurring parts of a verse "a," "b," "c," and "d. " The reader will also note that the "Twenty Verses" actually contains twenty-one verses, not twenty. The final verse is not part of the arguments but rather Vasubandhu's confession of inadequacy and his praise for Buddhas, who alone know all the fine points of the doctrine. Readers who compare this translation with those made from the Sanskrit will also notice discrepancies in the number and numbering of the Chinese and Sanskrit versions. Verse number one in the Chinese text is verse number two in the Sanskrit version, which has a different first verse. The Sanskrit text thus has twenty-two verses. The Chinese text has been translated once before, by Clarence C. Hamilton, Wei Shih Er Shih Lun or the Treatise in Twenty Stanzas on Representation Only, New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1938, 388

Translator's Introduction

reprinted by Kraus Reprint Corporation, New York, 1962. The Sanskrit text was translated and discussed by Stefan Anacker, Seven Works ofVasuband.hu, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984, and Thomas A. Kochumuttom, A Buddhist Doctrine of Experience, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982. Hsiian-tsang's disciple, K'uei-chi, wrote an indispensable commentary on the "Twenty Verses," Wei-shih erh shih lun shu chi, Taisho shinshu daizokyo, vol. 43, no. 1834. Most writers on Buddhist teachings in general or Yogacara thought in particular have discussed the doctrine of consciousness only to one degree of adequacy or another.

389

The Treatise in Twenty Verses

on Consciousness Only

"The three realms are consciousness only" of the Mahayana is es- tablished through the scriptural expression, "the three realms are mind only." "Mind," "thought," "consciousness," and "perception" (vijnapti) are different names. Here, "mind" and "thought" are lumped together with mental activities (caitta). "Only" excludes objects of perception (artha) that are external [to consciousness], not associates [of consciousness]. When internal consciousness is born, it appears resembling external objects of perception, [but] in the same way that one with diseased eyesight sees [nonexistent] hairs, flies, etc. Here there is not the slightest aspect of reality. Regarding this concept, there are some doubts. A verse says, If consciousness is without real objects of perception, The restriction (niyama) of place and time,

The nonrestriction of mental continuity (samtana), And function would not be established. (1)

The Treatise asks, what does this mean? If you reject [the idea that] consciousness really has external dharmas such as form, and [that] consciousness of form, etc., arises conditioned by [external] form, etc., why does this consciousness arise in some places but not in all places? Why does consciousness [of form, etc.,] occur in one place at one time but not at all times? When there are many mental continuities in the same single place at one time, why is [consciousness of form] not born restricted according to [just] one consciousness, just as one with diseased eyesight sees hairs, flies, 74b

391

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

etc., but this consciousness is not born in someone without the disease? Again, [asks the realist,] why are the [imaginary] hairs, etc., seen by those with eye disease lacking in the function of [real] hair, etc.? Food, drink, swords, cudgels, poison, medicines, clothes, etc., in a dream are devoid of the function of food, etc. The Gandharva city etc., is devoid of the function of a [real] city, etc., but the function of other things such as [real] hair is not nonexistent. If [dreams and waking] are really the same, without external objects of perception such as form, and there is only internal consciousness that is born resembling an external objective realm, the restriction (niyati) of place and time, nonrestriction of mental continuities, and the functioning of things would not be demonstrated. [We reply,] they are not all not demonstrated. A verse says, Time and place are restricted as in dreams.

The body is not restricted, just as [hungry] ghosts (preta) All alike see pus rivers, etc.,

And just as in dreams loss [of semen] has a function. (2) The Treatise says, the meaning of "as in dreams" is that it is like what is seen in dreams. That is, just as in a dream there are no real objects of perception and still in one place one can see a village, garden, men and women, etc., but not in all places, and at this place at a certain time one can see a village, garden, etc., but not at all times. Consequently, although there are no real objects of perception external to consciousness, restriction of time and place are not undemonstrable.

The Treatise says, "as ghosts" means "hungry ghosts" {preta). The rivers [they see] are filled with pus and are therefore called "pus rivers, " in the same way one speaks of a pot filled with ghee as a "ghee pot." This means that just as through the maturation of the same actions {karma) the many bodies of hungry ghosts collect together [in the nether world] and all see the pus rivers, it is not that in this [situation] it is restricted so only one sees it. The word "etc." means that they also may see excrement, etc., and sentient beings grasping swords and cudgels, defending and guarding food and not allowing [the hungry ghosts] to get food. 392

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

Consequently, even though there are no real objects of perception apart from consciousness, still the nonrestriction of many mental continuities is demonstrated.

Also, just as in a dream the objects of perception are devoid of reality, yet there is a function for such things as loss of semen, etc., as a result of this, although there are no real objects of perception apart from consciousness, still, the concept of a function that is false [in a waking state] is demonstrated. Thus by using different similes, the four concepts such as restriction of place are demonstrated. Again, the next verse says,

All [four concepts] are like [beings in] hell

Who alike see infernal guardians, etc.,

And are made to be injured.

Therefore the four concepts are all demonstrated. (3) The Treatise says, you should know that here, the single example of hell shows that restrictions of place, etc., are all demonstrated. The words "like hell" refer to various kinds of sentient beings who reside in hell and experience injury and suffering. That is, even though in hell there are no real sentient beings that include such things as infernal guardians, still, because of the dominant power of the maturation of identical acts of those sentient beings, many [individual] mental continuities (samtâna) in the same place, at the same time, all alike see infernal guardians, dogs, crows, iron mountains, etc., coming to them to inflict injury. As a result of this [example,] even though there are no real objects of perception apart from consciousness, still, the four concepts of restriction of place, etc., are demonstrated.

[The opponent asks,] why not admit that species such as infernal guardians are real sentient beings? [We respond,] because it does not correspond to reason. Now, these [guardians] should not be included with [beings in] naraka (hell), because they do not experience suffering in the way the others experience it, and if they [i.e., guardians and those being tormented] harm each other, then you cannot establish some as beings suffering in naraka and others as infernal guardians. Since all are alike in size, shape, and 393

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

power, they would not fear each other very much. They themselves [the infernal guardians] would not be able to bear the suffering of the constant burning of the fierce fires of iron earth, etc., so how would they be able to inflict injury on others? If they are not infernal beings, they ought not to be born there. [Objection:] How do animals appear in the celestial realm? It is the same with naraka. Animals, ghosts, etc., act as infernal guardians, etc. [We reply,] this remedy [to your argument] is unsuitable. A verse says,

What is true of animals in the celestial realm

Is not true for those [beings in the] hells,

Because the animals and ghosts you assert

Do not experience that suffering. (4)

The Treatise says that with regard to animals being born in the celestial realm, they must have [past] karma that enables them to experience the happiness of that world (bhajana), and being born in that world, they definitely experience the happiness born of that world. The infernal guardians, etc., do not experience the suffering in hell that is born of that world. Therefore we should not admit that those with the destinations igati) of animals or ghosts are born in naraka.

[Objection:] If that is so, then you must admit that the dominant (adhipati) power of karma of [beings born in] naraka produces unusual great elements (mahabhuta) that give rise to special shapes that display different sizes and power and upon whom we bestow such names as "infernal guardian." In order to generate fear in those [reborn in hell,] they have different functions such as changing and appearing in various ways and moving their hands and feet, etc., like mountains that look like rams suddenly coming together [butting horns] and separating, or like thorns in the iron forest drooping down or lifting up [to impale the unfortunate sufferer].

[We reply,] it is not that these events are totally nonexistent; however, [your argument] does not correspond to reason. A verse says, 394

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

If you admit that as a result of the power of action Unusual great elements are born

And they produce such changes,

Why not admit [that they occur] in consciousness? (5) The Treatise asks, why do you not admit that consciousness, as a result of the power of action {karma), transforms like this, yet assert great elements? Again, the next verse says, Perfuming (vasana) of action is in one place, And you assert that the result exists elsewhere. That the result exists in the perfumed consciousness You do not admit; why is that? (6)

The Treatise says, you assert that [beings in] naraka produce special great elements born of the power of their own action and give rise to changes of shapes, etc. The perfuming of their action must logically be admitted as being in their [individual] continuities of consciousness (vijnana-samtana) and nowhere else. There is a perfumed consciousness, but then you will not admit that there is a transformation of the result. Where there is no perfumed place, you turn around and assert that the result exists. Why is this? [The opponent replies,] scripture is the reason. That is, if there is only consciousness that appears resembling form, etc., where there is no form, etc., the Buddha would not have spoken of the sense bases (ayatana) of form, etc. [We reply,] this teaching is no reason [for your position,] because it has a special meaning. A verse says, For those beings to be instructed (vineya), The World-Honored One, with a hidden motive, Spoke of the existence of the sense bases (ayatana) of form, etc.

In the same way [he spoke of] beings born

spontaneously {upapaduka). (7)

The Treatise says, this is just like the Buddha speaking of the existence of sentient beings who are born spontaneously. It was said only with a hidden motive regarding the noncessation of 395

r Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

mental continuity and its ability to continue on into a subsequent time. He did not say that there are really existent beings who are born spontaneously, because he said, "There are no sentient beings or selves, only dharmas and their causes. " It is the same when the scriptures speak of the sense bases of form, etc. [The Buddha] spoke with a hidden motive of there being no separate real existence [of sense bases] for those beings to be instructed who are fit to receive that teaching.

[The opponent asks,] what is the hidden motive for speaking of the ten [bases] of form, etc.? [We reply,] a verse says, Consciousness is born from its own seeds

And transforms to resemble characteristics of objects of perception.

In order to establish internal and external sense bases, The Buddha spoke of them as being ten. (8)

The Treatise asks, what does this mean? [Answer:] Consciousness appearing resembling form is born from its own seeds as a special transformation [of the mental continuity] and the confluence of conditions [consisting of the apparent form and the perceiving aspect of consciousness]. On the basis of this seed and the appearing form, the Buddha spoke of [the seed and the appearing form as] sense bases consisting of eyes and sense bases consisting of form, respectively. In this way, finally, [after skipping over sense bases of sound, smells, and tastes, we come to where] consciousness resembling something tangible is born from its own seeds as a special transformation [of the mental continuity] and the confluence of conditions [consisting of the apparent tangible object and the perceiving aspect of consciousness]. On the basis of this seed and the appearing tangible object, the Buddha spoke of them respectively as the sense base consisting of the body and the sense base consisting of tangible objects. With this hidden motive, he spoke of the ten [sense bases] of form, etc.

[Question:] What is the special value of this hidden motive? [Reply:] A verse says,

396

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

On the basis of this teaching one can enter

The [teaching of the] absence of self (anatman) of the person (pudgala).

Later, through other teachings, one enters

The [teaching of the] absence of self of the dharmas that are asserted. (9)

The Treatise says, on the basis of this teaching of the twelve sense bases that are discussed, one who receives instruction is able to enter [and grasp] the absence of a self in the pudgala (person). That is, if one thoroughly understands that the six consciousnesses [i.e., the five sense consciousnesses of sight, etc., plus mental consciousness] develop from the six pair of dharmas [i.e., the twelve sense bases] and that there is no perceiver or knower at all, then that person who should receive the teaching of the absence of self in the sentient will be able to awaken to and enter the [teaching of the] absence of self in the sentient.

"Later, through other teachings, " means the teaching of consciousness only. The one who receives instruction is able to enter the absence of a self in the asserted dharmas. That is, if one thoroughly understands the arising of dharmas that resemble form, etc., as the appearance of consciousness only, and that among these there are not any dharmas with characteristics such as form, the person who should receive the teaching of the absence of a self in dharmas will be able to awaken to and enter [the teaching of] the absence of a self in all dharmas.

[Question:] If one understands the nonexistence of the entirety (sarvatha) of dharmas and enters the absence of a self n all dharmas, then consciousness only is [also, by implication,] ultimately nonexistent, so how can it be established?

[Reply:] It is not by means of realizing the nonexistence of the entirety of dharmas that we speak of entering the absence of self of [all] dharmas. However, when the absence of self of the dharmas of self-nature (svabhava) and difference (visesa) that are imagined by the ignorant are penetrated in this way, then it is referred to as "entering the absence of self of dharmas. " It is not called "absence 397

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

of a self of dharmas" because the Dharma nature (dharmata) apart from words that is the object of perception of Buddhas does not exist at all. [Rather,] one speaks of the absence of a self in dharmas because what is grasped by another consciousness [other than that of a Buddha] is of the nature of consciousness only and its substance is also nonexistent.

Otherwise, objects of perception grasped by other consciousnesses would [really] exist and the principle of consciousness only would not be demonstrated, because it is admitted that other consciousnesses have real objects of perception. As a consequence of this reasoning, we speak of establishing the teaching of consciousness only, universally causing one to awaken to and enter [the teaching of] the absence of self of all dharmas, and not because the entirety [of dharmas] are rejected as having a nature [of any kind].

[Question:] Again, how do we know that the Buddha, on the basis of a hidden motive, said that there are sense bases of form, etc.? Are there no really existing external dharmas such as form, each of which becomes the special object of perception of consciousness of form, etc.?

[Answer:] A verse says,

That object of perception is not one thing,

Nor is it many atoms.

Also, it is not a compound, etc.,

Because atoms are not demonstrated [as real]. (10) The Treatise asks, what is being said? It means that if there are really existing sense bases such as external form, and each [sense base] acts separately as an object of perception for consciousness of form, etc., then such an external object of perception is either a single thing, as in the Vaisesika assertion of a [single] form with parts, or else it must be many [atoms], such as the assertion of really existing multiple atoms, each of which serves as a separate object of perception.

Or the object of perception must be a compound or combination of atoms, like the assertion of really existing multiple atoms all unit398

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

ing and combining to make objects of perception. But that external object of perception must not logically be one thing, because a substance of form possessing parts that is different from the parts cannot be grasped. It also cannot logically be many [atoms], because the atoms cannot be grasped individually. Nor, logically, does a compound or combination act as an object of perception, because the principle of a single ultimate atom (paramanu) is not demonstrated [as existing]. Why is it not demonstrated? A verse says, If an atom is united with six [other atoms],

The one must consist of six parts.

If it is in the same place with the six,

Then the combination must be like [a single] atom. (11) The Treatise says, if each of six sides of an atom is united with [another] atom, [the single atom] must be made up of six parts, because it is not possible for the location of one [atom] to be in the locations of the others. If there are six atoms in the location of one atom, then the combined form must resemble the mass of [a single] atom, because, being interchangeable, they do not exceed the mass [of a single atom,] in which case the combined form would be invisible. The Kashmiri Vaibhasika masters say, "We do not mean that atoms unite. [Atoms] have no parts, and therefore we avoid such [logical] faults as the one above. However, the combined forms possess the characteristics of union, because these [combinations] do have parts." [We reply,] this, too, is not correct. A verse says, Since atoms do not unite,

To what does the union of [larger] combinations belong? Or else, the uniting [of atoms] is not demonstrated; It is not because they are devoid of parts. (12) The Treatise says, we must now scrutinize this principle and its meaning. Since there is no separate combined form that differs from atoms, then if atoms do not combine, whose combined union is it? If you change [your position] and try to save it by saying that the development of combined form does not imply union, then you should not say that they do not combine because they are devoid 399

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

of parts, because a combination has parts, yet, you do not admit union. The nonunion of atoms is not a result of their being devoid of parts. Therefore, not a single ultimate atom (paramanu) is demonstrated. Also, the faults [in your reasoning] are still the same whether you admit that atoms unite or do not unite. Whether you admit that atoms have parts or do not have parts, both [positions] are big errors. Why? A verse says,

If an atom has parts,

It logically would not form a unity.

Without [parts], there would be no shadow

or concealment,

And a combination not being different [from

atoms,] it is devoid of the two. (13)

The Treatise says, the six parts [i.e., sides] of an atom being different, many parts make up its body, so how can they form a unity? If an atom does not have different parts, then how is it that when the sun rises and its light illuminates it, the other side is able to reveal shadow? Since there are no other parts unreached by the light and you are asserting atoms without parts, how can this [atom] and that [atom] successively conceal each other [from view]? And since there are no remaining parts unreached by the other, how can you say that this and that [atoms] successively conceal each other? Since they do not conceal each other, the various atoms must be interchangeable in the same place, and then the combined forms must have the same mass as a single atom. The error is the same as previously mentioned.

[Question:] Why not admit that shadow and concealment belong to combinations but not to atoms? [We reply,] can it be that you admit that there is combined form that differs from atoms that casts shadows and acts to conceal [another form]? [The questioner says,] not at all. [We reply,] in that case, the combination must be devoid of the two [i.e., shadow and concealment]. That is, if combined form is not different from atoms, then shadow and concealment must be demonstrated as not belonging to combined form. Arranging 400

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

and distinguishing, you establish [form] as atoms or you establish it as a combination [of form, but] both are unrealities. [Question:] What is the use of choosing atoms or combination as it? You are still unable to refute the characteristics of external form, etc. [We reply,] what, again, are these characteristics? [The objector replies,] objects of perception of eyes, etc., are of the nature of being real colors such as blue, etc. [We reply,] we must ascertain together whether the true nature of blue, etc., of objects of perception of the eyes, etc., are unitary or many. [The opponent says,] suppose [either] is so; what is the problem? [We reply,] both [arguments] are faulty. The fault of there being many is as [explained] previously. The [position] of unitariness is also unreasonable. A verse says,

In the case of unity, there would be no piecemeal going; One could arrive and not yet arrive at all times. [Nor] would there be intervals between many [things], [Or] tiny things that are difficult to see. (14) The Treatise says that if there were blue, etc., that was without divisions, objects of perception reached by the eyes, etc., would be grasped as single things. There would be no principle of gradually travelling the earth, because by setting down one foot, you would arrive at all [places]. What is more, at all times, one would be [both] here and there, without arriving [here] or not arriving [there], because a single thing or single time [without divisions] would logically neither be grasped nor not grasped. Also, there could not be disconnected things such as many elephants, horses, etc. in a single location. If one place had one, it would have the others. How would one or another be distinguishable? Or else, if there were two [of something,] how would it be possible for them to reach or not reach [a place] or for one to see an empty space between them? Also, there would be no tiny things that are difficult to see, such as small water insects, because being in the same location as something gross, their mass would be equal [and no small object would appear]. If you say that this or that 401

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

[object] has differences due to its characteristics and becomes a different thing for no other reason, then you certainly must admit that these [large] distinct things differentiate repeatedly, forming multiple atoms, and since we have argued that an atom is not a single real thing, then eyes, etc., and form, etc., apart from consciousness as organs of perception or as objects of perception, are incapable of being demonstrated. As a result of this, we have easily demonstrated the principle that only consciousness exists. [Question:] Dharmas are determined to exist or not exist through the use of accepted means of knowledge (pramàna), and the most excellent of all accepted means of knowledge is direct perception (pratyaksa). If there are no external objects of perception, how can one have the awareness, "I am now experiencing such an object of perception?" [We reply:] This proof is not demonstrated. A verse says,

Direct awareness is as in dreams, etc.

At the time direct awareness has occurred,

The seeing and the object of perception are already nonexistent.

How can you admit the existence of direct perception? (15) The Treatise says, just as, even though when we dream, etc., there is no external object of perception, still, such direct awareness as this is possible, so, also, direct awareness at other times must be understood to be likewise. Therefore, their citation of this [example] as proof is not demonstrated.

Also, if, at that time, there is the direct awareness, "I am now directly experiencing such a form," etc., one can see at that time, vis-à-vis the object of perception that it is already nonexistent, because it is necessarily in the mental consciousness (manovijnàna) that one can distinguish [visible forms], and because by that time [when awareness dawns in mental consciousness], visual and other kinds of consciousness have necessarily already ceased. Those who theorize about instantaneousness (ksanavàdin) say that when this awareness [in mental consciousness] exists, the actual object of 402

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

perception such as form has already ceased. How can you admit that at this time there is direct perception?

[The objector replies,] it is necessary that something that mental consciousness is able to remember has already been directly experienced [in the immediately antecedent mental moment], and for that reason, it is certain that there is an object of perception that has been experienced. He who sees this object of perception admits that it is direct perception. From this, the principle of an external object of perception that really exists is demonstrated. [We reply,] the principle that one perceives that there is an external object because it is necessary that there first be an experience and then a memory is not demonstrated. Why? A verse says, As we have said, there is consciousness that resembles an external object of perception,

And from this is born a memory. (16a,b)

The Treatise says, as we have said previously, even though there are no external objects of perception, still, visual consciousness (.caksur-vijnana), etc., appears resembling an external object of perception. Following this, at a subsequent stage, [the object of perception] is associated with memory, and discriminating mental consciousness appears resembling the prior object of perception. Then we speak of this [process] as remembering what has already been experienced. Therefore, using a subsequent memory to prove the real existence of an external object of perception that was previously seen is not demonstrated.

[Counter-argument:] If it is just as in an awakened state as in a dream that even without real objects of perception, consciousness is still able to occur, then, just as ordinary people know that dream objects of perception are nonexistent, why, when they are awake, and it is so [that external objects are not real], do they not naturally know [they are unreal]? Since they do not naturally know that waking objects are nonexistent, how, as in dream consciousness, are real objects of perception all nonexistent? [Answer:] Neither is this demonstrated. A verse says,

403

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

When not awake, one cannot know

That what is seen in a dream does not exist. (16c,d) The Treatise says, just as one in a not-yet-awakened state does not know that objects of perception in a dream do not really exist externally, but once awakened one knows it, in the same way, [conscious] worldly false discrimination is repeatedly confused as in a dream. None of the entities one sees really exists, and one who has not acquired true awakening cannot know this. If one acquires that supramundane antidote [to delusion] that is nondiscriminative knowledge (nirvikalpaka-jnâna) called "true awakening," then the mundane pure knowledge acquired subsequent to this (tat-prsthalabha-suddha-laukika-jnâna) appears before one and one knows thoroughly according to reality that that object of perception is not real. The principle is the same [in both dreams and the waking state].

[Objection:] If in sentient beings there arises consciousness that resembles [external] objects of perception because of a special transformation of their own mental continuity (samtâna) and not because of external objects of perception born from conditions, how can it be demonstrated that these sentient beings are approached by good or bad companions, hear the correct or wrong teaching, and have [one of] two [kinds of] consciousness determined, since there are [in reality] no companions or teachings [outside of consciousness]? [We reply,] we are not incapable of demonstrating it. A verse says,

By means of the interchange of dominant power,

Two [individual] consciousnesses achieve restriction (niyama). (17a,b)

The Treatise says, by means of the dominant condition (adhipatipratyaya), which is the interchange between various [individual] consciousnesses, which are the mental continuities of sentient beings, two [kinds of] consciousness are restricted as is fitting [to each individual]. That is, because the difference in consciousness in the 404

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

mental continuity of one causes differences in the mental continuity of another consciousness to occur, each becomes restricted [according to kind], but not as a result of external objects of perception. [Question:] If, just as in a dream, objects of perception are devoid of reality but consciousness can occur, and the same is true of waking consciousness, what is the reason for good or bad action taking place in a dream or in a waking state not receiving the same results of action (karma-phala), either desirable or undesirable? [We reply,] a verse says,

The mind is weakened by sleep,

So the results [of acts] in sleep and wakefulness are not the same. (17c,d)

The Treatise says, in dreams the mind is weakened by sleep and its power is slight. This is not true of the awake mind. Therefore acts performed ought to receive different retribution (vipâka), and so weak and strong are not the same. [The reason] is not because of external objects of perception.

[Question:] If there is only consciousness and no body, speech, etc., how are sheep, etc., killed? If the deaths of sheep are not the result of someone's injury, how can the one who is a butcher commit the crime of killing beings?

[We reply,] a verse says,

As a result of the transformation of another's consciousness,

There are acts of injury and killing,

Just as the mental power of anger of sage-immortals (ciranyaka),

Causes others to lose their memory, etc. (18) The Treatise says, just as the mental power of a demon, etc., causes other sentient beings to lose their memory, have dreams, or bring about such strange events as possession by evil spirits; or the mental power of someone who possesses supernatural powers causes another person to see many things in a dream, just as 405

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

Mahakatyayana's power of wish caused King Sarana, etc., to see strange things in a dream; and also just as the mental powers of anger of sage-immortals caused King Vemacitra to see strange things in a dream; in the same way, the transformation of consciousness of one individual brings about events that cause injury to the life force of another person far away. You should realize that "death" refers to the severing of the personal mental continuity through changes of consciousness. Again, a verse says, The emptiness of the Dandaka [Forest], etc.—

How could it result from the anger of sage-immortals? Mental harm is a great offense;

How, again, can this be demonstrated? (19)

The Treatise says, if you do not admit that other sentient beings die as a result of the dominant power of transformation of the consciousness of another, how is it that the World-Honored One, in order to prove that mental harm is a great offense, asked Upali the householder, "Have you ever heard why the Dandaka Forest, Matanga Forest, and Kalinga Forest were all made empty and solitary?" The householder answered the Buddha, saying, "Gotama, I have heard that it was because of the mental anger of sage-immortals (aranyaka)." If you assert that spirits or demons, respecting the sage-immortals and knowing their hatred [for the king], acted to kill the species of sentient beings, and it was not a result of mental anger [on the part of the sage-immortals], then why [did the Buddha] introduce that [story] to establish mental harm as having the nature of a major offense and surpassing physical and verbal [offenses]? Consequently, you must realize that it is well demonstrated that the death of sentient beings [in the story] resulted only from the anger of the sage-immortals.

[Question:] If only consciousness exists, does knowledge of the minds of others [really] know the minds of others or not? [We reply,] if we agree, what is the error? [The opponent argues,] if you are unable to know, how can you speak of knowledge of others' minds? If you are able to know [the minds of others,] then 406

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

consciousness only is not demonstrated [because you admit the real existence of others]. [We reply,] even though one knows the minds of others, still, it is not [knowing] according to reality (yathdartha). A verse says, How does knowledge of others' minds

Not know the object of perception according to reality? In the same way that knowledge in knowing one's own mind

Does not know it in accordance with the object of perception of a Buddha. (20)

The Treatise says, how can knowledge of the minds of others not know objects of perception in accordance with reality? It is like knowledge of one's own mind. [Question:] Why does knowledge of one's own mind not know the object of perception according to reality? Because of ignorance of the object of perception. Because each of the two [kinds of knowledge] is concealed by ignorance, they do not know the ineffable object of perception in accordance with a Buddha's pure knowledge. These two do not know the object of perception in accordance with reality because of false appearances that resemble external objects of perception, and because the discrimination of the grasped and the grasper is not eliminated. The principles and [numbers of] meanings of [the teaching of] consciousness only are boundless in the differences of ascertainments and kinds, and their depths are difficult to cross over. If one is not a Buddha, who can ascertain their total extent? A verse says,

According to my ability, I

Have briefly demonstrated the principles of consciousness only.

Of these, the entirety (sarvathâ)

Is difficult to consider and is reached [only] by Buddhas. (21)

407

Back Matters

Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only

The Treatise says, the kinds of principles and meanings of [the teaching of] consciousness only are limitless. I have briefly demonstrated them according to my own ability. The rest of the entirety have not been considered [by me] because they transcend the realm reached by my investigation. Such principles and meanings are only reached [in their entirety] by Buddhas, because Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, are unobstructed with regard to objects of perception and knowledge of the entirety.

408

Glossary

absence of self (anatman): The Buddhist teaching that persons neither possess nor are composed of any permanent self, person, soul, or substance of any kind. Belief in a self is a delusion and the basis of all suffering. See also self.

acquisition (prapti): A force possessed by humans that allows the residue remaining from karmic deeds to adhere to a stream of consciousness (q.v.) even though there is no self or being that could possess the residue.

action (karma)'. Karma consists of vocal or physical acts that are preceded by intention or will and that always have consequences, fruit (phala). aggregates (skandha): Buddhism usually talks about the five aggregates which are the five mental and physical factors that make up the nominal person: (1) form, (2) feeling, (3) conceptualization, (4) volition (or karmic predisposition), and (5) consciousness (q.v.). What we call a "person" or "being" is just these five factors, without a sixth that might be a self (q.v.), person, soul, being, etc.

aggregates that are grasped (upadana-skandha): The aggregates as objects of clinging.

alaya. See fundamental consciousness; store consciousness. arhat: Someone who has attained the ultimate state of spiritual perfection in Theravada (or Hinayana) Buddhism. The Buddha was an arhat but also a perfectly enlightened one, which is two degrees higher. (In between is the pratyekabuddha [q.v.].) An arhat will not be reborn after death, and in this life he is without any defilements. attainment of cessation (nirodha-samapatti): A meditative trance state marked by the absence of normal thought and perception. See also cessation of thought and feeling.

being without hope of nirvana (agotraka): A being born without the capacity for enlightenment. They do not belong to the class (gotra) of people who have such a capacity, according to the text. This doctrine was rejected by most Mahayana Buddhists.

409

J

Glossaryblazing discernment (arcismati): The fourth of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.).

bodhi ("awakening"): Enlightenment; a state in which one is awakened to the true nature of things (q.v.), or true suchness (q.v.). bodhisattva: A being who has vowed to achieve Buddhahood someday and who actively engages in the spiritual practices of Mahayana Buddhism to achieve that goal. The chief characteristics of the bodhisattva are boundless compassion for all living beings and clarity of comprehension. body for the enjoyment of others (parasambhoga-kaya): The glorified body of a Buddha adorned with the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks, resulting from eons of spiritual practices. Advanced bodhisattvas can perceive this body, hence, "for the enjoyment of others." body of personal enjoyment (svasambhoga-kaya): The glorified body of a Buddha, adorned with the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks, resulting from eons of spiritual practice. Only a Buddha enjoys this body; it is not known to others.

bond (paryavasthana): A spiritual bond, such as ignorance. Buddha: One who has awakened from delusion, craving, and hatred. An enlightened one who knows the true nature of things (q.v.) or true suchness (q.v.). The highest state of human perfection. Buddha nature (buddha-gotra): The basic enlightened nature of sentient beings, which is chronically obscured by their ignorance. The complete unfolding of the Buddha nature is enlightenment itself. cause of suffering (samudaya): The second of the four noble truths (q.v.). cessation of thought and feeling (samjnd-vedita-nirodha): An advanced state of meditation marked by the cessation of thought processes and of feelings of pleasure, pain, etc.

cessation resulting from discrimination (pratisamkhya-nirodha): A state of profound meditative trance resulting from conscious efforts of discrimination. cessation resulting from the absence of conditions (apratisamkhya-nirodha): A state of profound meditative trance that occurs in the absence of conditions giving rise to ordinary states of mind.

class (gotra): In this text, beings are classified according to whether or not they have the capacity for enlightenment. See also being without hope of nirvana.

410

Glossary

cloud of the Dharma (dharm a-m egha): The tenth of the ten (bodhisattva) stages, in which the bodhisattva preaches the Dharma. See also ten (bodhisattva) stages.

compassion. See immeasurable.

conceptualization (sam jna). See aggregates.

condition as (or in the form of) perceptual object. See four conditions. conditioned dharma (samskrta-dharma): A physical or mental element (such as mind, visual organs, hatred, etc.) that is produced from the confluence of several conditions. It is contrasted with unconditioned dharmas, such as space and nirvana.

consciousness (vijnana): One of the five aggregates (q.v.). In the system of the present text, consciousness is divided into eight parts or functions, namely, the first five sense consciousnesses (visual consciousness, etc.), mental consciousness (q.v.), thought (q.v.), and the store consciousness (q.v.) that is "perfumed" by karma and that stores the seeds of future action.

consciousness as retribution (vipaka-vijnana): Consciousness that originates as the result of previous karma. Consciousness as the maturation of seeds of new delusion.

consciousness only (vijnapti-m atra): The central teaching of the present text and the school of Buddhism that arose based on it, that nothing exists but consciousness (q.v.) or mental constructs (vijfiapti). conventional truth (sam vrti-satya): Our experience is not real in the light of the ultimate truth (q.v.). But it is real conventionally as far as our nonreflective common sense sees it.

cultivation of mind (bhavana): A synonym for meditation. B havana is the repetitive contemplation of some insight or truth that one has discovered.

delight in the success of others. See immeasurable. destination (g a ti): A realm where one is reborn. Buddhism recognizes five or six, i.e., the human world, the world of animals, the world of gods, (sometimes) the world of titans, the world of hungry ghosts, and hell. dharani. See Translator's Introduction, p. 5.

dharma/Dharma. See Translator's Introduction, p. 5. Diamond-like Sam adhi (vajropama-samadhi)\ A state of meditative trance that is unbreakable.

411

Glossary

difficult to vanquish (sudurjaya): The fifth of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.).

direct perception (pratyaksa): One of the means of acquiring knowledge another being inference.

discernment {mati/prajna): Often translated as "wisdom." disciple (sravaka): A disciple of the Buddha when he was living; or, a Hinayana practitioner.

dominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya). See four conditions. eliminated by insight (darsana-heya): Passions (q.v.) that must be eliminated on the path of insight (q.v.). Other passions are to be eliminated by cultivation of mind (q.v.).

emptiness (sunyata): The quality that all things have of being devoid of any independent, real existence. Emptiness is emptiness of self-nature (q.v.), which is independent being, autonomy, etc. The central and fundamental teaching of Mahayana Buddhism.

emptiness of dharmas (dharma-sunyata): A dharma is a mental or physical factor, such as hatred or the eyes. They are considered empty because they are without independent existence. A dharma exists only in dependence on other dharmas and therefore merely has a contingent, quasi-reality. Dharmas are not really real. See also emptiness. emptiness of the person (pudgala-sunyata): The truth that our perception of an independent, real selfhood or personhood is unreal, arising out of other conditions such as memory, the ability to be self-aware, etc. enlightenment. See bodhi.

essential body (svabhavika-kdya). See three [Buddha] bodies. extreme joy (pramudita): The first of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). false imagination (abhuta-parikalpa): The habitual belief that things exist apart from consciousness and that their characteristics are real. falsely imagined nature. See three natures.

far going (duramgama): One of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). feeling (vedana): One of the aggregates (q.v.) that constitute the nominal person. The three feelings are pleasant, unpleasant, and neither pleasant nor unpleasant.

formless realm (arupya-dhatu): The uppermost of the three consecutive vertical realms of Buddhist cosmology, where beings are without material form.

412

Glossary

forms of birth (yon i): One may be reborn from a womb, from moisture, from an egg, or through spontaneous miraculous rebirth.

four conditions: (1) Condition as cause (hetu-pratyaya), the most important (there are six kinds; see the text); (2) condition as (or in the form of) perceptual object (alam bana-pratyaya), the mental image erroneously thought to be an external object serving as the source for consciousness of an object; (3) dominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya), which leads a condition as cause to exercise its efficacy; and (4) immediately antecedent condition (sam anantara-pratyaya), whereby, in a constant state of momentariness, the instantaneous state of a thing causes its immediately subsequent state.

four noble truths: (1) All worldly life is suffering; (2) the cause of suffering is desire; (3) desire can be overcome; and (4) the way to overcome desire is the eightfold path (right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right vigor [or effort], right mindfulness, and right concentration).

fruit of retribution (vipaka-phala): One of five kinds of fruits or results of preceding conditions.

fundamental consciousness (m ula-vijfiana): Same as the alaya or store consciousness (q.v.), i.e., the eighth consciousness, which stores the seeds of future karma, delusions, and enlightenment. It is so called because it is the latent source of karmic conditioning for the active consciousness. See also store consciousness.

fundamental passions (m ula-klesa): The three fundamental passions are craving, hatred, and delusion. See also passions.

good discernment (sddhum ati): One of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). grasped (grahya): One of two basic aspects of consciousness (q.v.), the other being the grasper (q.v.). What appear to be really existing external objects are merely images within consciousness. One part of consciousness is the grasper, or perceiver, the other is the object, the grasped aspect of consciousness.

grasper (grahaka): The active aspect of consciousness, which perceives seemingly real external objects. See also grasped.

great awakening (m aha-bodhi): The achievement of enlightenment and Buddhahood. See also bodhi.

great compassion (m aha-karuna): The compassion of bodhisattvas and Buddhas, which is boundless and impartial, in comparison with the compassion of ordinary people.

413

Glossary

great transmutation (vipula-paravrtti): The perfect and extensive transmutation of store consciousness (q.v.).

heat (usm agata): One of the aids to cognitive penetration. hungry ghost (prêta): One of five or six destinations (q.v.) into which one may be reborn.

ignorance (avidya): The primary root of all evil and suffering. immaculate consciousness (am ala-vijnâna): The purified store consciousness (q.v.).

immaculateness (vim alâ): One of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). immeasurable (apram âna): A form of meditation in which a quality such as friendliness (m aitrl) is gradually extended from a few beings to encompass more and more beings, until none are excluded. The quality is thus immeasurable. There are four immeasurables: friendliness, compassion, delight in the success of others, and indifference (q.v.). immediately antecedent condition. See four conditions. indifference (upeksâ): One of the chief Buddhist virtues, that of renunciation, leading to a state of indifference without pleasure or pain, or independence of both; the fourth of the four immeasurables. See also immeasurable.

inferior transmutation (hina-parâvrtti): The inadequate change of consciousness achieved by non-Mahayana Buddhists. It is not incorrect, only incomplete.

intermediate existence (antarâ-bhava): The form of existence between death and rebirth.

karma. See Translator's Introduction, p. 5.

karmic predispositions (sam skàra): One of the aggregates (q.v.). All forms of Buddhism have long lists of the sam skdras which include such things as greed, faith, anger, agitation, pride, and so on. learner (saiksa): The state of one who has not yet completed spiritual practices, the antonym of post-learner (q.v.).

light emissions (prabhâ-karï): One of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). Limit of Reality (bhüta-koti): A synonym for emptiness (q.v.), ultimate reality, ultimate truth (q.v.), and the Dharma body. See also three [Buddha] bodies.

maintaining consciousness (âdâna-vijnàna). See fundamental consciousness; store consciousness.

414

Glossary

manas. See thought.

mental activity (caitta): An activity of mind, such as joy, sloth, or anger. mental consciousness (mano-vijhana): The perceptive function of the mind. Each of the organs, including the mind, has a corresponding consciousness by which objects are known. The consciousness of mind {manas) perceives thoughts. See also consciousness.

mind (citta): A synonym for the store consciousness (q.v.) or eighth consciousness. mindless stage (acittaka-bhumi): A stage of meditation. modes (nisyanda): Literally, "outflow." Sometimes translated in this text as "similar," as in "similar results" (nisyanda-phala). "Mode" suggests that the object in question is not something different but merely a mode of the parent object.

name-and-form (nama-rupa): Another name for the physical body endowed with consciousness (q.v.).

nature of being dependent on others. See three natures. nirvana with no fixed abode (apratisthita-nirvana): The true nirvana, because it is not seized or made into an object of attachment by the one who enjoys it. It is the true nirvana because by neither spurning the world and grasping nirvana nor becoming trapped in the delusion and attachments of the ordinary world, one dwells in the true nirvana. nirvana without remainder (nirupadhisesa-nirvana): "Remainder" refers to body and mind as support. This is the nirvana one continues to enjoy after death, when one is without body and mind.

nonreturner (anagamin): One who has advanced very far in spiritual practices but dies before reaching the goal. He will not be reborn again but will become an arhat (q.v.) after death.

no self (anatman): The Buddhist teaching that persons do not possess nor are composed of any permanent self, person, soul, or substance of any kind. Belief in a self is a delusion and the basis of all suffering. obstacle (avarana): Obstacles to spiritual awakening, which include such things as belief in a self or substance, craving, hatred, attachment to things, etc. See also passions.

obstacle of not desiring to practice benefitting others {parahita-caryaakamana-avarana): By entering final nirvana, one avoids future rebirth. Consequently one cannot save other beings from delusion and pain. 415

Glossary

obstacle of the final nirvana of the lower vehicles {hinayana-parinirvanaavarana): By desiring final nirvana and turning one's back on the world one fails to achieve the real nirvana. Attachment to nirvana is thus an obstacle.

part [of consciousness] that authenticates self-authentication (svasam vittisam vitti-bhaga): That function of consciousness that knows that it knows that there is an object.

passions (klesa): Desire, aversion, delusion, and other attachments that hinder the practice of the Buddhist path and the realization of nirvana. See also obstacle.

path of added effort (prayoga-m arga): A preliminary meditative practice preceding the paths of insight and cultivation. See also path of cultivation; path of equipment; path of insight.

path of cultivation (bhavana-m arga): One of two main forms of meditation, consisting of the repetitious contemplation of some truth that one has discovered. See also state of cultivation.

path of equipment (sam bhara-m arga): Bodhisattvas are required to accumulate merit and wisdom, prior to undertaking the path of added effort (q.v.). See also state of equipment.

path of insight (darsana-m arga): The meditative practice of gaining clear insight into the true state of things. It is followed by the path of cultivation (q.v.); the two paths together constitute the main meditative practices.

patience (ksanti)-. The third of the six or ten perfections developed by bodhisattvas. See also perfection.

patience with regard to the nonbirth of dharmas (anutpattika-dharm aksanti): The special ability of bodhisattvas to remain calm and fearless in the face of the knowledge that inasmuch as all things are empty, they neither are produced nor cease.

perfected nature (parinispanna-svabhava). See three natures. perfection (param ita): A group of six or ten aspects of practice that a bodhisattva performs in order to attain Buddhahood: (1) giving (dana), (2) discipline (sila), (3) patience {ksanti), (4) vigor or effort (virya), (5) contemplation {dhyana), (6) wisdom (prajna), (7) skill in means (or expedient) (upaya), (8) vow {pranidhana), (9) power {bala), and (10) knowledge (Jnana). The six perfections are the first six of the ten perfections. The perfections are coordinated with the stages so that one perfection, such as the perfection of giving (q.v.), is emphasized on each stage. See also stage.

416

Glossaryperfection of giving (dana-paramita): Giving is perfected when it is done with no concept of gift, giver, or recipient. See also perfection. perfuming (vasana): The residue or lingering influence of action (q.v.) that impregnates the store consciousness (q.v.) and influences future decisions and actions. The residue of actions is figuratively compared to the perfume that impregnates a piece of cloth and gives it a specific character.

post-learner (asaiksa): One who has gone beyond the need for spiritual training, the antonym of learner (q.v.).

pratyekabuddha ("solitary buddha"): One who attains nirvana by contemplating the law of causation without the help of a teacher.

presence (abhimukhl): One of the ten [bodhisattva] stages (q.v.). propensities (anusaya): The potential to act ignorantly and karmically. pure subsequently acquired knowledge (prsthalabdha-anasrava-jnana): Knowledge that things are or are not the case, following states of meditation and insight in which it cannot be said that things are true, untrue, etc.; knowledge of events in the light of emptiness (q.v.). realm of desire (kama-dhatu): The lowest of the three realms of existence in Buddhist cosmology. It covers the earth and several celestial realms. Above it is the realm of form (q.v.), and above these two is the formless realm (q.v.).

realm of form (rupa-dhatu): The realm of form is so called because subtle material form still exists in it. See also formless realm; realm of desire. realm of the Dharma (dharma-dhatu.): Existence as it really is, which is marked by the interdependent existence of things, emptiness (q.v.), impermanence, etc.

result of similar species (nisyanda-phala): A result that is of the same moral species as its cause.

retribution (vipaka): The matured results of previous action (q.v.). The character of the eighth or store consciousness (q.v.) is the result or retribution of previous karmic deeds. Likewise, the senses, such as sight, are the result of former acts.

samadhi: Often translated as "meditation." Samadhi is a mental state in which the mind is focused on one point to the exclusion of all else. The state is defined as "one-pointedness of mind" (citta-ekagrata). samadhi of nonconceptualization (asamjhika-samapatti): An advanced meditative state characterized by the absence of thought processes. Sometimes referred to as the unconscious samadhi.

417

Glossary

samsara. See Translator's Introduction, p. 5.

seed (bija): The inner habit energies that lie in the container consciousness seed consciousness (bija-vijnana). See fundamental consciousness; store consciousness. seeing part (darsana-bhaga): The function of mind that perceives mental images, which are known as the seen part (q.v.), and that thereby is led to the erroneous idea that the images are external to mind. All that exists in the system of the Ch'eng wei-shih lun are the two parts of mind, the seeing part and the seen part.

seen part (nimitta-bhaga): Nimitta is literally "sign" or "object." Delusion consists of believing that signs or objects exist outside mind. See also seeing part.

self (atman): Imagined as a unitary, independent, permanent, unchanging, and perhaps eternal inner being, spirit, or substance. It is felt to be the "me" to which belong the body and mind, feelings, etc. Rejected by Buddhism as an illusion. See also self-nature.

self-authenticating part (svasamvitti-bhaga): That part of consciousness that knows that it perceives objects. The seeing part (q.v.) sees the seen part (q.v.), objects or images, and the self-authenticating part is that which knows that seeing has occurred.

self-nature (svabhava): A sort of unitary, independent, permanent, unchanging, and perhaps eternal nature or substance which common sense tends to imagine that all phenoma possess. Rejected by Buddhism as an illusion. See also self.

sense bases (ayatana): The six sense organs (including mind) and their respective objects of perception. They are bases because they are the loci of perceptions.

sense consciousness. See consciousness.

sense field idhatu): The eighteen sense fields are the six sense organs, their six corresponding perceptual objects, and the six corresponding forms of consciousness. Thus, for instance, there are eyes, material objects, and visual consciousness. When these three are present, there is an act of visual perception.

signlessness (animitta): The absence of signs or characteristics in the perceptions of an enlightened person. One of the three "doors of liberation," the other two being emptiness (q.v.) and wishlessness. six perfections (paramita). See perfection.

418

Glossary

six secondary passions (upaklesa): Faithlessness, indolence, thoughtlessness, forgetfulness, distraction, and inaccurate knowing. six sense bases (sadayatana): The six sense organs. stage (bhum i): A phase of spiritual training for bodhisattvas. The spiritual practices of bodhisattvas are variously divided into stages, states (avastha), and paths (m arga). See also ten [bodhisattva] stages. state of culmination (nistha-avastha): The final state of spiritual development, the state of awakening from delusion that follows the path of cultivation (q.v.).

state of cultivation (bhav nd-avastha)'. The state of intense meditation on the path of the bodhisattva, characterized by repetitious contemplation of truths.

state of equipment (sam bhara-avastha): Preliminary spiritual practices that prepare one for meditation and the superior stages. It involves such practices as moral reeducation.

state of thorough understanding (prativedha-avastha). See path of insight. store consciousness (alaya-vijhana): The eighth consciousness as storer of the seeds of delusion and awakening, impurity and purity. The fundamental concept of the system of the Ch'eng wei-shih lun. See also consciousness; fundamental consciousness.

stream-winner (srota-apanna): One who has entered the "stream that flows to awakening and arhatship."

suffering (duhkha): Also translated as "turmoil," "unrest," "imperfection," and "unsatisfactoriness." The first of the four noble truths (q.v.) of Buddhism. The plight of all unawakened beings.

suffering of suffering (duhkha-duhkhata): Turmoil and unrest attendant on suffering from hunger, illness, loss, etc.

summits (m urdhana): One of the aids to cognitive penetration. Supreme Perfect Awakening (anuttara-sam yak-sam bodhi): The state of Buddhahood.

supreme worldly dharmas (laukikagra-dharm a): One of four aids to cognitive penetration (nirvedha-bhagiya).

ten [bodhisattva] stages: Ten phases of spiritual training for bodhisattvas— extreme joy (pram udita), immaculateness (vim ald), light emission (prbha-kari), blazing discernment (arcism ati), difficult to vanquish (sudurjaya), presence (abhim ukhi), far going (duram gam a), unshakable (acala), good discernment (sadhum ati), and cloud of the Dharma (dharm a-m egha).

419

Glossary

ten perfections. See perfection.

ten secondary passions: Thoughtlessness, agitation, torpor, faithlessness, indolence, wrong desires, wrong resolution, wrong memory, distraction, and inaccurate knowing.

thought (m anas): The seventh of eight forms of consciousness, the one responsible for thought. It is manas that mistakenly believes that mental images are really external objects. See also consciousness. three [Buddha] bodies: The first, primordial body of the Buddha is called the Dharma-feaya (Dharma body) or essential body (svabhavika-kaya). It is immaterial, beyond conception, synonymous with absolute truth. The second is the enjoyment body (sam bhoga-kaya), which takes two forms: the body of personal enjoyment (svasam bhoga-kaya) and the body for the enjoyment of others (parasam bhoga-kaya). The body of personal enjoyment is a glorified body of a Buddha, adorned with the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks, resulting from eons of spiritual practice. Only a Buddha enjoys this body; it is not known to others. The body for the enjoyment of others is also a glorified body of a Buddha, adorned with the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks, resulting from eons of spiritual practice; but advanced bodhisattvas can perceive this body, hence "for the enjoyment of others. " The third, earthly body is called the transformation body (nirmanakaya). It is the material body of a historical Buddha. The sambhogakaya and the nirm ana-kaya (enjoyment body and transformation body) are known collectively as the rupa-kaya or form body. threefold naturelessness. See three natures.

three natures (trisvabhava): Three perspectives from which anything can be understood. (1) A falsely imagined nature (parikalpita-svabhava), which is the false, illusory nature that things have of appearing as if they were real things existing outside of consciousness. (2) A nature of being dependent on others (paratantra-svabhava), which is the state of existing only in dependence on other things. Since all things exist only interdependently, all things have this nature. (3) A perfected nature (parinispanna), which is the true state, perceived without the obscurations of delusion and craving. The true nature of an object is said by the text to be the dependent nature minus the imagined nature. Since the three natures have no self-nature (q.v.), one sometimes speaks of their threefold naturelessness.

three transforming consciousnesses: The store consciousness (q.v.), thought (q.v.), and a third form of consciousness consisting of the seeing part (q.v.) and the seen part (q.v.) combined.

420

Glossary

trance state/trance (dhyâna): Four increasingly refined stages of meditation, culminating in mental tranquility devoid of thought and feeling. See also attainment of cessation.

tranquility [of mind] (samatha): The practice of achieving mental stillness or calming, often combined with or followed by practices such as observation of mental physical states (vipasyanâ).

tranquility and insight (samatha-vipasyanâ): The classic Indian Buddhist form of meditation, in which there are preliminary exercises calculated to calm and stabilize the mind followed by active practices such as contemplating feelings, breathing, etc.

transformation body. See three [Buddha] bodies.

transmutation by breaking the power of impure seeds and increasing the efficacy of pure seeds (balodghâta-prabhàva-vardhana-parâvrtti). See transmutation of the support.

transmutation of cultivation (bhâvanâ-parâvrtti). See transmutation of the support.

transmutation of the perfection of result (phala-paripüri-parâvrttï). See transmutation of the support.

transmutation of the support (âsraya-paràvrtti): "Support" refers to the eighth or store consciousness (q.v.) as the holder of seeds of delusion and enlightenment. This transmutation is a total change in the character of the store consciousness, whereby seeds of delusion are destroyed and seeds of enlightenment are nourished and made to mature. This is the culminating act during the spiritual practices of the bodhisattva. transmutation of thorough understanding (prativedha-parâvrtti). See transmutation of the support.

true nature of things (dharmatâ): The way that all things really are when known apart from false imagination; ultimate reality. true suchness (bhüta-tathatâ): The "suchness" of things. The real nature of each thing as it is, apart from false imagining, perverted views, stereotyped interpretations, etc.

truth of the path (mârga-satya): The fourth of the four noble truths (q.v.), the truth of the method or path by means of which suffering is terminated. This path consists of meditation, the development of moral character, and the gaining of clear understanding.

twofold grasping (grahadvaya): The grasper (q.v.) and the grasped (q.v.) combined.

421