T1585 Three Texts on Consciousness Only

Chapter V: The Six Kinds of Sense Consciousness

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Even though acts such as giving, etc., are attracted by passions, [the acts] do not occur simultaneously [with the passions], and therefore these [passions] are not the real cause of impurity, because the word "impure" indicates simultaneity of soiling [and being soiled]. Also, indeterminate acts are not attracted by the passions, so how can they become soiled?

All impurities result from various passions of one's own [and not from another's], from actually present passions [and not from seeds], and from passions that are born simultaneously [with mind] and that perish simultaneously [with it], and they are born in the reciprocal promotion. This perfuming creates the seeds of soiled dharmas, and later those [dharmas] that appear will become soiled. This being so with ordinary beings, so also with learners. Even though the soiled [manas] of post-learners is not accompanied by [active] soiling itself, it becomes soiled by means of soiled seeds from previous times, so there is no violation of reason. Due to the perpetual attachment to a self by the manas, dharmas that are good, [bad,] etc., are made soiled. If this mind did not exist, that [soiling process] would not exist either. Therefore we know that there must be a separate seventh consciousness. There are a great many proofs for the existence of this consciousness. Here, six from the Mahayanasamgraha have been taken up briefly. The wise should follow them, trust them, and study them. Some scriptures speak of only six consciousnesses, but you should realize that this is an expedient [for those unprepared for the whole explanation]. Another explanation is that these texts speak of six in accordance with the six organs that act as the supports [of the six consciousnesses], but there are in fact eight separate kinds of consciousness.

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The Six Kinds of

Sense Consciousness

Now that the second transforming consciousness has been discussed, what are the distinguishing characteristics of the third transforming [consciousness]? The verses [by Vasubandhu] say, Next is the third transforming consciousness, With its sixfold distinction.

Its nature and character is that of perception OF THE OBJECT,

And it is good, bad,or neither.

The Treatise says that after discussing the transforming consciousness that thinks, we must discern the characteristics of the transforming consciousness that perceives the object.

1. Names of the Six Consciousnesses

There are, in summary, six kinds of this consciousness, because of differences of kind among the six organs and their objects. They are called visual consciousness, etc., ending with mental consciousness. The name of each [form of consciousness] is established according to the organ, in five ways: [consciousness] is supported [by the organ]; it is the expression [of the organ]; it is affiliated [with the organ]; it aids [the organ]; and it is similar to the organ. Although all six consciousnesses evolve supported by [the seventh consciousness,] manas, the name "manas consciousness" (mano-vijhana) [the sixth of the six consciousnesses] is derived 153

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from its special [support], just as the other five consciousnesses [although also supported by manas] are distinguished [according to their special supports]. Or it is called manas consciousness because its sole support is manas. The [six] names come from the distinction [of forms] of consciousness, with the mind (citta) and manas being exceptions.

Or, we speak of consciousness of form, etc., ending with the consciousness of dharmas, in accordance with the object of the consciousness, because this is what "consciousness" means, which refers to the perception of six kinds of objects. The [first five,] including consciousness of form, etc., only perceive form, etc., but consciousness of dharmas [by the sixth consciousness] is able to perceive all dharmas [including form, sound, etc.]. Or, it is called "consciousness of dharmas" in that it alone is able to perceive dharmas. Therefore, the names of the six consciousnesses do not get confused. Hereafter, names of these consciousnesses that are established in accordance with their objects are given when they are not yet free of dependence on material organs. Once they are free, the organs are interchangeable in their functions, with one organ provoking a consciousness of any kind of sense object. Then they are only named according to the organ so as not to have any confusion. As for the Mahaydna Sutralamkara saying that each of a Tathagata's five sense organs functions relative to all five kinds of objects, the text is referring to gross, obvious objects of the same kind [as the organ]. The Buddhabhumi Sutra says that knowledge of perfecting the work [of benefiting oneself and others] ascertains the countless differences of mental activities of sentient beings, generates the transformation of the three actions [of body, speech, and mind], and performs the four predictions, etc., because if it were not universal, this ability would not exist. However, objects and supports of these six evolving consciousnesses are well known, being gross and obvious, and hence they are not discussed here. We have already discussed their supports and will discuss their objects [later on].

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2. Nature and Mode of Activity

Next [Vasubandhu] says, its nature and character is that of perception of the object. This shows both the self-nature and the mode of activity of the six consciousnesses, because these consciousnesses have the perception of objects as their essential nature, and using that is their mode of activity. Therefore we understand why separate names are given, which is that they are able to perceive and discriminate objects. A scripture asks, "What is visual consciousness? It is that which perceives and discriminates forms in dependence on the visual organ. What is mental consciousness? It is that which perceives and discriminates all dharmas in dependence on the thinking organ." The scripture just speaks of special supports in the state prior to the transmutation of the support, of what is perceived by the seeing part [of consciousness itself]. Other supports and perceptions are as already explained. 3. Moral Species

What is the moral species of these six consciousnesses? [Vasubandhu says,] good, bad, or neither. Neither means "indeterminate," because they can be neither good nor bad. Good is so called because it benefits one in this life and in a later life. The fruit of happiness among humans and celestials, although beneficial in the present life, is not beneficial in a later life, and it is therefore not said to be "good." Bad is that which is disadvantageous in this life and in a later life. The fruit of suffering among the evil destinies, although disadvantageous in the present life, is not disadvantageous in a later life, and it is therefore not said to be "bad." Indeterminate is so called because it cannot be determined to be good, bad, beneficial, or disadvantageous. If these six consciousnesses are associated with the eleven mental activities such as faith, they are categorized as "good. " Associated with the ten dharmas such as shamelessness, they are categorized as "bad." Unassociated with any of the above, they are categorized as "indeterminate."

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There is an interpretation that the three [moral] natures cannot occur simultaneously in the six consciousnesses, because there will be a contradiction [of natures] when consciousness evolves vis-à-vis the same external realm. Also, the [first] five consciousnesses must be guided and directed by mental consciousness, be simultaneous with it, have the same object, and become good or defiled [accordingly]. If we admit that the three natures occur simultaneously in the [first] five consciousnesses, then at that moment, mental consciousness must share all these natures, and that violates reason. Therefore they must not be simultaneously present. The Yogacarabhumi [Sàstra] and other texts say that store consciousness during a single moment arises with these three natures in association with the evolving consciousness, but that refers to numerous moments [of store consciousness], in the same way that when these texts speak of a single thought, it is not a single generation and cessation. Thus there is no contradiction here. There is another interpretation that it is possible for the three natures to be simultaneously present in the six consciousnesses, because many or few of these consciousnesses, such as visual consciousness, may arise simultaneously, either suddenly or one after another. Although the [first] five consciousnesses always occur together with mental consciousness, they are not necessarily the same in being good, etc. The above difficulties that were said to exist are irrelevant here.

The Yogacarabhumi Sastra says, "Should someone arise from samadhi due to encountering a sound, auditory consciousness occurs together with the [morally good] mental consciousness associated with samadhi. It is not just mental consciousness alone, associated with samadhi, that experiences the sound. If it were, one would not hear the sound and leave samadhi. One does not leave samadhi the instant the sound is heard; one leaves it at the instant sound is heard and there is some kind of expectation." Auditory consciousness suddenly hearing a sound during samadhi must not be good, because in one who has not yet experienced the transmutation of the support, the sudden lapse into thought is 156

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necessarily indeterminate. This proves that mental consciousness associated with the other five consciousnesses is not necessarily of the same moral species. Texts only say that mental consciousness associated with the [other] five consciousnesses also has the same objects, not the same nature.

When the Abhidharmasamuccaya-vyakhya says that the five consciousnesses are absent during samacLhi, it means for the most part. If the three natures evolve simultaneously in the five consciousnesses, then mental [consciousness] will be of the same nature as the consciousness [in question] insofar as both have a special attention directed toward an object. However, without this special attention, its nature is indeterminate. Therefore it is possible for the three natures to occur simultaneously among the six evolving consciousnesses. These consciousnesses are good only in a state of liberation, because the form and mind of a Buddha are included in the truth of the path (marga-satya), because a Buddha has forever destroyed all seeds of idle discourse.

4. Associated Mental Activities

With how many mental activities are the six consciousnesses associated? [Vasubandhu's] verses say,

They are associated with universal mental activities, Those with specific objects, the good, the passions, The secondary passions, the nondetermined,

And all three feelings.

The Treatise says that the six evolving consciousnesses are, in general, associated with these six kinds of mental activities; i.e., the universals, etc.

5. The Name "Mental Activities"

They are called "mental activities" because they always occur in dependence on the mind, are associated with the mind, and belong to the mind, just as the word "mine" is that which belongs to "me." The mind has only general characteristics as its objects, but mental 157

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activities grasp their specific characteristics. Mental activities aid the mind and promote its business, hence the name, just as the master painter draws the outlines and the student fills in the colors. This is why the Yogàcàrabhumi [Sàstra] says, "Consciousness perceives general characteristics of the event, while attention (manaskàra) grasps the characteristics [that consciousness itself] has not yet grasped; i.e., the specific characteristics grasped [only] by mental activities. Contact (sparsa) perceives agreeable characteristics, etc. Feeling (vedano.) perceives comforting characteristics, etc. Conceptualization (samjfia) perceives characteristics that cause speech. Volition (cetano-) perceives characteristics that are causes of what is correct, etc. Therefore attention, etc., are called 'mental activities.'" This also shows that mental activities also have general characteristics as objects.

Other sources say that desire (chanda) also perceives the characteristics of pleasant things, resolve perceives the characteristics of events that are definite and certain, memory (smrti) perceives the characteristics of already familiar events [that are past], and samadhi and discernment perceive such characteristics as virtue and demerit. As a result of these [mental activities], good, impurity, etc., are generated vis-à-vis objects. All these mental activities equally experience the specific characteristics of their objects [as well as general ones],

6. Various Kinds of Mental Activities

Although all mental activities go by the general name "mental activities," there are in fact six kinds: five universal mental activities, five with specific objects, eleven good ones, six passions, twenty secondary passions, and four indeterminates. Thus there are fiftyone mental activities in six classes. [The universal mental activities are so called] because they definitely can be found in all minds. [Those with specific objects are so called] because they occur when objects are specific. [Good mental activities are those] that are only bom in good minds. [The passions are so called] because they are categorized as fundamental passions 158

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by nature. [The secondary passions (upaklesa) are so called] because they are by nature only modalities of passions. [Indeterminate mental activities] are those found in good minds, impure minds, etc. The Yogacarabhumi Scistra combines the six kinds into five, because both passions and secondary passions are defilements. In addition it explains the differences among the five in terms of the four "alls"; i.e., found in all natures, in all stages, in all times, and occurring together. Of the five, universals have all four "alls"; those with specific objects have only the first two "alls"; good mental activities possess one, which is that they occur in all stages; impure mental activities have none of the four "alls"; and the undetermined mental activities have only one, which is that they exist in all natures. This is how the five classes are distinguished. 7. The Three Feelings

These six evolving consciousnesses are prone to slip away and are not fixed, and therefore all can be associated with the three feelings (vedana), because they experience characteristics that are agreeable, disagreeable, and those that are neither. The experience of agreeable objects comforts and delights body and mind and is called the "feeling of pleasure" (sukha). The experience of the characteristics of disagreeable objects troubles body and mind and is called the "feeling of suffering" (duhkha). The experience of characteristics of neutral objects is called the "feeling of neither pleasure nor suffering. "

Each of these feelings can be divided into two. When associated with the five [sense] consciousnesses, it is said to be of a physical kind, because of its special dependence on the body. When associated with [the sixth,] mental consciousness, it is said to be mental, because of its dependence on just the mind. Also, the three feelings may be either impure or pure, because the feeling of pain also occurs as a result of pure [dharmas]. Or, each feeling may be seen as threefold: to be eliminated (heya) by [the path of] insight, [to be eliminated] by [the path of] cultivation, and not eliminated. Or, [they may occur] in learners, post-learners, or by 159

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neither. Or, they may be seen in general as being fourfold: good, not good, impure and indeterminate, and pure and indeterminate. There is an interpretation that each of the three feelings can be fourfold. Because spontaneous craving and delusion that occur with the [first] five consciousnesses and spontaneous passions of the destinies of pure suffering do not generate any karma, they are indeterminate and can be associated with the faculty of suffering. The Yogacarabhumi Sastra says, "When all passions are generated spontaneously, they may occur in connection with three feelings. When they occur in all consciousnesses, they are associated with all faculties, and when not occurring in all consciousnesses, they are associated with all faculties in the realm of manas. " The Abhidharmasamuccaya-vyakhya says, "When spontaneous passions related to the realm of desire produce evil actions, they are not good. All others are impure and indeterminate." Therefore we know that each of the three feelings can be fourfold. 8. The Five Feelings

[Feelings] can be divided into five kinds: suffering (duhkha), pleasure (sukha), sorrow (daurmanasya), delight (saumanasya), and indifference (upeksa). Suffering and pleasure can each be divided into two, because characteristics of annoyance and delight differ according to whether they are physical or mental, whether they accompany or do not accompany discrimination, and whether they are heavy or light. That which is neither pleasant nor painful is not divided like this, because being neither annoying nor pleasing, there is no distinction of characteristics, there is no discrimination, and it evolves uniformly [as neither heavy nor light]. The feeling of delight associated with the five [sense] consciousnesses is always called "pleasure. " Associated with mental consciousness when it occurs in the realm of desire and in the approaches to the first two trance states (dhyana), it is called "delight," because it only delights the mind. During the first two trance states, it is called both "pleasure" and "delight," because it delights [both] body and mind. In the approaches to the third trance state, and in the 160

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actual trance state, it is called "pleasure," because it is calm, heavy, and without discrimination.

The feeling of oppression associated with the [first] five consciousnesses is always called "suffering" (duhkha). Associated with mental consciousness, according to one interpretation, it is nothing but sorrow, because it oppresses the mind, and because the holy teachings say that the feeling of discomfort in the realm of thought is called the "faculty of sorrow." The Yogâcârabhümi Sâstra says, "As soon as retribution commences among those sentient beings in the purgatories, there is retribution that generates a feeling of sorrow." It also says, "[Those in] the purgatories also have the sorrow of applied and sustained thought, as do a part of animals and hungry ghosts {prêta). Therefore we know that feelings of heavy discomfort in the realm of manas are called "sorrow," and even more so are the other light [discomforts]. There is an interpretation that [sorrow] takes two forms. Among humans and celestials, it is always called "sorrow," because it is not heavy. Among animals and hungry ghosts, it is called either "sorrow" or "suffering," because the feeling may be heavy or light depending on whether the feeling is pure or mixed. In purgatory (naraka), it is called "suffering," only because the feeling is unadulterated, heavy, and without discrimination. The Yogâcârabhümi Sâstra says, "The three feelings can be active with all spontaneously generated passions." The details are as mentioned earlier.

[The Yogâcârabhümi Sâstra] also says, "The innate view of a person is only indeterminate in nature, and the same must be true of extreme views. " Suffering accompanying these [views] is not categorized as the faculty of sorrow, because the treatise says that the faculty of suffering is not indeterminate. It also says, "In the purgatories, the other three [faculties] definitely do not occur, and that is also the case with animals and hungry ghosts whose suffering is unadulterated." The "other three" are certainly pleasure, delight, and sorrow, because these beings must be provided with active indifference.

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[It is objected,] is it not true that adventitious indifference is not active among them? [We reply,] how do you know that the passage [from the treatise] is speaking only of adventitious feelings? You must not say that those beings definitely possess the faculty of thought, because the six adventitious consciousnesses are sometimes absent. It must not be that the treatise is speaking only of adventitious feelings, because there is no reason for speaking of the faculty of thought. Also, if the treatise is speaking with reference to adventitious feelings, how can we definitely speak of those beings as having eight faculties?

If you claim that the eighth is the faculty of sorrow, because the five [sense] consciousnesses do not form an unbroken series, then how can the faculty of sorrow exist at birth, death, and in a faint? We offer the same objection to the opinion that the eighth faculty is the faculty of suffering. The opinion that the eighth faculty is the sex organ is unreasonable, because a sex organ is uncertain [in the purgatories], because due to evil karma [beings] can be sexless. They must have eyes, etc., because the five organs are made to suffer as a consequence of evil karma, but of what use is a sex organ [in the purgatories]? There can be no hope for sexual intercourse in Avici, the great purgatory. Thus the eighth faculty is definitely the faculty of indifference, because it is associated with the seventh and eighth consciousnesses. Just as in the realm of ultimate pleasure the comforting of mind is called "pleasure," and there is no faculty of delight, in places of ultimate suffering, the vexation of mind is called "suffering, " and there is no faculty of sorrow. Therefore the three [faculties] mentioned [in the Yogdcarabhumi\ are doubtless sorrow, delight, and pleasure. Other sources say that [beings in the purgatories] have pleasure as efflux [of former karma], but you must understand that this is a concession [to other schools], or it refers to situations where feelings are mixed. [Beings in the purgatories] have no pleasure as retribution, and [these places] are therefore called "pure suffering. " However, as for the holy teachings saying that the feeling of discomfort associated with thought is called the "faculty of sorrow," 162

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that means "in many cases," or else, it is a concession and does not really contradict our position. Also, the [earlier statements of the] Yogacarabhumi Sastra that say, "As soon as retribution begins in the beings born in the purgatories, there is retribution that generates sorrow," and that say, "Those in the purgatories have the sorrow of applied and sustained thought, as do some animals and hungry ghosts," are also concessions.

Also, as for the faculty of suffering associated with mental consciousness, it resembles the sorrow of other [realms of suffering], and therefore we may roughly speak of it as sorrow. Alternately, we can call it "sorrow" because, although categorized as the faculty of suffering, it injures body and mind, just as we also call the approaches [to trance states] "pleasure," because, although the faculty of delight, it benefits body and mind. This is the interpretation of such works as the Vyakhyapana Sastra. However, it is certain that in the stage prior to arrival [at the first trance state,] there is no faculty of pleasure, because [the Yogacarabhumi Sastra] says that there are only eleven faculties [at that stage]. Consequently, you should realize that the feeling of grief in the area of manas, in places where feeling is of unadulterated suffering, is also categorized as suffering. This feeling is distinguished under many topics in the holy teachings, but these will not be pursued here for fear of prolixity.

9. Simultaneity of the Three Feelings

There is an interpretation that the three feelings [pleasure, suffering, and neither] are not simultaneously present in the six [sense] consciousnesses, because they are mutually contradictory when evolving in relation to external objects. Mental consciousness associated with the [first] five has the same object that they have, and if the five are associated with the three feelings, then so is mental consciousness. This violates reasoning, and therefore [the six consciousnesses] must not be associated [with the three feelings simultaneously]. When the Yogacarabhumi [Sastra] and other texts say that store consciousness at a single instant occurs together with the 163

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three feelings associated with the [six] evolving consciousnesses, they mean during a plurality of instants, just as the expression "one mind" does not refer to a single generation and extinction. Thus there is no contradiction.

There is an interpretation [by Dharmapala] that the three feelings can be simultaneously present in the six [sense] consciousnesses, because it is possible for agreeable, disagreeable, and neutral objects to be experienced simultaneously, and because thought does not necessarily have to experience the same object as the [other] five. It generates a single feeling when it is fixed on a definite object [perceived by one of the five senses], but when not fixed it generates indifference. Consequently, the three feelings can occur simultaneously in the six consciousnesses. When one has reached the state of freedom, [the six consciousnesses] are [associated with] pleasure, delight, and indifference only, because Buddhas have eliminated everything that is sorrowful and full of suffering.

10. Universal Mental Activities and

Those with Specific Objects

We have briefly explained the six groups of mental activities, but now we must speak in some detail of their specific characteristics. What are the characteristics of the first two groups? First, universal mental activities, contact, etc. Next, those with specific objects; that is, desire, Resolve, memory, s a m a d h i, and discernment, W hose objects are not the same.

The Treatise says, among the six groups of mental activities, first, the five universal [mental activities], contact, etc., are as discussed earlier at length. How should we understand their characteristics? Through the fixed means of knowledge of teachings and reason.

As for teachings, a scripture says, "Visual consciousness arises with eyes and material objects as its conditions, and the union of 164

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these three is called 'contact' (sparsa). Along with contact are feeling, conceptualization (samjha), volition," etc. Consequently, these four, contact, etc., are universal mental activities. Another scripture says, "If the faculty has not deteriorated and objects appear, and attention properly occurs, then it can produce consciousness." Another text also says, "If there is attention directed toward [an object], then there is perception [of the object]. If there is perception, there will be attention. Thus these two are always united," etc. Consequently, attention is also universal. Many scriptures prove this.

As for reason, for the arising of consciousness there must be a union of the three [organ, object, and consciousness]. That definitely produces contact. Contact must be present, because without it, mind and mental activities do not unite to contact an object. Attention directs mind to its object, and without it, there is no mind. Feeling experiences an object that is agreeable, disagreeable, or neutral, and it makes mind feel joy, distaste, or indifference, because mind is never present without one of these feelings. Conceptualization establishes the particulars of the object, because if mind arises without conceptualization, it is unable to grasp the particulars. Volition makes mind perceive the characteristics of proper causes [of good, etc.] and creates good [actions], etc. Volition must be present, because mind does not occur in the absence [of good, etc.]. Through these logical proofs, you must know that these five dharmas, contact, etc., are universal, because they are necessary for mind to occur. The reason other [mental activities] are not universals will be discussed later.

11. Mental Activities with Specific Objects

Next [are the mental activities] with specific objects, i.e., those from desire (chanda) through discernment (prajna). Their objects are not [always] the same, for the most part. They are next to the first of the six groups [in the "Thirty Verses"]. What is desire (chanda)? Desire has as its nature a wish for a pleasing object, and its activity is that of supporting effort. There 165

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is one interpretation that "pleasing" means "a delightful object," because a wish exists when one desires to see, hear, etc., some delightful thing. Why is it not desire when one wishes to be apart from a detestable thing and not associated with it? Desire seeks only the time of nonunion or separation, which is, itself, delightful, but it is not desire for something detestable. Therefore an object that is detestable or neither delightful nor detestable is never desired, and there is no desire if a delightful object is not wished for.

28b There is another interpretation that "pleasing" refers to things one wishes for, because one wishes for either union with the delightful or separation from the detestable. There is never desire for a neutral thing, nor is there desire when the pleasing or detestable object is not wished for.

There is a third interpretation that "pleasing" means an object one wishes to examine, because when one desires to examine and investigate everything, there is a wish. If one does not desire to examine, due to the power of the cause or object, and simply perceives the object spontaneously, there is no desire at all. Reason thus leads to the conclusion that desire is not a universal [mental activity]. There is an interpretation [by the Sarvastivadins] that mind and mental activities grasp objects as a result of the power of a wish for the object, and therefore a scripture says that desire is the root of all dharmas [and therefore universal]. However, this cannot be the case, because mind, etc., grasps objects because of attention [and not desire]. Various holy teachings say that when attention is present, it produces consciousness, and no source says that desire generates mind and mental activities. The scriptures also say craving is the foundation of all dharmas, but how can it generate mind and mental activities? Therefore when it is said that desire is the root of all dharmas, it means "all actions produced by desire." Or, it means that good desires produce proper efforts and aids in the accomplishment of all good things. That is why the present treatise says that the activity [of desire] is the support of effort.

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What is resolve? Its nature is that of correct ascertainment with regard to an object that is definite [and beyond doubt], and its activity is that of not allowing the object to be doubted. That is, through the power of false or correct teachings, reasoning, or experience, one is certain and correctly ascertains the object in question. As a consequence, other conditions are unable to change one's mind. Therefore resolve is wholly absent if the object is indefinite, and it is likewise absent if the mind is uncertain. Consequently, resolve is not categorized as a universal.

There is the opinion that if, when the mind [and mental activities] grasp their own objects, there is no obstacle, then they are provided with resolve. That is incorrect. Why? Because it is all dharmas that cannot obstruct, and it is mind [and mental activities] that are not obstructed. It is the organ and attention that prevail in the generation [of mind]. If they prevail as a result of resolve, this will subsequently require other [conditions] and that will result in an infinite regress.

What is memory (smrti)? Its nature is that of causing mind to record clearly and not forget an object that has been experienced, and its activity is that of supporting samadhi, because it steadily holds an experienced object and prevents its loss, thus inducing samadhi. There is no memory of something not already experienced, nor does memory occur if that which is experienced is not clearly recorded. Therefore memory cannot be included among the universals. There is an opinion that when mind arises, it must be accompanied by memory, because it is the cause for a subsequent recollection. This argument is unreasonable, because it cannot be that something like faith or delusion existed previously [as a cause]. Prior mind and mental activities, or the power of conceptualization, suffice to be the later cause of recollection.

What is s a m a d h i ? Its nature is that of causing mind to be absorbed in attention on a contemplated object and not become distracted, and its activity is that of supporting knowledge. When contemplating the virtues, defects, both, or neither [of an object], samadhi causes the mind to be absorbed and prevents its distraction. 167

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Supported by it, knowledge that is certain is born. The words "absorbed in attention" show that [mind] dwells where it wishes to dwell, not just on one object. Otherwise, there would be no uniform maintenance of attention on the path of insight when one contemplates various truths in a sequence, with differing objects. If the mind is in a state where it is not fixed in attention on the object, there is no samadhi, and therefore it is not included among the universal mental activities.

There is an opinion that even then, [when mind is abstracted,] there is samadhi, except that its characteristics are subtle and obscure. [People] claiming this should speak honestly and straightforwardly! If samadhi is a universal because it makes mind, etc., unite with and be directed to an object, that is not reasonable, because that is the function of contact. If it is claimed that samadhi makes the mind remain unchanged for the space of an instant, and for that reason is universal, that is also unreasonable, because the mind itself does not change objects during an instant. If it is claimed that it is universal because it grasps an object, this is also unreasonable, because it is attention that does that. There is another opinion that samadhi is in essence mind itself, because a scripture says that [samadhi] is mental training, or mind united with an object. But that is not a convincing proof. It says that in the sense that samadhi unifies the mind and causes it to unite with an object. Samadhi, included among the faculties (indriya), powers (bala), aspects of awakening (bodhyafiga), and aspects of the path (margahga), etc., is not mind, just as memory, discernment, etc., are not mind.

What is discernment? Its nature is discriminating an object that is being inspected, and its activity is that of eliminating doubt, because discernment seeks certainty when inspecting something that is meritorious, defective, both, or neither. Since discernment does not exist when one is not inspecting an object, or when the mind is deluded and obtuse, it is not included among the universals. There is an opinion that even then, discernment exists, except that its characteristics are subtle and obscure. We ask, how 168

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do you know that, foolish man? [He replies,] the Abhidharma says that it is a universal. [We reply,] various schools do not agree on this. How can they be relied on as reliable testimonies? The scriptures speak of only five—contact, etc.—as universals. When you speak of ten, that is not scripture, and you ought not to be so obstinate. The five [mental activities] such as desire are not [the five of] contact, etc., and therefore are not universal, just as faith, craving, etc., are not.

12. Relationship among the Five with Specific Objects There is an interpretation [by Sthiramati] that all five [with specific objects] assist each other, and when one exists, the other four must also exist. Another interpretation disagrees, because the Yogdcdrabhumi [Sastra] says that of the four "alls" [exists at all times, etc.] the last two are missing. It also says that the five [mental activities] arise directed on four kinds of objects, and these objects and the five mental activities do not necessarily occur simultaneously. It should be said that sometimes only one of the five occurs. That is, only desire when there is something pleasing; only determined resolve when there is something definite; only recollection or memory when there is a past event; only focused attention when there is something being inspected. When deluded, obtuse people try to overcome distraction, even though they focus their attention, they are still unable to investigate and discriminate. Everyone in the world knows that they possess samadhi but not discernment. There is a small amount [of scattered discernment] in the state of added effort (prayoga-avastha), consisting of what has been heard and reflected on, and for that reason it is said that samadhi has a contemplated object as its object. Alternately, this is said with respect to many cases; for instance, when the celestials who are oblivious in their play (kridapradusika-deva) may focus their attention on an object and arouse craving or antipathy, they may have samadhi but not discernment. There are numerous examples like this. Another alternative is that investigation only arises with regard to something being inspected; i.e., when the mind is not 169

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29a focused but darts about in distraction, one investigates and seeks in a distracted manner [and there is no samadhi]. Sometimes, two [mental activities] may occur; i.e., for instance, desire and resolve occur with regard to an object that is pleasing and definite. Or, desire and memory occur with regard to pleasing objects that were experienced in the past. We can continue like this until we come to samadhi and discernment, which occur with regard to something being inspected. Thus they combine to make ten pairs. Sometimes, three may occur [simultaneously]; i.e., desire, resolve, and memory, when the object is pleasing, definite, and occurred in the past. We can continue like this until we come to memory, samadhi, and discernment, when the object being inspected occurred in the past, thus combining to make ten triads. Sometimes, four occur together; i.e., the first four, when the object is pleasant, definite, occurred in the past, and is being inspected. And we continue thus until we come to the last four [resolve, memory, samadhi, and discernment], when the object is definite, occurred in the past, and is being inspected. Altogether, there are five groups of four.

Sometimes, all five occur together; i.e., all five occur together when the object is pleasant, definite, occurred in the past, and is being inspected. Thus the five [with specific objects] arise in relation to the four [characteristics of the object] to combine, generally and specifically, to make thirty-one cases.

Sometimes, none of the five occurs in a certain state of mind, when the four kinds of objects are not present, during a sudden sinking of the mind, and in the store consciousness. There are a number of examples. These [five] may or may not occur in the seventh and eighth consciousnesses, depending on the state [of development], as explained earlier [in the discussion of the store consciousness]. They may be associated with the sixth, mental consciousness, whatever the stage of development, aside from the question of hether or not there has been a transmutation of the support. According to one interpretation, the [first] five consciousnesses are without all five [with specific objects], because there is no 170

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desire for an object that is already acquired [in the act of perception]; not being capable of decision, they cannot have resolve; they have no memory because they always grasp a new object; they do not focus attention because it is their nature to be distracted and unstable; and they have no discernment because they are incapable of investigation and speculation.

According to another interpretation [by Dharmapala], the five mental activities may accompany the five consciousnesses, for the following reasons: even though there is no strong desire for the object [in the five consciousnesses], there is still a weak fondness for the object. Even though there is no strong determination toward the object, there is a weak impression of the object. Even though there is no clear and distinct recollection of the substance of a previously experienced object, there is a weak memory of its species. Even though there is no attending and binding mind to an object, there is a weak focusing of attention. In order to counter the notion that [the five consciousnesses] are concentrated in samadhi, it is said that they are by nature distracted and unstable, but this does not mean that they cannot be in samadhi [but distracted]. Therefore they may be associated with samadhi. Finally, even though they are incapable of investigation and speculation concerning an object, they are capable of a weak discrimination. Consequently, the holy teachings say that the paranormal powers of vision and hearing are of the nature of knowledge associated with visual and auditory consciousness. This applies to the other three [consciousnesses] as well, so there is no error [in conceding that the five consciousnesses] are capable of discernment. These five [activities with specific objects] may not exist prior to the stage of freedom, but once mastery is acquired, they definitely exist. The reason for this is that desire that enjoys contemplating objects does not decrease; resolve that judges objects never decreases; also, the five consciousnesses of a Buddha have as perceptual objects the three time periods [past, future, and present], Tathagatas do not have minds that are not in samadhi, and the five consciousnesses [of a Buddha] possess the discernment required to perform their tasks. 171

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13. Mental Activities with Specific

Objects and Their Feelings

With what feelings are the five mental activities with specific objects (aniyata) associated? One idea is that desire is associated with three feelings, excluding feelings of sorrow (daurmanasya) and suffering (duhkha), because the two objects [causing these two feelings] are unpleasant [and thus undesirable]. The remaining four are associated with four [feelings], excluding only the feeling of suffering, because the five [sense] consciousnesses are devoid of judgement, resolve, etc.

According to another interpretation, all [five mental activities] are associated with the five feelings. A treatise says that the faculty of sorrow exists in the thought of supreme dharmas, because in seeking their realization, there is sorrow [in not acquiring them] and longing [for them]. In places of the unadulterated feeling of suffering, [beings] seek liberation, because manas possesses the faculty of suffering, as explained earlier. A treatise says that craving and thirst are associated with sorrow and suffering, because both craving and thirst must be associated with desire. Since the faculty of suffering is associated with mental consciousness, what is the error if the four mental activities, resolve, etc., accompany suffering? Also, as discussed earlier, the [first] five consciousnesses possess the four [activities] of subtle judgement, etc. Therefore [the five mental activities with specific objects] desire, etc., are associated with the five feelings. These five [feelings] should also be investigated from the standpoint of such things as their [moral] natures, realm [where they are found], whether one is a learner, post-learner, etc., in accordance with reason. 14. Good Mental Activities

We have explained universal mental activities and those with specific objects. What are the characteristics of the good mental activities? The verses [of Vasubandhu] say,

Faith, conscience, sense of shame,

The three roots iof good], noncraving, etc.,

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Vigor, serenity, vigilance, indifference, and

HARMLESSNESS ARE THE GOOD.

The Treatise says that only those associated with a good mind are called "good" mental activities, that is, these fixed eleven consisting of faith, conscience, etc.

What is faith (sraddha)? Its nature is that of the purification of mind, which is a profound acquiescence toward and joyful desire for realities, virtues, and abilities. Its activity is that of counteracting faithlessness and enjoying the good.

However, there are, in detail, three aspects of faith. The first is faith in realities, because it is a profound faith in, and acquiescence toward, dharmas that are real things or principles. The second is faith in virtues, because it is a profound faith in, and delight in, the truly pure virtues of the Three Treasures. The third is faith in abilities, because it is a profound faith that one has the ability to obtain, and produce a desire for, mundane and supramundane good [dharmas] respectively. Consequently, it counters faithlessness, and that mind [with faith] desires to realize and cultivate mundane and supramundane good [dharmas], "Acquiescence" means "resolve," which is the cause of faith. "Joyful desire" means "longing, " the fruit of faith.

[It is asked,] can you say with certainty what are the distinct characteristics of faith? [We reply,] have we not just defined its nature as purification of mind? [Again, a question,] we still do not completely understand what is meant by "purification of mind." If purity is identical with mind, then [faith] ought not be a mental activity [but rather mind itself]. If faith causes the mind to be pure, [shameful,] etc., then what is the difference between faith and other mental activities such as shame? The same difficulty arises if [faith] is a pure dharma associated with mind. [We reply,] its nature is that of purifying. It can purify mind [and mental activities]. We speak of purifying the mind because mind is the predominant matter, just as a water-purifying jewel purifies turbulent water. Although conscience and others are good, they do not have the characteristic of purifying. [Faith] has the 173

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characteristic of purification; hence, we do not get it mixed up [with other mental activities].

Also, each of the defiled dharmas has its own characteristic. It is only faithlessness that is itself soiled and then also soils mind and mental activities, just as something that is extremely dirty soils itself and then others. Faith is truly opposite to that, and that is why purification is its characteristic.

Some say that faith is characterized by fond enjoyment, but if that were true, it would have all three [moral] natures [and would not be simply good]. It would then be essentially the same as desire. Also, it would not have as its object [the two truths of] suffering (duhkha) and its cause (samudaya).

There is another theory that faith is characterized by conformity. Again, if that were true, it would possess all three [moral] natures and not differ from resolve and desire. If it is conformity to judgment, that is the same as resolve, and if it is conformity to the pleasing, it is the same as desire. Apart from these two, there is no other conformity. Thus you should know that faith is purification of mind.

What is conscience (hri)? Its nature is that of revering and respecting the good through the power of oneself and the Dharma. Its activity is that of countering a lack of conscience and ending evil conduct. One's self-respect and respect for the Dharma increases and one reveres and respects the good and is ashamed of evil; one counters lack of conscience and puts an end to evil conduct. What is sense of shame (apatrapya)? Its nature is that of despising and resisting evil because of the power of worldly opinion, and its activity is that of countering shamelessness and ending evil conduct. As fear of the world's blame increases, one despises and resists evil and is ashamed of offending, one counters shamelessness, and one ends all evil conduct.

Shame for offenses is the common characteristic of these two [i.e., conscience and sense of shame], and for that reason the holy teachings suggest that shame is their common essence. If it is maintained that shame is the specific characteristic of these two, there 174

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must be no substantial difference between conscience and sense of shame. That being so, these two dharmas would surely not be associated, because feeling, conceptualization, etc., are not the same [but are associated]. If it is maintained that the difference is established on the basis of self [as basis for conscience] and other [as basis for shame], they must not really exist, and that contradicts holy teaching. If it is conceded that they are real but originate separately [in sequence], this contradicts the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra, which says that ten [good mental activities] are found in all good minds. [It is replied,] if veneration [of the good] and contempt [for the bad] are the specific characteristics of these two, their objects must be different, in which case they cannot occur simultaneously. You are as mistaken as we are, so why blame us alone? [We reply,] who says the two dharmas have different objects? [They ask,] in that case, what is your answer? [We reply,] when mind is good, whatever may be its object, there is [at that very moment] veneration of good and contempt for evil. For that reason, both conscience and shame are found [together] in all good minds, regardless of the object. [They ask,] did we not say the same thing? [We reply,] no, what you said was that conscience and shame are substantially the same, so how can you object to our former points? When the holy teachings speak of the importance of self and others, by "self," they mean oneself and the Dharma, while "others" mean the rest of the world. An alternative explanation is that venerating the good refers to benefitting oneself, and despising evil refers to harming oneself [by others].

Noncraving, etc. means "[noncraving,] nonhatred, and nondelusion" (alobha, advesa, amoha). These three are called "roots" because they are predominant in the production of good, and because they are immediate antidotes to the three roots of nongood. What is noncraving? Its nature is that of nonattachment to the three realms of existence and their causes, and its activity is that of countering craving and promoting the good. What is non hatred (advesa)? Its nature is that of onhatred toward [the three kinds of] suffering and its causes. Its activity is that of countering 175

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ill-will and promoting the good. When a good mind occurs, whatever its object, there is neither attachment for nor hatred toward existence, etc. It is not necessary to have these, existence, etc., as objects, even though one is considering them, in the same way that conscience and shame are established in the consideration of good and evil. Therefore these two [i.e., noncraving and nonhatred] are found in all good minds.

What is nondelusion (amoha)? Its nature is that of clearly apprehending both principles and events, and its activity is that of countering delusion and promoting the good. According to one interpretation, nondelusion is by nature discernment, because the Abhidharmasamuccaya says that its substance is that of certitude [derived] from retribution, teaching, evidence, and knowledge. These are discernment born of innate [discernment], hearing, thought, and cultivation, respectively, all of which are certitude by nature. Even though [nondelusion] is discernment, it is distinguished in order to illustrate how the category of "good" has a special power, in the same way that among the passions [wrong] views [are a kind of discernment].

According to another interpretation, nondelusion is not discernment but has a nature of its own, because it directly opposes ignorance (avidya), and, like noncraving and nonhatred, it is categorized as a root of goodness. The [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says that the great compassion (maha-karuna) is categorized as nonhatred and nondelusion, not as one of the faculties (indriya). If nondelusion is by nature discernment, then the great compassion, like the powers, etc., would be categorized as a faculty, like discernment, etc. Also, if nondelusion has no separate nature of its own, it must not really exist, just as nonharming, etc., do not, but that would contradict the Yogacarabhumi Sastra, which says that among the eleven good [mental activities] three exist only conventionally, while the remaining eight really exist. Now, when the Abhidharmasamuccaya says that [nondelusion] is in essence discernment, it is expressing its self-nature in terms of cause and effect, just as it expresses the essence of faith in terms 176

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of [its cause] acquiescence and [its effect] enjoyment. The principle here must be the same.

Craving, hatred, and delusion that are associated with the six [sense] consciousnesses are categorized as true passions, and they are predominant in the generation of evil; therefore they are established as the roots of nongood. Their elimination necessarily results from both common and special antidotes. The only common antidote is good discernment, while the special ones are the three roots [of good]. Consequently, nondelusion (amoha) must exist separately. Vigor (virya) is diligence. Its nature is that of courage and resoluteness in the cultivation of good and the elimination of evil, and its activity is that of acting as an antidote to indolence and the fulfillment of the good. The term "courage" signifies "unchecked progress," which excludes defiled dharmas. "Resoluteness" signifies "purity" and excludes pure, indeterminate dharmas. These terms show that diligence is categorized as by nature good only. The varieties [of vigor] are, in summary, five: donning armor, intensified practice, not being depressed, not retrogressing, and not being satisfied. They are expressed in scriptures as respectively being inclined, being diligent, being courageous, being determined, and not abandoning the good yoke.

Their distinctions are as follows: the first one consists of the preliminary arousing of the thought [of enlightenment]; the second one consists of unchecked progress [to higher levels]; and the last three are the three grades of effort in one's practice. Or, they may be distinguished as follows: the first is the preliminary arousing of the thought [of enlightenment]; the second refers to length [of practice]; the third refers to uninterrupted [effort]; the fourth refers to the great amount [of effort]; and the fifth refers to completion [of effort]. Or, they may be distinguished as the five paths, consisting of equipment (sambhara-marga), added effort (prayogamarga), insight (darsana-marga), cultivation (bhavana-marga), and realization (nistha-marga), because those in the ultimate path of the two vehicles delight in great awakening, and those in the ultimate path of Buddhahood delight in benefitting others and 177

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making them happy. Or, they may correspond to the two kinds of preparation [i.e., distant and proximate], noninterruption, liberation, and unchecked progress.

Serenity (prasrabdhi) means "lightness and contentment." Its nature is that of keeping the gross and heavy far away, regulating and comforting body and mind, and making them fit [for meditation]. Its activity is that of counteracting torpor and transforming the support [which is body and mind]. It subdues and banishes [the grossness and heaviness] that obstruct samadhi and changes the support into one of serenity and pleasantness. V igilance (apramada) is vigor and the three roots [of good]. Its nature is that of avoiding that which is to be eliminated and cultivating that which is to be cultivated. Its activity is that of counteracting negligence (pramada) and realizing and fulfilling all mundane and supramundane good things. It consists of four dharmas. It is called vigilance because it is the ability to eliminate that which is to be eliminated and to cultivate that which is to be cultivated. It has no substance of its own, because it has no characteristics that differ [from vigor and the three roots], and because it has no function that differs from the four powers in avoiding evil and cultivating good.

Even though faith, conscience, etc., also have this ability, in comparison [with vigilance] the power of those four is slight. They are not roots [of good], nor do they universally stimulate [the good]. Therefore they are not the support [of vigilance]. [Question:] Are avoidance and cultivation not the characteristic and function [of vigilance]? [Reply:] What is the difference between avoidance and cultivation on the one hand and vigor and the three roots on the other? [Reply:] These four require vigilance in order to function. [We reply:] Then [vigilance] itself requires something else in order to function, thus resulting in an infinite regress. [They reply:] Vigor is merely the universal stimulation [of good dharmas], and the roots are merely their support. How can you say that they have the function of avoidance and cultivation? [We ask:] What is the character of the functions of avoidance and cultivation? If they 178

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serve as supports, that is [the function of] noncraving, etc. If you say that it is that of universally stimulating [good dharmas], that is [the function of] vigor. [Thus] preventing evil and promoting good is the activity of these four dharmas.

That which prevents distraction must be samadhi. How does [vigilance] differ from contact which causes experience of an object? Memory must prevent forgetting. If we investigate this manner in such a way, no function of vigilance can be found apart from [the four dharmas of] noncraving, etc. Therefore it is certain that vigilance has no separate substance.

What is indifference (upeksa)? Its nature is that of vigor and the three roots that cause the mind to rest in equality, uprightness, and effortlessness. Its activity is that of countering agitation and calming [the mind]. That is, the four dharmas [of vigor and the three roots] cause the mind to be far removed from the obstacles of agitation, etc., and to rest quietly in equality, uprightness, and effortlessness, which is called indifference. These three forms of indifference [equality, etc.] indicate differences of primary, middle, and later stages. Impurities are eliminated at first through vigilance, and later indifference causes the mind to rest calmly. It has no separate substance, because, like vigilance, it has no character or function apart from these four dharmas. This is because it is those dharmas that bring about calm, and it is mind, etc., that are calmed. What is nonharming (avihimsa)? Its nature is that of not causing injury to living beings, as well as nonhatred. Its activity is that of acting as an antidote to harming [others] and being compassionate and sympathetic. In short, nonhatred is convention- 30c ally referred to as nonharming because there is no injury to sentient beings. Nonhatred is opposed to the hatred that ends the lives of beings, and noninjury opposes the harm that injures beings. Nonhatred extends happiness, while nonharming banishes suffering. This is the difference between their apparent characteristics. In fact, nonhatred has no substance of its own, while nonharming is conventionally established by virtue of being an aspect [of nonhatred]. The two are distinguished in order to show 179

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the two characteristics of compassion and sympathy, because benefiting sentient beings and making them happy are the essentials of the two [characteristics].

According to one interpretation, nonharming is not the same as nonhatred and has its own substance, which is goodness. [We ask,] what is the characteristic [of nonharming]? [They reply,] noninjury. [We reply,] nonhatred is also noninjury, so how can it have a nature of its own? Noninjury of sentient beings, sympathy and compassion, and goodness are all nonhatred.

The word and [in the "Thirty Verses"] indicates that there are other mental activities besides the eleven [specified in the verses]; i.e., good mental activities such as delight and loathing. They are not specifically mentioned because even though they have various names with distinct meanings, they are no different in substance [from those specified]. [For instance,] delight is an aspect of onhatred associated with desire, because it is nonirritation with regard to a pleasing object. The same is true of nonresentment, nonirritation, nonvexation, nonjealousy, etc., because each opposes an aspect of hatred. Disgust or loathing is an aspect of noncraving associated with discernment, because there is no defiled attachment to disgusting objects. You should realize that the same is true of nonavarice, nonpride, etc., because they each oppose an aspect of oncraving. Nonhypocrisy, nondeception, and nonflattery are aspects of noncraving and nondelusion, because [as aspects of oncraving and nondelusion] they are accordingly opposed to aspects of craving and delusion. There is an interpretation that nonhypocrisy is merely an aspect of nondelusion, because nowhere is it claimed that hypocrisy is an aspect of craving. [There are several interpretations of nonpride:] it is an aspect of faith, because there is no self-pride concerning something that is doubtful. It is an aspect of indifference, because there is no arrogance or pride when the mind is equitable. It is an aspect of conscience, because one is not proud with regard to something that is respected.

As for nondoubt, there are also several interpretations. It is included in faith, because one has no doubt about what is believed. 180

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It is included in perfect resolve, because that which is certain does not generate doubt. It is included in perfect discernment, because there is no doubt about that which is perfectly viewed. The substance of nondistraction is included in perfect samadhi, and perfect views and perfect knowing are both good discernment. Nonforgetting is the same as perfect memory. Repentance, drowsiness, and applied and sustained thought are either defiled or nondefiled, like contact, desire, etc., and have no opposites. Why are the good [mental activities] that oppose defiled ones listed separately [in the list of eleven], while others are not? They are listed because they have special characteristics and functions. This is not so of the other good [mental activities], it is not necessary. Also, due to the predominance of defiled dharmas found throughout the [first] six consciousnesses, these good dharmas are therefore listed separately to oppose them.

Pride, etc., and anger, etc., are only associated with mental consciousness. Although the same is true of harming, still, since it occurs frequently and causes injury to others, blocking the predominant cause of the supreme vehicle, which is compassion, its opposite is established to indicate its extreme, excessive nature. Loss of memory, distraction, and imperfect knowing are opposites of mental activities with specific objects [not good ones]; therefore they are not mentioned among the good [mental activities]. Defiled and pure [mental activities] are opposed, so why are there fewer pure ones than defiled ones? Because the pure ones are strong, while the defiled ones are weak, and the few are a match for the many. Also, in explaining principles, it is said that the many [pure dharmas] are of the same substance, while [defiled dharmas] that delude the feelings are multiplied according to their characteristics. Therefore there is no need for criticizing [the number of] defiled and pure [dharmas].

Three of these eleven exist in name only; i.e., vigilance, indifference, and nonharming, as mentioned earlier. The other eight really exist, because they have distinct natures and functions. 181

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15. Universality

There is an interpretation that of the eleven good mental activities, four are found in all good minds, because vigor and the three roots [of good] fill the category of "good. " This is not necessarily true of the remaining seven. The reasons are as follows: when one is uncertain when examining some thing or principle, there is no faith. Conscience and sense of shame are the same species but differ depending on the support and the situation, so when one occurs, the other does not. Serenity exists only at the point where the passions are eliminated by the mundane path. Vigilance and indifference arise only at the time of he undefiled path. Nonharming only exists when there is compassion for sentient beings. The [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra locates the eleven in six states: faith is associated with the state of certainty; when the defilements have ended, conscience and sense of shame occur with reference to oneself and others [respectively]; vigor and the three roots exist in one of good disposition; serenity occurs on the mundane path; indifference and vigilance occur on the supramundane path; nonharming exists when one attends to beings.

According to another interpretation, that explanation is still not reasonable, because if faith does not occur when one examines events or principles, and one is uncertain, this is not a good [state], in the same way that defiled mind, etc., [is not good since] pure faith is absent. Also, conscience and the sense of shame have the same objects, though their species and supports differ, and both are found in all good minds, as explained earlier. And, if serenity does not occur on the supramundane path, then this aspect of awakening (bodhyanga) is not pure. If there is no indifference and vigilance on the mundane path, then there will be no calm in combatting evil and cultivating the good, and one could not subdue agitation and carelessness. The impure, good mind has four dharmas [consisting of vigor and the three roots of good], because [the mundane path,] like the supramundane path, must have these two dharmas. Also, when the mind is good, one does not harm beings, because it opposes dharmas that harm. Therefore there is nonharming. 182

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When the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra speaks of eleven mental activities occurring in six states, it is speaking of their increased activity in relation to such-and-such states. Therefore the points we criticized are incorrect. It should be said that of the eleven dharmas—faith, etc.—ten are found in all good minds. Serenity is not universal, because one must be in samadhi for it to occur, and a composed body and mind are absent in other states. The Viniscayasamgrahanl says, "Ten good mental activities are found in all good minds, whether or not there is a stage of samadhi, but in the stage of samadhi, there is an increase of serenity in the mind." There is an interpretation that "stage of samadhi " applies also to preparatory stages to samadhi, because there is a subtle composure even there. Hence the realm of desire also has serenity in it. If this is not so, there is a contradiction with the Yogacarabhumi Sastra statement that the eleven good mental activities are found in all stages.

Another interpretation claims that serenity is found only in samadhi, because composure is the result of the nourishing features of samadhi. The [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says that mind and mental activities associated with the realm of desire are called "non-samadhi," because they are devoid of serenity. When it says that the eleven good mental activities are found in all stages, it refers to the three stages of applied and sustained thought, etc., [which are beyond the realm of desire].

We have already explained that the eleven kinds [of good mental activities] may or may not exist in the seventh and eighth consciousnesses depending on the state [of development]. They all exist in the sixth consciousness in a state of samadhi, except that if samadhi does not occur, there is no serenity. According to one interpretation, there are only ten associated with the [first] five consciousnesses, because they are by nature distracted and unstable and devoid of serenity. According to another interpretation, serenity is associated with these five consciousnesses, because when they are good, as a result of [the presence of] samadhi, composure exists, and also because serenity is 183

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With what feelings are the eleven good mental activities associated? Ten are associated with the five feelings. The one [i.e., serenity] is eliminated by sorrow and suffering, because of the feeling of distress and lack of composure. 17. Mental Activities with Specific Objects All eleven [good mental activities ] can be associated with the [five] mental activities with specific objects, because there is no contradiction between faith, etc., and desire, etc. 18. Moral Species

These eleven mental activities are exclusively good. 19. Realms

Serenity does not exist in the realm of desire. The remaining ten are found in all three realms.

20. Stages of Development

[All eleven are found] in all three stages of learner, [post-learner, and neither learner nor post-learner], 21. The Three Eliminations

They are not eliminated by [the path of] insight. The Yogacdrabhümi Sâstra says that six faculties (indriya), faith, etc., are eliminated only by [the path of] cultivation, not by [the path of] insight. Other topics and distinctions should be considered according to the same principles.

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22. The Passions

We have now explained the good mental activities. What are the characteristics of the mental activities that are passions? [Vasubandhu's] verses say, The passions ake craving, hatred,

Delusion, pride, doubt, and wrong views.

The Treatise says that these six are called passions because these six natures, craving, etc., constitute the fundamental passions. What is craving (raga)l Its nature is that of defiled attachment to existence [in the three realms] and its causes, and its activity is that of obstructing noncraving and generating suffering, because it is through the power of thirst (trsna) that the aggregates that are grasped are born.

What is hatred (dvesa)? Its nature is that of hatred for suffering and its causes, and its activity is that of obstructing nonhatred, causing discomfort, and supporting evil conduct, because hatred necessarily causes affliction to body and mind and generates evil conduct, which is by nature bad.

What is delusion (moha)? Its nature is that of confusion and dullness of wit concerning principles and events, and its activity is that of obstructing nondelusion and acting as the support of all defilements, because as a result of ignorance, one generates the passions and secondary passions of doubt, false views, craving, etc., karma, and all the defiled dharmas that instigate subsequent rebirth. What is pride (mana)? Its nature is that of presumption that one is above all others, and its activity is that of obstructing nonpride and producing suffering, because if there is pride, one is not humble concerning merits and those who possess them, and the result is an endless turning of the wheel of death and rebirth and the experience of all suffering. There are seven or nine kinds of pride, produced in relation to the three grades [of inferior, equal, and superior], to oneself, and to merits. All are eliminated in the 185 3ic

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path of insight and the path of cultivation. Since self-pride can occur even among the saints (àrya), it is not incorrect to say that pride exists even there.

What is doubt (vicikitsa)? Its nature is that of lack of certainty regarding truths and principles, and its activity is that of obstructing certainty and those things considered to be good, because for him who lacks certainty, the good is not generated. There is an interpretation that the essence of this doubt is discernment, because uncertain judgment is doubt, because the meaning of "doubt" is derived from [the prefix] vi plus the root mati [i.e., vimati, which means "doubt"], and mati [meaning "discernment"] is the same asprajnd [which also means "discernment" or "wisdom"]. According to another interpretation, doubt has its own substance, because it causes uncertainty of discernment and is not the same as discernment. The Yogacarabhumi Sdstra says that of the six passions, [wrong] views exist only conventionally, since they are aspects of discernment, but all the others really exist, because they have natures. If you hold that discernment is doubt because of [the derivation from] vi plus mati, then knowing must be consciousness, because of vi plus jnàna [i.e., jnàna means "knowing," and vijnana, or vi plus jnàna, means "consciousness"]. However, the meaning of a verbal root changes because of the prefix, which is why doubt is not discernment by nature. What are wrong views (kudrsti)? They have as their nature defiled discernment, consisting of perverted judgement concerning truths and principles, and their activity is that of obstructing correct views and bringing on suffering. He who has wrong views often experiences suffering. There are five modes of wrong views. The first is the view of [the aggregates as] a person; i.e., the five grasped aggregates are held to be a self and what belongs to a self (atma-atmiya), and this view acts as a support for all [wrong] views. There are twenty or sixty-five different forms of wrong views categorized as originating in discrimination.

The second [mode of wrong views] is that of extreme views. Its activity is that of adopting views of eternalism and annihilationism vis-à-vis [the view of the aggregates as a self] and obstructing the 186

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practice of the Middle Way and emancipation. Different one-sided views comprise extreme views: clinging to the past, with four theories of general eternalism and four of partial eternalism; and clinging to the future, with sixteen views of conscious existence, eight views of absence of consciousness, and eight theories concerning neither consciousness nor unconsciousness, etc., all categorized as originating in discrimination.

The third is heterodox views, i.e., criticism of cause, effect, karma, and realities; with the exception of four views, they include all other false attachments, just as the name "dominant condition" refers to all conditions [except cause, condition as object, and simultaneous condition].

Of the different extremist views that comprise heterodox views is one that clings to the past, with two theories of noncausality, four deceptive and confusing theories concerning the limits, etc. [of the world], and deathlessness. Also, there is speculation about the future, including five theories about nirvana in the present. Or there is speculation about a master of the world (isvara), Sakra, Brahma, and others of this sort being eternal and unchanging. Or there is speculation that the master of the universe is the cause of all things, or the perverse speculation about false liberation, or the false position that that which is not the path is the path. All these are categorized as heterodox views.

The fourth is clinging to [heterodox] views (drsti-paramarsa). It consists of holding that various [heterodox] views and the aggregates that support them are the most excellent and that they will secure purity. Its activity is that of supporting conflict. The fifth wrong view is that of clinging to mere personal morality and ritualism (sila-vrata-paramarsa). It is the notion that to follow various views, personal morality, and purity, along with the aggregates that support these, is the most excellent and secures purity. Its activity is that of acting as a support for fruitless activity and suffering. However, there are sources that say that attachment to something as most excellent is called "clinging to [heterodox] views," and clinging to what secures purity is called "clinging to personal 187

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morality." However, these sources are vague and nonspecific, or else what they say is a concession. Otherwise, why is it said that taking noncessation as cessation and that which is not the path as the path are wrong views and not the two kinds of clinging? 23. Innate Passions and Those

Arising from Discrimination

Among the ten passions, six are both innate and originate from discrimination, because they occur both spontaneously and through discrimination. Doubt and the [above] last three kinds of false views originate only from discrimination, because they must only originate from the power of bad companions and false teachings, as well as one's own reflections. When it is said that attachment to extreme views originates both ways, one interpretation has it that only [the view of] annihilation [originates both ways]. The characteristics of the view of eternalism are gross and only arise through the power of bad companions, etc. The Yogacarabhumi Sastra and other texts ask, "Which extreme views are innate? That which is included in the view of annihilation. He who practices the Contemplation of the Truths (satya-abhisamaya) fears, 'Right now, where is my self?' Therefore when birds, animals, etc., encounter something that threatens them, they fear for the annihilation of the self and are terrified. "

According to another interpretation, [the Yogacarabhumi] is speaking with reference to coarse characteristics [of this view]. Actually, the view of eternalism is also innate. That is, birds, animals, etc., grasp the self as eternally existing and busily accumulate goods for a long time. Therefore the Vikhyapana Sastra and other works say that whether the aggregates that are grasped are grasped as annihilated or speculated about as being eternal, these [views] may be either innate or generated by discrimination. 24. Interrelationship of the Ten Passions

Which of the ten passions are associated? How many? Craving certainly does not occur simultaneously with hatred and doubt, 188

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because the two objects of desire and loathing are certainly not the same, and because there is no defiled attachment to objects that are uncertain. Craving may be associated with pride and wrong views. The beloved object and the detested object are not the same, and for that reason it is said that the two do not occur simultaneously. That which is defiled [i.e., the body] and that in which one takes pride [i.e., the self] can be the same, and therefore [self-love and self-pride] can be associated. And, since all the objects of the five views are lovable, there is no problem in the association of craving and the views.

Hatred may occur simultaneously with pride and doubt. The hated object and the object of pride are not the same, and therefore it is said that hatred is not associated with pride. But it is possible for the despised object and the hated object to be identical, so they can be associated. When one is at first uncertain, one does not hate that [object], so hatred is not associated with doubt. Having thought for awhile and being still uncertain, one experiences great anger, and therefore [uncertainty and hatred] can be associated. Doubt may or may not be associated with hatred, depending on the favorability or unfavorability [of the object]. Hatred is certainly not associated with the two false views, because one does not hate what is grasped as being superior. Hatred may be associated with the remaining three false views. One does not arouse hatred toward the pleasing aggregates viewed as eternal, and therefore there is no association between hatred and false views. However, one does arouse hatred toward the painful aggregates viewed as eternal, and therefore hatred can be associated with the false views. Hatred may also occur or not occur simultaneously with the false views if the aggregates are seen as impermanent and subject to annihilation. Hatred may or may not occur simultaneously with wrong views depending on whether one denies bad things or good things respectively.

Pride in an object is certain, and doubt is uncertain; therefore pride and doubt are not associated. It is possible for pride to occur with the five false views (drsti), because their modes of activity 32b

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and development are not mutually contradictory. However, [pride] certainly does not occur simultaneously with the view of annihilation, because when one holds to the annihilation of the self, one does not despise [others] or esteem [the self]. The same is true with regard to pride in association with a part of the view of the self and wrong views.

Doubt is uncertainty and is contradictory to [false] views; therefore doubt and the views are certainly not associated. The five [false] views themselves are certainly not associated, because a plurality of discernments does not occur simultaneously in a single mind. Delusion is definitely associated with the [other] nine kinds [of passions], because all passions are necessarily born as a result of delusion. 25. The Passions and Consciousnesses

With what consciousnesses are the ten passions associated? None at all occur in the store consciousness; manas has four; all ten occur in mental consciousness; and only three, craving, hatred, and delusion, are found associated with the [first] five consciousnesses, because they are lacking in discrimination and because pride, etc., originate in calculation.

26. The Passions and the Feelings

With what feelings are the ten passions associated? Three, craving, hatred, and delusion, being innate or [resulting from] discrimination, can be associated with five feelings, because craving in the presence of a disagreeable object occurs with sorrow and suffering, and because hatred confronted with an agreeable object occurs with delight and happiness.

There is an interpretation that pride that is innate or [generated by] discrimination may be associated with four unpainful feelings, because the esteem of something painful and vile is associated with sorrow. Another interpretation is that innate [pride] also occurs simultaneously with suffering, because, as previously explained, manas has the feeling of suffering. Pride, etc., [generated by] discrimination are nonexistent in destinies 190

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of unadulterated suffering, because there are no false teachers or teachings, etc., there. Moreover, [beings there] do not perform karma that leads to evil destinies, because [that karma] can only occur as a result of discrimination.

Doubt and the last three views can be associated with four feelings, because doubt in [the realm of] desire concerning the existence of suffering [and the other three holy truths] is associated with the feeling of delight. The two false views [that mere rites and personal morality are efficacious] may be associated with sorrow when their objects are views associated with sorrow. According to one interpretation, the two innate views of the existence of a self and the reality of extremes are only associated with feelings of delight, happiness, and indifference, because they are not associated with the [first] five consciousnesses and are nondetermined only. When arising from discrimination, these two views may be associated with four feelings, because grasping the aggregates associated with suffering as "me" and "mine" and adopting views of eternalism and annihilationism [with respect to suffering and happiness respectively] entails sorrow.

Another interpretation is that these two wrong views, if innate, are also associated with the feeling of suffering, because in places of unadulterated suffering, the aggregates connected with extreme suffering are associated with suffering. The [Yogacarabhumi\ Sastra says, "All innate passions can be present with the three feelings." A full explanation has been given earlier. The rest [concerning the two wrong views] is as explained earlier. All of these explanations are based on truth. From the standpoint of coarse characteristics, craving, pride, and the four false views are associated with happiness, joy, and indifference; hatred occurs only in association with feelings of suffering, sorrow, and indifference; delusion can be associated with all five feelings; false views and doubt are associated with four, excluding suffering. Happiness associated with craving and delusion is found throughout the lower four stages [i.e., the realm of desire and the first three trance states]. Happiness associated with the other seven 32c 191

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[passions] is found in the three [trance states] but not in the realm of desire. Doubt and self-reliant delusion in the realm of desire [are associated with] only sorrow and indifference. Those occurring simultaneously with the others should be understood according to the same principles.

27. Passions and Mental Activities with Specific Objects How are these associated with mental activities with specific objects? Craving, hatred, delusion, and pride may occur with all five, because when they are directed toward an object, they can be associated with samadhi. Doubt and the five false views may each be associated with four feelings. Doubt excludes resolve, because it is indecision. The [false] views do not coexist with discernment, because [false views] are not different from discernment [and more than one discernment does not exist simultaneously]. 28. The Ten Passions and the Moral Natures

In what [moral] natures are the ten passions included? Hatred is exclusively not good, because it injures oneself and others. The other nine are both. In the upper two realms [of form and formlessness], they are only indeterminate, because they are subdued by samadhi. If they originate in discrimination in the realm of desire, they are categorized as only not good, because they provoke evil conduct. If innate and provoking evil conduct, they are also considered to be not good, because they injure oneself and others. The others [that do not injure] are indeterminate, because they are subtle, do not obstruct good, and do not severely injure oneself and others. You should know that the innate view of "self" and "mine" and extreme views are indeterminate only, because they do not provoke evil acts and, though occurring often, do not obstruct the good. 29. The Ten Passions and the Three Realms

In what realms are the ten passions included? Hatred exists only in [the realm of] desire, while the others are found in all three 192

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realms. For one born in a lower stage who has not abandoned the impurities of the lower stage, the passions of the upper stages do not manifest themselves. It is necessary to obtain the basic samadhi of those [upper] stages in order for the passions of those stages to appear. Even though those on the various impure paths are unable to subdue passions originating in discrimination, or subtle, innate passions, they are able to subdue and get rid of innate, coarse passions and gradually realize the basic samadhi of the upper [two] stages. Those [coarse, innate] passions are only delusions about events, and [these passions] occur with respect to the exterior world. Being coarse, distracted, and unstable, they directly obstruct samadhi. Having obtained samadhi of that stage, all passions originating from discrimination and those that are innate in that stage can appear.

When one is born in an upper stage, all innate passions and those originating in discrimination of the lower stage can appear, because one in the intermediate existence (antara-bhava) of the fourth trance state is born in the purgatories if he rejects liberation, and when the time arrives for someone in the upper stages to be reborn in a lower stage, he generates an innate love for the lower world that nourishes rebirth. When it is said that one born in the upper stages does not generate [passion] of the lower, it means for the most part, or it is a concession [to non-Mahayana teachings]. Passions of the lower stages also have as objects an upper stage. The Yogdcarabhumi Sastra and other texts say that craving connected with the realm of desire seeks birth in upper stages in order to savor the delights of the samadhi of the upper stages. Also, they say that since hatred hates and is jealous of cessation and the path [leading to cessation], one also must be jealous of the stages of detachment from the realm of desire. Therefore, generally taking karmic predispositions (samskaras) as a self and what belongs to a self, views of annihilation, eternity, and pride can all have the upper stages as objects. It is equally obvious that the remaining five [passions] have as objects the upper stages. 193

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Some sources say that craving, hatred, pride, etc., do not take the upper stages as objects, but this is said concerning their gross characteristics, or they refer to [those passions] as having a special object [which is one's own body and mind]. We do not see mundane attachment to dharmas of other stages as a self, etc., and extreme views necessarily occur on the basis of the view of self. Passions of the upper stages also have the lower stages as objects, because it is said that one who is born in the upper stages esteems his virtues as superior to those below and despises those below. Also, the general attachment to karmic predispositions (samskaras) as "me" and "mine," views of annihilation and eternity, and love [of possessions] all have the lower stages as objects. Doubt and the last three wrong views should be considered in like manner. Yet it is said that passions related to the upper stages do not have the lower stages as objects, but this means in most cases, or it concerns those [passions] that have special objects [such as the view of a self].

30. The Three Classes of Learners

How are these ten passions related to the classes of learners, [postlearners, and neither learners nor post-learners]? [They are related to the] neither learner nor post-learner (naivasaiksanasaiksa), because the other [two classes] are exclusively good [and reject the passions].

31. The Three Eliminations

How are the ten passions to be eliminated? They are not not to be eliminated (aheya), because that [not to be eliminated] is nondefiled. Those generated by discrimination are to be eliminated only by the path of insight, because they are gross and easily eliminated. If they are innate, they are eliminated by the path of cultivation because these are subtle and difficult to eliminate. The ten that are eliminated by insight and associated with reality are all eliminated suddenly, because the path of insight into reality has as its object the [four] truths as a whole.

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However, delusion concerning the characteristics of the truths may be general or specific. It is general in that the ten [passions] are all delusions concerning the four truths, because suffering and its cause are their cause and support, while cessation and the path are occasions of fear for the passions. It is specific in that it arises from specific kinds of delusion concerning the characteristics of the four truths. Two [passions] are only delusion about the truth of suffering; eight concern all four [truths]; the two views about the self and extreme views only occur where the result [i.e., suffering] is concerned, because of specific delusion about emptiness and no self associated with the truth of suffering. Doubt and the three false views [concerning self, extreme views, and wrong views derived from heterodox teachings] are directly deluded about the principle of suffering. The two false views [i.e., clinging to others' false views and belief in the efficacy of mere rites and personal morality] are attachments to the above three false views, personal morality, and their supporting aggregates as superior and purifying. They generate craving, hatred, and pride according to whether they are related to views about oneself, the views of others, and the aggregates to which they are related.

Associated ignorance has the same delusions as the nine [passions] with which it is associated. Special ignorance is directly deluded about the principle of suffering. Doubt and false views are directly deluded about the origin [of suffering], etc., and the two kinds of clinging, craving, etc., should be understood in the same way as suffering. However, hatred can also be directly deluded about cessation and the path, because it generates hatred and jealousy out of fear for them. These are the delusions concerning the [four] truths, direct or indirect, in their gross characteristics. To speak in more detail, craving, hatred, and pride born together with the [first] three wrong views and doubt involve delusion [vis-à-vis the four truths] in accordance with the situation. Even though the two innate wrong views and desire, pride, and ignorance associated with them are delusions about the truth of suffering, since they are subtle and difficult to eliminate, they are eliminated by the path of cultivation. Hatred and the others, 195

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desire, etc., generate delusion about specific matters and do not conflict with the contemplation of the truths, and therefore they are eliminated by [the path of] cultivation.

Even though the various passions all have a seen part [as an object], the substance on which they rest may or may not exist, so they are called accordingly "passions with a [supporting] causal basis" (savastuka) and "passions without a [supporting] causal basis" (avastuka). Even though their direct objects are all impure, their supporting substances may be pure, so [passions] are called "passions with impure [objects]" or "passions with pure [objects]." When a passion has as its object the stage one is in, its seen part is similar to its [supporting] substance and is called "[a passion] having as its object a thing generated by speculation." When [a passion] has as its object the [holy] truths of cessation and path, as well as a stage other than that in which one is, it is called "[a passion] having as its object a name generated by speculation," because the seen part is not similar to its substance. Other topics are to be considered according to the same principles. 32. Secondary Passions

We have discussed the characteristics of the six fundamental passions. What are the characteristics of the secondary passions? The verses [of Vasubandhu] say,

The secondary passions are anger,

Hostility, dissimulation, vexation, envy, avarice, Deceit, hypocrisy, with harmfulness and vanity, Lack of conscience and shamelessness,

A gitation and torpor,

Unbelief and indolence,

Negligence and forgetfulness,

Distraction and incorrect knowing.

The Treatise says that the secondary passions are so called because they are only certain states of the passions and of the nature of modalities [of the passions]. There are three kinds of these twenty; 196

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i.e., the ten [beginning with] anger are called "small secondary passions" because each originates separately; the two [consisting of] lack of conscience [and shamelessness] are called "medium secondary passions" because they are found in all bad [minds]; and the eight [beginning with] agitation are called "large secondary passions," because they are found in all defiled minds. What is anger (krodha)? Its nature is that of irritation toward a present object that does not benefit one. Its activity is that of obstructing nonanger and taking up the cudgel; that is, because someone who is angry often displays physical actions that are violent and bad. Its substance is part of hatred, because apart from hatred there is no character or function of anger. What is hostility (upanaha)? Its nature is that of nonabandonment of a strong resentment resulting from hatred for a prior wrong upon which one dwells. Its activity is that of obstructing nonhostility and intensifying vexation, because he who has strong hostility cannot be forgiving, and his vexation is always intensified. Its substance also is part of hatred, because apart from hatred there is no separate character or function of hostility. What is dissimulation (mraksa)? Its nature is that of hiding one's own offenses out of fear of losing benefits or reputation. Its activity is that of obstructing nondissimulation and [intensifying] the vexation of remorse; i.e., because he who dissimulates about offenses necessarily is vexed with remorse later and is not at peace. There is an interpretation that this dissimulation is categorized as a part of delusion, because a treatise only says that it is a part of delusion, because one dissimulates about one's own offenses from not dreading the suffering to come. There is an interpretation that this dissimulation is a part of craving and delusion, because one dissimulates about one's own offenses also out of fear of losing benefits and reputation. The treatise only speaks of it as being a part of delusion in accordance with its gross and obvious [characteristics], in the same way that it says that agitation is part of craving. However, it says that agitation is found in all defiled minds, and it cannot be taken as only a part of craving. 197

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What is vexation (pradasa)? Its nature is that of burning rage toward a previous [object of] anger and hostility. Its activity is that of obstructing nonvexation and biting; that is, because whether the antipathetic object is past or present, the mind is enraged and one utters many violent, malicious [words], and these fierce, vile, coarse words bite others [like serpents]. This is also in substance a part of hatred, because apart from hatred there is no separate character or function of vexation.

What is envy (Irsya)? Its nature is that of jealousy from seeking after one's own fame and fortune and not enduring another's success. Its activity is that of obstructing nonenvy and causing dissatisfaction and grief; that is, because he who is envious and jealous hears of or sees another's success and is deeply dissatisfied and sorrowful, and he finds no peace. This also in substance is a part of hatred, because apart from hatred there is no separate character or function of envy.

What is avarice (matsarya)? Its nature is that of addiction to goods or the Dharma and being incapable of graciously letting go of them, to hiding them and being stingy. Its activity is that of obstructing nonavarice and causing pettiness and acquisitiveness; that is, because the mind of the person who is avaricious and stingy is hard and stingy, he amasses goods and the Dharma and cannot let go of them. This is in substance a part of craving and thirst, because apart from craving and thirst there is no separate character or function of avarice.

What is deceit (sathya)? Its nature is that of the deception of pretending to possess merits in order to gain benefits or reputation. Its activity is that of obstructing nondeceit and causing a wrong life; that is, because the mind of the deceitful one harbors strange schemes, he often exhibits a wrong life. This is in substance a part of craving and delusion, because apart from craving and delusion there is no separate character or function of deceit. What is hypocrisy (maya)? Its nature is that of crookedness by assuming other forms of behavior in order to deceive others. Its activity is that of obstructing nondeception and admonishment; that is, because in order to deceive others the hypocrite schemes and devises expedients, deviously taking advantage of the situation in order to seize the other's intentions or to hide his own faults, and he does not heed the admonishments of teachers and friends. This also is in substance a part of craving and delusion, because apart from craving and delusion there is no separate character or function of hypocrisy.

What is harmfulness (vihimsa)? Its nature is that of a mind that is uncompassionate and unkind toward sentient beings and injures them. Its activity is that of obstructing harmlessness and causing injury; that is, the harmer injures others. This also is in substance a part of hatred, because apart from hatred there is no separate character or function of harmfulness. The difference in characteristics of hatred and harmlessness should be explained in conformity with the good [mental characteristics that are their opposites]. What is vanity (mada)? Its nature is that of intoxicated haughtiness that profoundly generates a defiled attachment to one's own grand affairs. Its activity is that of obstructing nonvanity and acting as a support for defilement; that is, a vain person produces and nourishes all defiled dharmas. This also is in substance a part of craving and thirst, because apart from craving there is no separate character or function of vanity.

What is lack of conscience (ahrikya)? Its nature is that of disregard for oneself and the Dharma and a disrespectful resistance to the virtuous and good. Its activity is that of obstructing conscience and nourishing evil; that is, because he who has no regard for himself or the Dharma has a disrespectful resistance to the virtuous and good and is unashamed of his transgressions, obstructs shame, and produces and nourishes various evil actions. What is shamelessness (anapatrapya)? Its nature is that of disregarding the world and exalting violence and evil. Its activity is that of obstructing shame and producing and nourishing evil actions; that is, because he who is without regard for the world exalts violence and evil and is unashamed of his transgressions, obstructs shame, and produces and nourishes various evil actions. 198 199

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Being unashamed of transgressions is the common characteristic of both [lack of conscience and shamelessness], and for that reason, the holy teachings conventionally speak of it as their substance. If you take shamelessness as the distinct characteristic of the two, then there must be no difference in the substance of the two. Consequently, these two dharmas must not occur simultaneously, because feeling, conceptualization, etc., do not have this meaning [of dentity of characteristics]. If it is held that the difference between the two is based on self [as the basis for lack of conscience] and others [as the basis for lack of shame], then they must not really exist, which contradicts the holy teachings. If you concede that these two are real but arise separately, you contradict the ['Yogacarabhumi ] which says that both are found in all evil minds. When minds are not good, whatever the object may be, all have a disregard for good and exalt evil. Therefore these two dharmas are both found [simultaneously] in all evil minds. The objects are not different, and there is no error of separate occurrences. However, as for various holy teachings speaking of "disregarding self and others," this is because "self and Dharma" is referred to as "self" and "world" is called "other." Or, it may be because here, disregarding good and exalting evil is called "self and others" with reference to benefit or harm to oneself. As for the treatise also saying that [lack of conscience and shamelessness] are part of craving, etc., it is a mode of those passions but not the same nature. What is agitation (auddhatya)? Its nature is that of preventing the mind from being calm with respect to objects. Its activity is that of obstructing indifference and [meditative] tranquility (■samatha). There is an interpretation that agitation is categorized as a part of craving, because a treatise says that it is part of craving and because it is born as a result of the memory of former happy events. Another interpretation is that agitation is not just categorized as craving, because a treatise says that agitation is found in all defiled minds. Also, the characteristic of agitation is lack of calm, because it is said that [lack of calm] is characterized as the common characteristic of all passions, and agitation has no 200

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distinct characteristic apart from this [common characteristic of lack of calm]. Even though it is conventionally established on the basis of [its presence in] all the passions, it increases with the presence of craving and is said [for that reason] to be a part of craving. According to one interpretation, agitation has a separate nature of its own and is found in all defiled minds, like unfaith, etc. [The texts] do not say that its substance is not real because it is a part of another, because it must not be that unbelief, etc. [which are also parts of another] are also conventionally existent. Also, as for the treatises also saying that it exists conventionally, like drowsiness, etc., this is said with reference to the characteristics of another [dharma]. The specific characteristic of agitation is said to be excitement, because it causes dharmas that are born with it to be uncalm. If it does not have this separate characteristic apart from the passions, [the texts] must not say specifically that it obstructs [meditative] tranquility. Therefore, noncalm is not its specific characteristic.

What is torpor (styana)? Its nature is that of causing the mind to be unfit with regard to an object. Its activity is that of obstructing serenity and [meditative] insight (vipasyana). According to one interpretation, torpor is categorized as a part of delusion, because a treatise only says that it is a part of delusion and because torpid dullness and sinking heaviness are characteristics of delusion. According to another interpretation, torpor is not just categorized as a part of delusion; that is, because unfitness is the characteristic of torpor, and all passions are unfitness. Apart from this [unfitness], there is no separate characteristic of torpor. Even though it is conventionally established on the basis [of its presence] in all passions, it increases as a characteristic of delusion and so [the texts] only speak of it as a part of delusion. There is an interpretation that torpor has its own separate selfnature. Even though it is called a part of delusion and is a mode [of the latter], like unfaith, etc., it is not categorized as delusion. It is said to exist conventionally in accordance with its dependence on the characteristic of another [i.e., delusion], and, like drowsiness, 201

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34b etc., it is a really existing nature. The specific characteristic of torpor is obscurity and dullness, because it causes dharmas that are born with it to be unfit. If, apart from the passions, there is no specific characteristic of torpor, [the texts] should not specifically say that it obstructs [meditative] insight. Therefore unfitness is not the specific characteristic of this [torpor]. The difference in characteristics [of torpor] and delusion is that the characteristic of delusion is a deluded blindness concerning an object, and it directly obstructs nondelusion and is not obscurity and dullness. The characteristic of torpor is obscurity and dullness concerning an object, and it directly obscures serenity and is not deluded blindness.

What is unbelief (aéraddha)? Its nature is that of mental foulness as nonacquiescence, nonenjoyment, and nondesire concerning realities, virtues, and abilities. Its activity is that of obstructing pure belief and acting as the support of laziness, because the faithless one is often indolent. The three characteristics of unbelief oppose belief, you should know. However, each of the defiled dharmas has a specific characteristic. Only the specific characteristic of this unbelief is pollution that then pollutes the other mind and mental activities, just as an extremely polluted thing pollutes itself and then pollutes others. For this reason, it is said that its nature is that of mental foulness. As a consequence of unbelief, one does not acquiesce in, enjoy, or desire realities, virtues, and abilities, [but] they are not its separately existing natures. If there is false acquiescence, enjoyment, and desire with regard to other matters, those are the causes and results [of unbelief], not its own nature. What is indolence (kausldya )? Its nature is that of reluctance to cultivate the good and eliminate evil. Its activity is that of obstructing vigor and increasing defilement; that is, because the indolent person nourishes defilement. He who is diligent with respect to defiled dharmas is also called "indolent" because he shuts out good dharmas. Because the person who is diligent with respect to indeterminate dharmas neither progresses nor regresses concerning the good, it is [in this case] desire or resolve, and not a 202

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separately existing nature, just as acquiescence in, enjoyment of, and desire for the indeterminate is neither pure nor defiled, neither faith nor faithlessness.

What is negligence (pramada)? Its nature is that of laxity in being incapable of guarding against defilement and cultivating purity. Its activity is that of obstructing vigilance and acting as the support of increasing evil and injuring the good. That is, it is generally called "negligence" because, as a result of indolence, along with craving, hatred, and delusion, one is unable to guard against defilement and cultivate the good dharmas. It does not have a separate substance. Although conceit, doubt, etc., also have this ability, compared with those four, their power is very weak in obstructing the three roots of good and the universally stimulating dharma [of vigor]. The characteristic of this [negligence] can be investigated in the same way as vigilance.

What is forgetfulness (musitasmrti)? Its nature is that of an inability to remember clearly various objects [that one experiences]. Its activity is that of obstructing correct memory and acting as a support for distraction; that is, he who is forgetful is mentally distracted (citta-viksipta). There is an interpretation that forgetfulness is a part of memory, because it is said that it is memory associated with the passions. According to another interpretation, forgetfulness is a part of delusion, because the Yogacarabhumi Sastra says that it is part of delusion. Delusion causes loss of memory and is therefore called "forgetfulness. " There is an interpretation that it is categorized as a part of both [memory and delusion] because the former two passages [from treatises] are ambiguous and terse and the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says later that this [forgetfulness] is found in all defiled minds. What is distraction (viksepa)? Its nature is that of causing the mind to wander from its objects. Its activity is that of obstructing correct samadhi and acting as the support for bad discernment (■ kuprajna); that is, because the distracted person exhibits bad discernment. There is an interpretation that distraction is a part of delusion, because the Yogacarabhumi [Sastra] says that it is part 203

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of delusion. According to another interpretation, distraction is categorized as craving, hatred, and delusion, because the Abhidharmasamuccaya and other texts say that it is tripartite. When it is said that it is a part of delusion, it is because it is found in all defiled minds. It is said that craving, hatred, and delusion surpass other dharmas in causing the mind to wander, and therefore they are said to be distraction.

There is an interpretation that distraction has its own separate substance. When it is said that it is tripartite, these are its modes (nisyanda), just as lack of conscience, etc., is [according to some]. It is not categorized as the same as that, and it is called "conventionally existing" according to its characteristics. The specific characteristic of distraction is precisely turbulence, because it causes dharmas born with it to wander. If it has no separate substance of its own apart from those three [craving, etc.], it should not be specifically said that it obstructs samadhi. What, then is the difference in function between agitation and distraction? The former causes a change in understanding, and the latter causes a change in the object. Even though understanding and objects do not change during an instant, change occurs during a continuity [of moments]. When the mind is defiled, there must be, from instant to instant, a changing understanding or object, due to the power of agitation and distraction. Or, when restrained by memory, etc., it remains fixed for awhile, like a tethered donkey. Therefore, agitation and distraction are both found in all defiled minds.

What is incorrect knowing (asamprajanya)? Its nature is that of mistaken understanding of the object being considered. Its activity is that of obstructing correct knowing and being an offense (cipatti), because the one with incorrect knowing offends much. There is an interpretation that incorrect knowing is categorized as a part of discernment, because it is said that it is discernment associated with the passions. According to another interpretation, incorrect knowing is categorized as part of delusion, because the [Yogdcdrabhumi] Sastra speaks of it as a part of delusion. It is called "incorrect knowing" because it causes knowing to be incorrect. 204

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According to another interpretation, incorrect knowing is categorized as a part of both [discernment and delusion] because the former two passages are ambiguous and terse [in explaining], and the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra later speaks of it as being found in all defiled minds.

The words and and with [in the "Thirty Verses"] indicate that there are not just twenty secondary passions, because the Ksudravastuka and other texts speak of many kinds of craving, etc., that are secondary passions. The name "secondary passions" also includes the [six primary] passions, because they are by nature the modes of prior passions. Other defiled dharmas of the same species as the passions are always called "secondary passions," because they are not [technically] categorized as passions. When it is said that there are only twenty secondary passions, it means that they are not [technically] passions but are only defiled and gross. Other defiled dharmas are either states [of these twenty] or their modalities and included in them. You must understand them according to reason in accordance with the difference of species.

33. Conventional and Real

Among these twenty secondary passions, the small ten and three of the large ones conventionally exist. Lack of conscience, shamelessness, unbelief, and indolence doubtlessly really exist, as demonstrated by teachings and reason. Three kinds, agitation, torpor, and distraction, according to one interpretation are conventional and according to another interpretation are real. They should be understood in accordance with previously cited reasoning and teachings. 34. Innate or Resulting from Discrimination

All twenty belong to both [categories of] innate and [resulting from] discrimination, because they occur due to the power of the two [kinds of] passions.

35. Interrelationship

Among these twenty, the small ten definitely do not arise together in their development, because they are mutually contradictory,

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due to each being sovereign in its gross and violent mode of activity. The two medium ones occur in all minds that are not good, and all can occur together with small or large [secondary passions] as fitting. The [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says that the large eight are found in all defiled minds and that it is possible for all to occur with developing small and medium [secondary passions]. In some sources, it is said that six are found in all defiled minds, because when torpor and agitation increase [in prominence], they do not occur together. Other sources say that just five are found in all defiled minds, because torpor, agitation, etc., contradict only good [mental activities].

36. Association with the Eight Consciousnesses

Because these [secondary passions] are defiled only, they do not occur in the eighth [consciousness]. Only the large eight occur in the seventh consciousness. The difference in accepting or rejecting [which may occur with which consciousnesses] should be understood according to the above [reasons]. It is possible for all to occur in the sixth consciousness. The ten small ones, being gross and violent, do not exist in the [first] five consciousnesses, but it is possible for the medium and large ones to exist in the [first] five consciousnesses. 37. The Five Feelings and the Secondary Passions

Consequently, the medium and large [secondary passions] are associated with the five feelings. There is an interpretation that the small ten, excluding three, such as anger, etc., are only associated with three feelings, joy, sorrow, and indifference. Hypocrisy, deceit, and vanity occur with four [feelings], excluding suffering. According to another interpretation, anger, etc., are associated with four [feelings], excluding happiness; three, hypocrisy, deceit, and vanity, occur with [all] five feelings, because, as previously explained, the feeling of suffering exists in the manas. The association of characteristics of these [secondary passions] with feelings is as explained in connection with the passions.

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This is the true interpretation. If we proceed according to gross characteristics, anger, hostility, vexation, envy, and harmfulness occur with sorrow and indifference; dissimulation and avarice [are associated] with joy and indifference; the remaining three increase happiness. The medium and large [secondary passions] are as in the [above] true interpretation in accordance with their gross [characteristics],

38. Association with Mental

Activities with Specific Objects

These twenty may all occur together with the five mental activities with specific objects, because there is no contradiction among them. Even though defiled memory and defiled discernment do not occur with memory and discernment, when they are a part of delusion, they can be associated. Memory also has as an object a present object of a kind that has been previously experienced, and anger also has as an object the instantaneous past. Therefore anger can be associated with memory. When defiled samacLhi arises, the mind is also turbulent and distracted; therefore there is no error if distraction is associated with samadhi. 39. Association with the Passions

The two medium and eight large [secondary passions] occur with the ten passions. The small ones definitely do not occur together with false views and doubt, because [the former] are gross and unstable, while [the latter] are subtle in their judgements. It is possible for the five dharmas of anger, etc., to occur with pride and delusion, but not with craving and ill will, because these are a part of hatred. Avarice occurs with doubt and pride, but not with craving and hatred, because it is part of craving. Vanity is associated with only delusion; it differs from pride because it is part of craving. Dissimulation and deceit occur with hypocrisy, craving, delusion, and pride, because their modes of activity are not contradictory and are parts of craving and delusion.

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40. Moral Nature

Seven small and the two medium [secondary passions] are categorized as not good only. Three small and the eight large ones also are undetermined.

35b 41. The Three Realms

Seven small and the two medium [secondary passions] belong only to the realm of desire; deceit and hypocrisy belong to the realms of desire and form; the remainder belong to [all] three realms. One born in a lower stage can generate eleven [secondary passions] of a higher [stage], because he who is addicted to the pleasures of samadhi generates vanity, deceit, and hypocrisy with regard to others. If born in an upper stage, one generates the last ten of a lower stage, because when occurring with wrong views and thirst, it is possible for them to be generated. There is no reason for someone born in the upper [stages] to generate the minor ten of a lower [stage], because they do not nourish rebirth and do not defame [the truth of] cessation. The two medium and eight large [secondary passions] of the lower stages also take as their objects the upper [stages], because they arise in association with craving, etc., with the upper as an object.

There is an interpretation that the ten small [secondary passions] of a lower [stage] do not have the upper [stages] as objects, because their modes of activity are gross and near and do not grasp the distant. According to another interpretation, envy, etc., can also take the upper [stages] as an object, because one can generate envy, etc., with respect to dharmas of the upper [stages]. The eight large [secondary passions], along with hypocrisy and deceit, of an upper stage can have the lower as an object, because they are associated with pride, etc., which take the lower [as objects], and because Brahma generates hypocrisy and deceit toward disciples of Sakyamuni. Vanity does not have the lower as an object, because they are not its support.

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42. Association with Categories of Learners

All twenty [secondary passions] are included [in the category of] neither learner nor post-learner, because the [secondary passions] are defiled only, while the [learners and post-learners] are pure only. 43. Elimination

The last ten [secondary passions] only are eliminated in both [paths of] insight and cultivation, because they arise in association with the two [kinds of] passions [i.e., the innate and those arising from discrimination]. Those eliminated by insight arise with the passions in accordance with delusion about characteristics of the [four] truths, either wholly or in part. Therefore all are found in connection with the four truths, and the directness or indirectness, etc., of delusion about the truths is all as explained concerning the passions. With regard to the first ten [secondary passions], there is an interpretation that they are eliminated only by cultivation, because their objects are gross things and they are born spontaneously. According to another interpretation, they are eliminated by both insight and cultivation, because they arise through the power of the two kinds of passions [i.e., innate, etc.], and because one may give rise to anger, etc., when encountering the views, etc., of another. Those eliminated by insight all pervade the [entirety of the] four truths in accordance with appropriate objects through the power of general or specific passions. In this matter, there is an opinion that anger, etc., are deludedly born with delusion about the truths only indirectly, not with direct delusion about the truths, because their modes of activity are gross and superficial and do not grasp in a profound manner. According to another interpretation, envy, etc., are also direct delusions concerning the truths, because one arouses envy, etc., regarding cessation and the path. However, the ten starting with anger only have existing things as objects, because they depend on a fundamental substance for birth. Having as an object such things as impurity, etc., can be understood by analogy with the above [discussion of fundamental passions].

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35c 44. Indeterminate Mental Activities

We have explained the twenty secondary passions. There are four indeterminate mental activities (aniyata-caitta). What are their characteristics? The Verses [of Vasubandhu] say, The indeterminate mental activities are

REMORSE AND SLOTH,

A pplied thought and sustained thought,

Two pairs in two ways.

The Treatise says, "They are established as indeterminate because remorse, sloth, applied thought, and sustained thought are indeterminate insofar as good, defilement, etc., are concerned, because they are not, like contact, etc., definitely found in [all] minds, and because they are not, like desire, etc., found in all stages." Remorse (kaukrtya) means "wrongdoing." Its nature is that of a repentance for wrongs one has committed. Its activity is that of obstructing [meditative] tranquility. The name of the cause is conventionally applied to the result, because wrong acts are committed previously and later there is repentance. Remorse for what one has not done previously is also categorized as "wrongdoing," just as one may repent saying, "Such things that I did not do are my wrongdoing."

Sloth (middha) is "sleepiness, " and its nature is that of dullness and feebleness that prevents physical freedom. Its activity is that of obstructing contemplation. That is, in a state of sleepiness, the body is not free and the mind is extremely dull and feeble, evolving through one gate [which is mental consciousness]. Being dull, it is excluded from samadhi\ being feeble, it is distinguished from wakefulness, but in causing the manifestation of sleepiness it is not without substance and function. There is a state of mindlessness that is conventionally given this name, because, like the other hindrances (nivarana) and bonds (paryavasthana), it is associated with mind.

There is an interpretation that these two [remorse and sloth] are in substance only delusion, because it is said that they are a 210

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part of the secondary passions and delusion. According to another interpretation, this is incorrect, because they can also be good. It should be said that when these two are defiled they are delusion in substance, and when pure they are nondelusion. The treatise [referred to] says that they are categorized as a part of the secondary passions and delusion because it refers to their defiled aspect.

According to another interpretation, this explanation also does not correspond to reason, because when they are indeterminate, they are by nature neither delusion nor nondelusion. It should be said that remorse is in substance volition and discernment, because it clearly ponders actions performed and makes choices. Sloth synthesizes and uses volition and conceptualization as its substance, because it thinks about numerous dream objects and because both treatises say that it exists relatively. When they are defiled, they are modes of delusion, in the same way that unfaith, etc., are said to be parts of delusion.

There is an interpretation that the reasoning expressed [above] is also incorrect, because the bonds [of remorse and sloth] are not by nature volition, discernment, and conceptualization. It should be said that each of the two has a separate substance, because their modes of activity differ from other mental activities. They are said to exist relatively due to the characteristic of delusion. Applied thought (vitarka) means "seeking." Its nature is that of causing the mind to evolve hastily in a gross manner with reference to objects of mental discourse (manojalpa). Sustained thought (vicara) means "investigation." Its nature is that of causing the mind to evolve in a subtle manner with reference to objects of mental discourse. Both of these have as their activities that of acting as supports for peaceful or nonpeaceful dwelling of physical and mental states. Both use a part of olition and discernment as their substance, because of the difference in species of not profoundly investigating or profoundly investigating the objects of mental discourse. Apart from volition and discernment, no separate substance or species of applied thought and sustained thought can be found. 211

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When [the verses] say two pairs in two ways , there is an interpretation that applied thought and sustained thought are distinguished by the two species of defilement and purity. According to another interpretation, this explanation must not be correct reasoning, because remorse and sloth also have the two [natures] of defilement and purity. It should be said that, like the existence of the previously discussed defiled mental activities, they are of the nature of passions and secondary passions, and each of these [second "two"] has not good and indeterminate [as natures]. Or, each of these have the bonds (paryavasthana) and propensities. According to another interpretation, that explanation also cannot be reasonable, because these words ["two pairs in two ways"] occur after [the listing of] these four indeterminates. You should say that "two" indicates two kinds of two: one is remorse and sloth, the other is applied thought and sustained thought. These second two kinds of species are different, and therefore the first "two" refers to the second two kinds. These are each of two kinds; that is, defiled and undefiled, because they are unlike the good or defiled [mental activities] that are each of only one kind. Or [the expression] just excludes defilement, and for that reason [Vasubandhu] uses this expression, and because it is said [in the Yogàcàrabhumi\ that they are secondary passions. In order to indicate the meaning of "indeterminate," [Vasubandhu] says two pairs in two ways, and therefore it is useful to take these words with a sense of their depth.

45. Real or Conventional

Among these four, applied thought and sustained thought definitely exist conventionally, because it is said by the sages that they are the synthesis of volition and discernment. There is an interpretation that remorse and sloth also exist conventionally, because the Yogacàrabhumi Scistra says that they exist relatively. According to another interpretation, these two exist as real things, because only the last two kinds [i.e., applied thought and sustained thought] are said to exist conventionally. The words 212

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"exist relatively" are said in accordance with their characteristics of otherness [in being part of delusion], but they do not indicate that the former two are definitely conventionally real. Also, it is similar to the Yogacarabhumi Sastra saying that even though the internal seeds are real in substance they are of relative existence. 46. Association with the Indeterminates

Among these four, applied thought and sustained thought are definitely not associated, because they are the same in substance and species but they differ in being gross and subtle. Differences among the other three stages are established in accordance with aversion (vairagya) or lack of aversion for applied thought and sustained thought, not on the basis of their existence as seeds or as actualities. Therefore there is no confusion [of stages]. Both may be associated with [remorse and sloth], and these former two are also mutually associated.

47. Association with the Eight Consciousnesses

None of the four is associated with the seventh and eighth consciousnesses. The explanation is as given previously. Remorse and sloth are associated only with the sixth consciousness, because they are not dharmas [associated with the] five [consciousnesses]. There is an interpretation that applied thought and sustained thought are also associated with the [first] five consciousnesses, because the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says that the five consciousnesses have applied thought and sustained thought. It also says that applied thought and sustained thought have seven discriminations; that is, [those things] having characteristics, etc. The Abhidharmasamuccaya-vydkhya repeats that spontaneous discrimination means the five consciousnesses.

There is an interpretation that applied thought and sustained thought are only associated with mental consciousness, because the Yogacarabhumi Sastra says that the dharmas of applied thought and sustained thought, etc., are all uncommon dharmas of mental consciousness. It also says that applied thought and sustained 213

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36b thought are associated with sorrow and joy, and because they have never been said to be associated with happiness and suffering There is no reason for indifference, which is universal, to be mentioned, but why does [that treatise] not say that [applied and sustained thought] are associated with happiness and suffering? Although there is happiness in the realm of manas during the first trance state (dhyana), still it is not separate from joy, and it is generally referred to by the name of "joy." Although there is suffering in the realm of manas in places of unadulterated suffering, still it resembles sorrow and is generally referred to as "sorrow." Although the [Yogacarabhumi] Sastra says that applied thought and sustained thought have names, etc., and their meanings as objects, the five consciousnesses themselves do not have names, etc., and their meanings as objects. However, when it says that the five consciousnesses have applied thought and sustained thought, it indicates that many [consciousnesses] originate from these [two], not that they are associated.

The expression of the Abhidharmasamuccaya-vyakhya, "spontaneous discrimination refers to the five consciousnesses," differs from the interpretation of the Yogacarabhumi Sastra. That [first text] says that spontaneous [discrimination] is the same as the five consciousnesses, while the Yogacarabhumi Sastra says that this [spontaneous discrimination] is applied thought and sustained thought associated with discriminating mental consciousness occurring with the five consciousnesses. Therefore the evidence that these [texts] quote is inconclusive. Consequently, the five consciousnesses definitely do not have applied thought and sustained thought. 48. Association with Five Feelings

There is an interpretation that remorse is associated with sorrow and indifference, because it evolves as painful activity and is found as indeterminate. Sloth occurs with feelings of joy, sorrow, and indifference, because its activity usually evolves as agreeable, disagreeable, or neither. Applied thought and sustained thought are associated with sorrow, joy, indifference, and happiness, because 214

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in the first trance state, manas is associated with happiness. There is an interpretation that these four [indeterminate mental activities] also occur with the feeling of suffering, because manas is associated with suffering in destinies of unadulterated suffering. 49. Mental Activities with Specific Objects

All four may occur with the five [mental activities] with specific objects, because their modes of activities and objects are not mutually contradictory.

50. Association with Good Mental Activities

Remorse and sloth may only occur with ten good [mental activities], because they exist only in [the realm of] desire and are devoid of serenity. Applied thought and sustained thought may occur with [all] eleven good [mental activities], because in the first trance state, they are associated with serenity.

51. Association with the Passions

Remorse may only be associated with ignorance, because its mode of activity is gross, and craving, etc., are subtle. Sloth, applied thought, and sustained thought are associated with the ten passions, because there is no mutual contradiction in the development of these [indeterminates] and those [passions]. 52. Association with Secondary Passions

Remorse may occur with the medium and large secondary passions, but not with the ten beginning with anger, because they are sovereign. Sloth and applied thought and sustained thought may occur with [all] twenty [secondary passions], because in states of sloth, etc., all may generate them.

53. Moral Species

These four all pervade the three natures of good, etc., because one also repents indeterminate actions. There is an interpretation that 215

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the first two [i.e., remorse and sloth] involve only good acquired at birth, because their modes of activity are [respectively] gross and dull. The latter two are also categorized as the good of added effort (prayogika), because applied thought and sustained thought exist in that which is achieved through hearing, etc. There is an interpretation that the first two also involve the good of added effort because remorse and sloth exist in states of hearing and volition. The last three are common to the defiled indeterminate and the pure indeterminate; remorse is not defiled because its understanding is gross and violent. Among the four [varieties of] the [category of] indeterminate, remorse is [included in] only the middle two, because its mode of activity is gross and violent and not the fruit of samadhi. Sloth is excluded from the fourth [variety of indeterminate], because it is not born of samadhi, and a mind born of retribution can acquire it. Applied thought and sustained thought are excluded from the first [variety] because its understanding is very feeble and it is unable to investigate words, meanings, etc. 54. Indeterminate Mental Activities and the Realms Remorse and sloth exist only in [the realm of] desire; applied thought and sustained thought exist in [the realm of] desire and the first trance state, because dharmas of the remaining realms and stages are wonderfully calm. Remorse and sloth must not appear in one born above [in a superior realm], and applied thought and sustained thought of the upper [realms occurs as that of a] lower realm and can generate those of the [upper realms] in a lower one. The applied thought and sustained thought of lower and upper [stages] can have as objects the upper and lower [stages] respectively. There is an interpretation that remorse and sloth cannot have as an object the upper [stages] because their modes of activity are gross and direct [in the case of remorse] and extremely dull [in the case of sloth]. There is an interpretation that these two also have as an object the upper object, because someone with false views can regret having cultivated samadhi, and a dream can in all cases have as an object something already experienced. 216

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55. Indeterminate Mental Activities

and Categories of Learners

Remorse excludes post-learners, because they have left desires and are indifferent. Remorse, sloth, applied thought, and sustained thought are all common to the three classes [of learners], because all conditioned (samskrta) good dharmas of one who seeks liberation are called "learners, " and because the conditioned good dharmas of one whose learning has culminated are all "post-learners." 56. Elimination

Remorse and sloth are to be eliminated only by the [paths of] insight and cultivation, because they also originate through the power of wrong views, etc., they are not directly attracted and generated by the pure paths, and, unlike sorrow, they do not deeply seek liberation. If it is to be called "not to be eliminated" (aheya) because it has already been eliminated, then the sloth of a postlearner is categorized as "not to be eliminated. "

Even though applied thought and sustained thought are not the true, pure path, still they are able to attract it and be attracted and be born from it; therefore, they are common to both insight and cultivation and categorized as "not to be eliminated." As for the interpretation that applied thought and sustained thought are not to be eliminated, this is because they are categorized as being only discrimination among the five dharmas, and the Yogacarabhumi Sastra says that they are discrimination. There is an interpretation that these [latter] two are also categorized as "correct knowledge" (samyag-jnana), because it is said that correct reflection is pure, because it can cause the mind to seek, and because it is said that it causes speech. In the penultimate state, one is unable to have universal knowledge of medicines, illnesses, etc., and must depend on conventional applied thought and sustained thought during [the state of] subsequently acquired knowledge (prsthalabdha-jnana) in order to preach the Dharma to others. It is not like the effortless preaching in the stage of 217

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Buddhahood. Therefore these two varieties [of thought] also pervade [the category of] purity.

Even though it is said that applied thought and sustained thought must be discrimination, it is not said definitely that they belong to only the third [category among the five dharmas], because there is discrimination in subsequently acquired correct knowledge. Other topics [concerning the four indeterminates] can be understood by analogy with the above through the use of reason. 57. Mental Activities and Mind

Do these six kinds of dharmas or mental activities [i.e., good, passions, universal, etc.,] have a separate self-nature apart from mind? Are they distinctions of states of mind? What are the errors of affirming these?

There are errors in affirming both of these [above positions]. If they have self-natures apart from mind, how can the holy teachings say that there is only consciousness? Or how could they say that "mind alone goes a long way," or that "defilement and purity result from mind," or that "the person is the six elements"? How can the explanation of the Mahayana Sutralamkara be grasped? A verse [in this text] says,

We affirm that mind appears twofold;

In the same way, it appears as craving, etc.,

Or else it appears as faith, etc.,

And there are no separate defiled or good dharmas. If [on the other hand] they are distinctions of states of mind, how can the holy teachings speak of "associates of mind," because is not something associated with another nature a nature of its own? Also, how can [the Lankavatara Sutra] say that "When mind and mental activities are simultaneously born, they are like the sun and the light"? How can we grasp the teaching of the Yogacarabhumi Sastra, because it says that "mental activities are not the same as mind"? A verse [from the above scripture] says, 218

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The five seed natures [i.e., aggregates] are not demonstrated;

The distinctions of states [of mind] are an error, Because there is no distinction of causes and conditions, And it is a contradiction of the holy teachings. It should be said that [mental activities] have a separate self-nature apart from mind, but due to the predominance of mind, it is said that there is "consciousness only, " etc. Because mental activities are born through the power of mind, it is said that they "appear similar to that," but not that they are mind. Also, the terms "consciousness" and "mind" include mental activities, because they are always associated. None of the terms "consciousness only," etc., or "appears similar to mind" is erroneous. This [doctrine] is based on relative [truth]. If we resort to ultimate truth, mind and mental activities are neither distinct nor identical. You should know that the same is true of the interrelationships of the [eight] consciousnesses. This is said to be the marvellous principle of true and conventional [truth] in the Mahayana. 58. States of Appearance of the Six Consciousnesses We have discussed the association of mental activities with the six consciousnesses [i.e., the first five consciousnesses and mental consciousness]. How should we understand their states of appearance? [Vasubandhu's] Verses say,

Supported on the fundamental consciousness, The five consciousnesses appear in accordance WITH CONDITIONS,

Either together or not,

Like waves supported by the water.

Mental consciousness perpetually appears Except in those born among the unconscious celestials And in the two mindless s a m a d h is , And in those who are [in states of] sloth and stupefaction.

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37b The Treatise says that fundamental consciousness is ddanavijndna, because all impure and pure consciousnesses are born from this root. Supported means that the first six evolving consciousnesses have fundamental consciousness as their common, proximate support. Five consciousnesses means that the first five evolving consciousnesses are spoken of in general, because they are similar as species. The words appear in accordance with conditions show that they do not always appear. Conditions are such conditions as attention, organs, objective realm, etc. That is, the five consciousnesses themselves can be present when supported internally by the fundamental consciousness and by conforming to a combination of various conditions such as attention, the five organs, objects [of perception], etc. Consequently, they appear either together or not, because, when external conditions combine, they exist suddenly [together] or gradually. Like water and waves, they are many or few, depending on conditions. The analogy of hese dharmas [as water and waves] is extensively discussed in the [Samdhinirmocana\ Sutra. 59. Mental Consciousness

As a result of the grossness and instability of the modes of activity of the [first] five evolving consciousnesses, sometimes many of the conditions on which they depend are incomplete, and therefore sometimes they appear infrequently and many times they do not appear. Even though the sixth, mental consciousness, is also gross and unstable, there is no time when the conditions upon which it depends are not complete, and [only] as a result of contrary conditions is there a time when it does not appear.

The modes of activity of the seventh and eighth consciousnesses are subtle, and the various conditions on which they depend are at all times present; therefore, there is no condition to block them and cause general inactivity. Also, the five consciousnesses themselves are unable to reflect, only evolving vis-à-vis the external [realm]. Their appearance depends on many conditions, and therefore there are many times when they are interrupted and few times when they are actually active. The sixth consciousness itself is 220

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capable of reflection, evolving vis-à-vis the inner and outer [realms]. It does not depend on many conditions and is always able to appear, except in five states. Therefore there are few times when it is interrupted and many times when it appears. Consequently, [Vasubandhu's verses] do not say that it appears in accordance with conditions. What are the five states [when it is inoperative]? Birth among the unconscious [celestials], etc.

60. The Unconscious Celestials

The unconscious celestials (asamjnika-deva) means that they are born in that celestial realm by the power of cultivating samadhi and a distaste for gross conceptualization, which interferes with the non-perpetually active mind and mental activities. Extinction of conceptualization is foremost [of characteristics of this existence], and they are [therefore] called "unconscious celestials." Therefore the six evolving consciousnesses there are all interrupted. There is an interpretation that those celestials are always devoid of the six consciousnesses, because the holy teachings say that they are devoid of evolving consciousnesses, because it is said that they only possess the material factor (rupa-ariga), and because it is said that that [realm] is a mindless stage (acittaka-bhumi). There is an interpretation that when these celestials are in a state when they are about to die [in the mindless realm], they must generate evolving consciousnesses so that immediately upon death they necessarily generate a thirst that nourishes a birth below, because the Yogdcarabhumi Sdstra says, "When a subsequent conceptualization has been born, these sentient beings fall from that [existence or samadhi]." However, as for saying that they are devoid of evolving consciousnesses, etc., this means for a long time, not that they are totally absent.

There is an interpretation that when they are born [in that realm], they also have evolving consciousnesses, because in that [unconscious celestial realm] they must generate passions that nourish birth, because, as in other [realms], they must have evolving consciousnesses at the beginning of their basic existences. The 221

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Yogacarabhumi Sastra says, "If he is born in that [realm], he just enters it but does not generate [conceptualization], because if conceptualization occurs, he falls from that [realm]." If he does not have evolving consciousnesses during the time of his basic existence, how can it be called "entering" [that state devoid of conceptualization], because it can be called "entering" if first he has [the consciousnesses] and later does not have them. According to the Viniscayasamgrahani, the cessation of all mind and mental activities existing from birth is called "unconsciousness" (asamjnika). The meaning of these words indicates that at the beginning of that basic existence, evolving consciousnesses born of retribution initially exist a short time, and that they are not born later due to the power of former causes and conditions. Consequently, [this absence] attracts and generates a state known as "retribution and indeterminate," which is called "without conceptualization," just as the two samadhis are called "good" by virtue of the good they attract and generate. On the contrary, if none of the evolving consciousnesses is active, how can they be said to be only cessation [of mind and mental activities] acquired at birth? Therefore in the first state of that [existence], the evolving consciousnesses occur for awhile.

These celestials only abide in the fourth trance state (d h y a n a ), because conceptualization below [that stage] is gross and unstable and difficult to eliminate, and there is no occasion for the retribution of nonconceptualization above [it]; that is, because the volition that can attract and instigate this unconscious s a m a d h i is able to provoke the results of retribution of these celestials.

61. The Two Mindless Samadhis

And in the two mindless s a m a d h is means that both of the sa m a d h i s of unconsciousness and cessation are called "mindless" (ia c itta k a ) because they all are devoid of the six consciousnesses. "Unconscious samadhi " means that there are ordinary beings (prthagjana) who have subdued craving of the Subhakrtsna [realm] but who have not subdued impurity of the superior [trance states]. 222

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Due to the concept of escape [from sa m s a r a ] being the foremost of their volitions, [this sa m a d h i] causes the cessation of non-perpetually active mind and mental activities. It is called "unconscious" because cessation of conceptualization is foremost, and it is called sa m a d h i because it causes the body to be tranquil and harmonious. There are three degrees of cultivation of this s a m a d h i. He who cultivates the lowest degree necessarily regresses [in maintaining s a m a d h i] in this present life (d r s ta -d h a r m a ) and cannot quickly recover [the s a m a d h i]. Later, when he is born among those celestials, [s a m a d h i] is not extremely bright and pure, nor is the form large, and he definitely dies in the interval. He who cultivates the middle degree does not necessarily regress, and if he regresses he quickly recovers it. Later, when he is born among those celestials, even though the [s a m a d h i] is extremely bright and pure and its form is large, still it is not maximal, and although one [sometimes] dies in the interval it is not certain.

He who cultivates the superior degree necessarily does not regress. Later, when he is born among those celestials, there is maximal brightness and purity and the form is large, and he necessarily does not die in the interval but only falls [from that existence] once the life span is completely filled. This sa m a d h i is only connected with the fourth trance state. Also, it is exclusively good, because it is attracted by that [trance state]. It is absent in stages below and above, as a result of what was said earlier. Actions {k a r m a ) of the four [trance states] belongs to the three [categories of retribution] with the exception of that which conforms to the present life. There is an interpretation that this s a m a d h i only occurs in the realm of desire, because it occurs through the power of non-Buddhist teachings and because among humans, discernment and understanding are extremely acute. According to another interpretation, after having first cultivated it in the realm of desire, one can, upon subsequently being born in the realm of form, bring it before one, excluding the unconscious celestials, because it is ultimate. Consequently, it is only impure and not generated by 223

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the saints, because it is entered by way of disgust for conceptualization and a delight in its fruits.

The samadhi of cessation means that there are saints who are post-learners or learners who have subdued and gotten rid of the craving of [the stage of] "nothing at all" (akimcanya-ayatana) but [in whom] craving of the upper stage [i.e., naivasamjhanasamjhaayatana] is or is not present. As a result of emphasizing the stopping of conceptualization and bringing about the cessation of [both] non-perpetually active and perpetually active defiled mind and mental activities, it is called "cessation." It is called samadhi because it causes the body to be tranquil and harmonious. Due to a one-sided disgust for feeling and conceptualization, it is called the "samadhi of the cessation of those [feelings and conceptualization]" (samjhd-veditd-nirodha-samdpatti).

There are three classes of cultivation of this samadhi. He who cultivates the lowest degree necessarily regresses during his present life and cannot recover [the samadhi] immediately. He who cultivates the middle degree does not necessarily regress in the present life, and if he regresses he immediately recovers it. He who cultivates the superior degree absolutely does not regress. In the preliminary practice of this samadhi, he who enters it must, as a preparation, be supported by a discursive contemplation of the [realm of the] peak of existence, which is pure, because among the sequential samadhis it is the supreme one. Even though it belongs to the peak of existence, it is categorized as pure. If, having cultivated this samadhi, one acquires mastery, one's mind is able to make it present in other stages. Although it belongs to the truth of the path, it is categorized as "neither learner nor postlearner," because it resembles nirvana.

The first appearance of this samadhi exists only among humans, because it occurs as a result of the power of the teachings of the Buddha and his disciples, and because among humans, discernment and understanding are extremely acute. Also, one makes it appear before one later in the upper two realms, because the Udayi Sutra proves that the formless [celestials] are also called "celestials consisting of thought" (manomaya-deva). Those who as 224

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yet do not believe and receive the teaching of store consciousness do not produce this s a m a d h i, because they fear that the absence of form and mind results in annihilation. Believers born there are able to have it present before them, because they know that there is a store consciousness and that they are not annihilated. In order for this s a m a d h i to appear, it is necessary to eliminate the propensities of the three realms that are eliminated by the [path of] insight, because ordinary beings are unable to subdue and destroy mind and mental activities of the peak of exist- ence, because this s a m a d h i is subtle, and in order for it to be attracted, the subsequently acquired knowledge of the two kinds of emptiness must be realized.

There is an interpretation that of the propensities of the lower eight stages to be eliminated by [the path of] cultivation, it is necessary to eliminate wholly [those of the realm of] desire. The remainder are subdued or eliminated, and later one can for the first time generate this s a m a d h i, because the propensities of the realm of desire, which are of two natures, are complex and strong in obstructing s a m a d h i, and because it is only said that nonreturners (a n a g a m i n ), post-learners of the three vehicles, and various bodhisattvas obtain this s a m a d h i. In accordance with circumstances, they are born in the upper eight stages and all are able subsequently to generate it.

There is an interpretation that it is necessary to eliminate the propensities of the lower four stages that are to be eliminated by [the path of] cultivation. The remainder are to be subdued or eliminated and, later, one can for the first time generate this s a m a d h i, because the seeds of passions associated with feelings of change are strong in obstructing s a m a d h i. In accordance with circumstances, they are born in the upper five stages and all are able subsequently to generate this s a m a d h i.

[The Sarvastvadins object,] you say that if one subdues the propensities of the lower [stages], one can generate this s a m a d h i and later, not eliminating [the seeds] or regressing, be born in the upper stages, but will that one, having been born in the upper 225

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[stages], still eliminate the propensities of the lower [stages]? [We reply,] their elimination is no problem, because one resembles someone born in the upper stages who eliminates the innate propensities of manas of the lower [stages].

Now the power of the antidote [to the passions] of nonreturners is strong. During the state of nourishing birth, they do not generate passions. It is only as a result of the seeds of the propensities that they nourish birth in the upper realms. Even though there may or may not be regression in the propensities one has subdued, this still does not mean that one is born in an upper stage by subduing the [propensities of the] lower. Therefore there is no error [in maintaining] that one born in the upper [stages] eliminates the [propensities of the] lower.

In the case of various bodhisattvas of the rank of the two [non-Mahayana] vehicles who have already obtained the samadhi of cessation and have converted [to the Mahayana], they are able to generate this samadhi in all stages. If they are not of this type, some with complete minds of the seventh stage are able eternally to subdue all passions. Even though they have not eternally eliminated the propensities [to be eliminated by] cultivation of the realm of desire, they are able to generate this samadhi as if they had already eliminated them, because the [Yogacarabhumi\ Sastra says that the bodhisattva, having entered the "far going" (duramgama) stage, is then able to manifest this samadhi of cessation. Some, from the first stage, are able eternally to subdue all passions, as if they were arhats. They all generate this samadhi during all ten [bodhisattva] stages, because a scripture says, "The bodhisattva is able, in the first six stages, to manifest the samadhi of cessation." 62. Sloth and Stupefaction

Mindless sloth (middha) and stupefaction (murchana) refer to an extremely heavy sloth and stupefaction that prevent all the first six consciousnesses from being actually active. Sloth is a physical state attracted by such conditions as extreme fatigue and is contrary to the [operation of the] first six consciousnesses. For that 226

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reason, it is called "extremely heavy sloth. " Even though it is not in substance [sloth], it is conventionally given that name because it resembles [sloth]. Stupefaction is a physical state attracted by such conditions as a troubled disposition and is contrary to [the operation of the] six consciousnesses. For that reason, it is called "extremely heavy stupefaction." Alternately, both of these are minor parts of the sense base of tangibility (sprastavya-ayatana). Excluding these [above] five states, mental consciousness always occurs. 63. Birth and Death