Buddhist Pilgrimage

Part III Four Places of Miracles

CONTENTS 1. Savatthi, Place of the Twin Miracle 2. Sankasia, Place of the Descent from Heaven 3. Rajagaha, Place of Taming the Drunken Elephant, Nalagiri 4. Vesali, Place of Offering of Honey by a Band of Monkeys 103

1. Savatthi, Place of the Twin Miracle

a) How to reach there Savatthi or Sravasti is located in the Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh, 160 km east of the capital Lucknow. The site is 21 km west of Balrampur, a station on the Gorakhpur-Gonda line of the North-Eastern Railway. All distances are approximate.

b) Religious Significance 1, 2 Sravasti was the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Kosala ruled by King Pasenadi, a lay disciple and great admirer of the Buddha. It owes its fame to its long and close association with the Buddha’s ministry. Of the 45 years of his ministry, the Buddha spent as many as 25 rains-retreats, 24 of them continuously (21st-44th) at Sravasti. It was here that the millionaire Sudatta, popularly known as Anathapindika or “Feeder of the Poor”, donated the famous Jetavana or Jeta’s Grove to the Buddha after he had bought it at an exorbitant price, which was “as many gold coins as would cover it”. Since the Buddha spent a major part of his missionary life in Sravasti, the majority of sermons in the scriptures were deliv-ered while staying in Jetavana. Another important monastery at Sravasti was the Pubbarama, donated by the Lady Visakha, chief benefactress of the Buddha.

Sravasti became an important place of pilgrimage because here the Buddha performed the greatest miracle of all, the Twin Miracle, in order to dispel the heretics. In a series of miraculous episodes, the Buddha created multiple representations of Himself, seated and standing on lotuses, causing fire and water to emanate from his body. This marvelous event, called the Miracle of Sravasti, is a favourite subject of Buddhist sculptures.

c) Historical Background 6, 9 King Asoka visited Sravasti in 249 BC as part of his pilgrimage to the holy Buddhist shrines and erected two pillars, each 70 feet high, on both sides of the eastern gate of Jetavana, as well as some stupas to enshrine the relics of the Buddha. During the time of the Kusana kings, Kaniska and Huviska, in the 1st-2nd century AD, new shrines were installed to enshrine Buddha images which were becoming popular at the time. When Fa Hsien visited Sravasti in 407 AD, Buddhism had declined in the city but Jetavana was still occupied by monks. He saw the two Asokan pillars still standing but the stupas of Angulimala and Sudatta were in ruins. By the time Hsüan Tsang came to Sravasti in 637 AD, the main city was in ruins and there were several hundreds of sangharamas, mostly in ruin with very few religious followers. Jetavana was decayed and deserted. He also saw both columns erected by Asoka, the ruins of stupas, sangharamas and the well from which the Buddha used to draw water for his use. After Hsüan Tsang’s visit, Jetavana was again occupied, as evi-denced by the recovery of seals and images of Mahayanist pan-theons such as Lokanatha, Avalokitesvara and others belonging to the 8th and 9th century AD. The last patrons of Jetavana were King Govindachandra and his devout Buddhist wife Kumaradevi of Kanauj and Benares (1130 AD). Records of their gift of six villages to the Sangha of Jetavana monastery were found in a copper char-ter discovered during excavation of the ruins. With the downfall of Buddhism in India in the 13th century AD, the Jetavana shrines became deserted and fell into oblivion.

In 1863, Cunningham identified a vast collection of twin ruins called Sahet-Mahet with the ancient city of Sravasti. He excavated the ruins at Sahet covering 13 hectares, identified with Jetavana and exposed the remains of several stupas, temples and monaster-ies, including the site of the famous Gandha-kuti or Perfumed Chamber as well as the Kosambi kuti, both used by the Buddha. Most of the ruins exposed in Jetavana were from the Kusana per-iod (1st-2nd century AD). The ruins at Mahet are very extensive, spreading over 162 hectares. Only a few ruins have been identi-fied while most parts of it are still unexplored. In recent times, the first monastery to be built in Sravasti was the Burmese Vihara, at the initiative of Ven. Chandramani of Kushinagar. This was fol-lowed by the Chinese Buddhist Temple founded by the Ven. Ren Chen. In 1969, the Maha Bodhi Society of India became directly involved with Sravasti with the arrival of Ven. Sangharatana of Sarnath, who initiated the construction of the Nava Jetavana Vihara just outside the old Jetavana. In 1982, the Thais too, estab- lished a vihara in Sravasti.

d) Objects of Interest 6, 9 Jetavana Park During the Buddha’s time, the place was called Jetavana Anathapindika Arama or Anathapindika’s Garden of Jeta Grove.

Today most of the ruins are the remains of temples and stupas from the Kusana period (1st-2nd century AD). The important shrines are:

(i) Temple No. 2 The ruins here mark the site of the Gandha-kuti (Perfumed Chamber) built by Anathapindika for the Buddha’s use. According to the commentaries, the site of the Buddha’s bed in it is the same for all Buddhas, irrespective of the size of the Gandha-kuti. The original Gandha-kuti was wooden but by the time the Chinese pilgrims saw it, the structure was a two-storeyed brick building in a ruinous condition. Now only the low walls and stone platform are extant. This is a favourite site for pilgrims to perform puja and meditate.

(ii) Temple No. 3 This temple is believed to be the site of the original Kosambi kuti, also built by Anathapindika earlier for the Buddha’s use as a meditation room. Just in front of it is a long plinth, made of bricks, marking the site of the original promenade (cankama) used by the Buddha for walking meditation.

(iii) Stupa H This stupa is believed to mark the place where the Buddha used to preach to the monks and laity. It was erected in front of the Gandha-kuti Temple and was rebuilt several times, pointing to its importance as a sacred shrine.

(iv) Ananda Bodhi Tree The Ananda Bodhi tree is located near the entrance of Jetavana.

It was planted at the request of Anathapindika so that the laity would have an object to worship during the Buddha’s absence from Savatthi to propagate the Dhamma after each vassa. When Ven. Ananda reported the matter to the Buddha, the latter replied that there were three types of objects of veneration, namely: the corporeal relic deposited in a stupa after the Buddha’s Parinibbana, an object used by the Buddha such as his alms-bowl, etc. and a visible symbol such as a Dhammacakka wheel.

The first was not possible while the Buddha was alive, while the third object was not appropriate for those who were not content with a mere symbol or picture. So only the second remained and the Buddha suggested the Bodhi tree as the best object to vener-ate in his absence. So it was decided to plant a small shoot of the Bodhi tree from Bodhgaya and Ven. Moggallana, foremost in psy-chic ability, was assigned the task of obtaining the sapling. When it arrived, the young shoot was ceremoniously planted at the gate of Jetavana by Anathapindika. The tree grew and became an object of veneration to the laity. At the request of Ven Ananda, the Buddha spent one night meditating under it, adding sanctity to the tree. The present tree looks very old from its hoary appearance but it is not possible to confirm whether it is the original tree or a descendant of it. (v) Sudatta Stupa North of Jetavana, in the ruins of Mahet (old Sravasti) stands the Sudatta stupa, the most imposing monument in the area. According to Fa Hsien, this stupa was built on the foundations of the house of Sudatta, popularly known as Anathapindika. The ruins show struc-tural remains from the 1st-12th century AD. From the road, one has to climb up several flights of steps to reach the plinth, where one can see the sunken basements of two circular stupas.

(vi) Angulimala Stupa Near the Sudatta stupa is a mass of bricks with a tunnel in the middle, identified by Cunningham as the Angulimala stupa seen by the Chinese pilgrims. The tunnel was cut through the whole mound at the base to serve as a drain, helping to preserve the monument. According to Fa Hsien, the stupa marks the site where Angulimala was cremated. (vii) Place where Devadatta Sank into the Earth According to the Dhammapada commentary, after Devadatta created a schism in the Sangha, he left to form his own faction. Thereafter his fortune took a turn for the worse and eventually he fell sick for nine months. Knowing his end was near, he instructed his disciples to carry him to Jetavana to see the Buddha for the last time. When the Buddha heard about this, he predicted that Devadatta would not succeed in seeing him at all. As Devadatta was being carried in a litter, they passed a lotus pond outside Jetavana. Putting the litter down, his disciples went into the lotus pond to bathe. Devadatta arose from his litter and sat down, rest-ing both feet on the ground whereupon his feet sank into the earth. By degrees he sank into the earth, first to his ankles, then to the knees, then to the hips, then to the chest and then to the neck. Before he was completely swallowed by the earth, he managed to verbally take refuge in the Buddha. Thereafter he was reborn in Avici Hell to suffer for his bad kamma. The place where Devadatta sank into the earth is believed to be the swampy area behind the

Burmese Vihara.

(viii) Stupa of the Great Miracle According to the commentaries, the Buddha ascended to Tavatimsa Heaven to preach to his mother during the 7th rains-retreat. Prior to his ascent, he had performed the Twin Miracle and other mir-aculous feats to silence the heretics at a place where the gardener Ganda had planted a mango tree. This place is believed to be at the top of a hillock near the Nikko Lotus Hotel as one enters Sravasti. In the year 2000, excavations were carried out on this hillock, which revealed the remains of a brick stupa believed to be erected by King Asoka. The area has now been fenced in to pro-tect the ruins of the Miracle stupa on top of the hillock. This stupa is known locally as ‘Orajhar’.

(ix) Burmese and Sri Lankan Monasteries Pilgrims visiting Sravasti should visit both monasteries to pay their respects to the monks and find out more about the monu-ments from them. The Sri Lankan monastery is named Nava (New) Jetavana Vihara and inside it one can see beautiful murals on its walls depicting important events in the Buddha’s life. The monastery also possesses some Buddha relics, which it keeps in a stupa-shaped vessel to show to visiting pilgrims. The Burmese vihara is named the Burmese Buddhist Temple and the abbot is the Venerable Sayadaw U Awbatha. According to the Sayadaw, although the temple is situated outside the fenced-in Jetavana Park, its precincts were once part of the old Jetavana grove. The Burmese vihara has been recently renovated and now offers free accommo-dation to pilgrims who visit Sravasti.

2. Sankasia, Place of the Descent from Heaven

a) How to reach there Sankasia is located in the village of Sankisa-Basantapur in Farruk-habad district of Uttar Pradesh, where the borders of Farrukhabad, Etah and Mainpuri districts meet. From Delhi, the most practi-cal way to visit Sankasia is to take the Shatabdhi express from Delhi to Etawah, arriving there at about 10.30 am and transfer to a coach. Immediately after lunch, one should proceed by coach via Kishni-Bewar-Muhammadabad to Sankasia arriving there at about three in the afternoon. After visiting Sankasia, one should travel via Chhibramau-Kannauj to Kanpur. Distance from Sankasia to Kanpur is about 220 km and the journey is expected to take 5 hours. Time of arrival at the hotel is estimated at 10 pm.

b) Religious Significance 1, 2, 4 According to Dhammapada Commentary XIV, 2, after the Buddha had completed the rains-retreat in Tavatimsa Heaven, he informed Sakka of his intention to return to earth. Thereupon, Sakka created three ladders; one of gold, one of jewels and one of silver, the tops of which rested on the summit of Mt. Sumeru and the feet of which rested against the gate of the city of Sankasia. On the right side was the golden ladder for the devas, on the left side was the silver ladder for Brahma and his train, and in the middle was the jewelled ladder for the Buddha. As the Buddha descended upon the jewelled ladder, the devas and Brahmas honored him by accompanying him on each side. With this retinue the Buddha descended and set foot on earth at the gate of the city of Sankasia. Because of this miraculous event which was witnessed by a great multitude, Sankasia became an important Buddhist shrine and several stupas and viharas were erected there.

c) Historical Background 6, 9 King Asoka visited Sankasia as part of the itinerary of his pilgrim-age in 249 BC. According to Fa Hsien, Asoka built a shrine over the spot where the Buddha set foot on earth. Behind the shrine, he raised a stone column 18.3 m high with a lion capital on top and on its four sides he placed Buddha images. Fa Hsien also saw other stupas and viharas where about 1,000 monks and nuns resided. When Hsüan Tsang arrived in 636 AD, he saw the great sangha-rama of beautiful construction, wherein lived 100 monks and religious laymen. He also saw the Asoka column 21 m high with carved figures on the four sides and around it, and mentioned the presence of some stupas. Other than these accounts of the Chinese pilgrims, the history of Sankasia remained blank for the next 1,200 years until Cunningham identified it with the modern village of Sankisa-Basantapur in the Farrukhabad District of Uttar Pradesh. The present village is situated on a 12.2 m high plateau within an area of 457 m by 305 m or roughly 14 hectares.

d) Objects of Interest 6, 9 (i) Broken Asoka Column with Elephant Capital The Elephant Capital that once surmounted the Asoka column is an important relic of the 3rd century BC. It is kept in a fenced up pavilion. Nearby under a tree, is a small shrine with a standing image of Lord Buddha, flanked by Brahma and Sakka to depict the Buddha’s descent from Heaven.

(ii) Site where the Buddha Descended from Heaven About 20 metres to the south of the Asokan pillar is a high mound composed of solid brickwork, which was once a Buddhist struc-ture. According to Hsüan Tsang, when the ladders by which the Buddha descended from Heaven had disappeared, the neighbour-ing princes built up a new foundation on the ancient founda-tion (three ladders) resembling the old ones. There was a vihara on the foundation and close by its side was a stone column 21 m high, which was erected by Asoka-raja. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, the vihara probably followed the same fate as many other Buddhist establishments and fell into ruins. On top of the foundation now is a small shrine dedicated to a Hindu goddess Visharidevi. It is believed that the Buddha set foot at this place when he descended from Heaven at Sankasia.

(iii) Burmese and Sri Lankan Viharas The first Buddhist monk to reside in Sankasia was the late Ven.

Vijaya Soma from Sri Lanka, who established a school there. It is indeed heartening to see two Buddhist monasteries now in Sankasia in spite of its remote location. The Burmese monastery was opened in the year 2000 while the Sri Lankan monastery was built a few years earlier. Pilgrims visiting Sankasia should visit these monasteries to pay their respects to the bhikkhus, whose pres-ence has enhanced the sanctity of this rural environment.

3. Rajgir, Place of Taming the Drunken

Elephant, Nalagiri

a) How to reach there Rajgir is situated in the Nalanda district of Bihar, 70 km north-east of Bodhgaya and 102 km south of Patna. All distances are approximate.

b) Religious Significance 1, 2, 4 Rajgir is the modern name of Rajagaha or “ royal abode”, an appro-priate designation for a place that had remained as the capital of the powerful kingdom of Magadha for centuries. In the Buddha’s time, the ruler was King Bimbisara, who was later usurped by his parricidal son, Ajatasattu. In his first meeting with the Bodhisatta, Bimbisara was so impressed by his royal bearing that he offered to share his kingdom with the Bodhisatta. The latter, who had just renounced his Sakyan kingdom in search of the Deathless, de-clined the offer but promised to return to visit Rajgir after he had attained his goal. Soon after dispatching the Sangha to spread the Dhamma from Sarnath, the Buddha traveled to Uruvela, where he converted the Kassapa brothers and their matted-hair disciples, who all attained Arahantship. With this retinue of one thousand Arahants, the Buddha entered Rajgir, where he was warmly received by Bimbisara, who became a lay follower and offered the famous Bamboo Garden (Veluvana), to the Buddha and the Sangha.

As the capital of a powerful state, Rajgir was a hive of secular and religious activities. According to the Samannaphala Sutta, many heretical teachers operated in Rajgir, namely: Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambali, Pakudha Kaccayana, Nigantha Nattaputta and Sanjaya Belatthaputta. Among the disci-ples of Sanjaya were two rich brahmins, Upatissa and Kolita, popu-larly known as Sariputta and Moggallana respectively. Both joined the Sangha after their conversion by the Arahant Assaji, and became the Buddha’s first and second Chief Disciples. Following their con-version, many paribbajakas or wandering ascetics also became fol-lowers of the Buddha. Among the laity, the most notable disciples were the royal physician Jivaka, adopted son of Prince Abhaya; and the millionaire Upali, a follower of Nigantha Nattaputta, who was sent to convert the Buddha but ended up as a lay disciple instead. Thus Rajgir became an important centre of Buddhism as the fame of the Buddha spread throughout Magadha.

Rajgir was also the scene of many attempts by Devadatta to kill the Buddha over the leadership of the Sangha. First he hired arch-ers to assassinate the Buddha, but they were all converted by the Buddha instead. Next, as the Buddha was walking up the slopes of Gijjhakuta (Vulture Peak) one day, Devadatta hurled a rock from the summit at the Buddha but it missed and a splinter wounded the Buddha’s foot. Finally, he caused the elephant Nalagiri to be intoxicated with liquor and sent the ferocious beast to charge at the Buddha. But the Buddha subdued the animal with his loving kindness. Because of this miracle, Rajgir became sanctified as an important pilgrimage site. While Devadatta was plotting against the Buddha, Ajatasattu, at his instigation, usurped the throne and imprisoned his father in order to starve him to death. He regretted his actions too late, as his father had died before he could release him. Ajatasattu, later at the suggestion of Jivaka, sought the Buddha’s advice and became a lay disciple. After the Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana, he led an army to Kusinara to claim a share of the Buddha’s relics. He was the patron of the First Sangiti or Council held at Sattapanni Cave in Rajgir.

(c) Historical Background 6, 9, 21 Rajgir lost its political status after Ajatasattu’s son, Udayibhadda, slew his father and transferred the capital to Pataliputta. But the fact that Asoka erected a stupa and a stone pillar with an elephant capital during his pilgrimage to Rajgir, shows that the place remained as an important Buddhist centre for centuries. When Fa Hsien came during the fifth century he found the old city deso-late, but outside the hills at Veluvana he found a band of monks living in the monastery. When Hsüan Tsang visited Rajgir in 637-638 AD, it was practically deserted. Of the ancient monaster-ies and stupas he found only foundation walls and ruins standing. He saw the Asoka stupa which was 18.3 m high and by the side of it, the Asokan pillar, about 15.2 m high with an elephant capi-tal, the Pippala stone house said to be the cave of Mahakassapa and the Sattapanni caves. He also visited Gijjhakuta and saw a brick vihara at the western end of the hill and several stupas in the vicinity.

Although there is no record of Rajgir after Hsüan Tsang’s visit, the antiquities recovered from Rajgir during archeological excav-ations in 1905-06 showed that it continued to be a popular Buddhist shrine up to the 12th century AD. According to Fa Hsien, Ajatasattu built a new citadel outside the circle of five hills, namely:

Vebhara, Pandava, Vepulla, Gijjhakuta and Isigili; that encircled the old Rajagaha city. The modern village of Rajgir encloses a part of this “New Rajagaha” which was protected by a massive wall of earth resembling an irregular pentagon in shape, with a circuit of fortifications that once protected the old city. The wall is 4.6 m to 5.5 m thick and rises to a height of 3.4 m at some places.

d) Objects of Interest 6, 9, 21 (i) Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) and Karanda Tank When King Bimbisara heard that the Buddha had come to Rajgir with a retinue of one thousand Arahants, he went to the Sapling Grove to meet the Buddha and was converted by the Buddha, attaining the First Stage of Sainthood. Thereafter, he invited the Buddha to his palace for the following day’s meal, after which he donated the famous Bamboo Grove or Veluvana, the first dona-tion of a park (arama), to the Buddha and Sangha.

When the writer first visited Veluvana in 1991, the place was slightly overgrown with bushes and on the south side towards the hot springs a number of Muslim tombs could be seen on a large mound to the left of the main entrance. The cemetery is believed to be the site of the Veluvana Vihara built by Bimbisara for the Buddha’s residence. The whole area has been cleaned up and Veluvana now looks like a pleasant park, planted with shade trees, bamboo and flowers, reflecting its original status as the royal park of King Bimbisara. In the vicinity of Veluvana is a large pond with a Buddha image at the centre. This pond is believed to be the site of the Karanda tank mentioned in Buddhist text as the Karanda kanivapa where the Buddha used to take his bath.

(ii) Pippala House A short distance from Veluvana, at the foot of Vebhara hill, are the hot springs of Rajgir, a popular picnic spot for bathing. A little above the hot springs, on the right side of the path uphill, is a remarkable stone structure known locally as the “ machan” (watch-tower). The structure is roughly cube-shaped with dimensions of 26 m long by 25 m wide by 7 m high and is built of unhewn blocks of stone set on the rock. According to Sir John Marshall, who excavated the site in 1905-06, the structure was originally a watch-tower and “in after times, when no longer required for defensive purposes, they would afford convenient cells for ascetics to medi-tate in”. This structure is believed to be the Pippala stone house, residence of Ven. Maha Kassapa, Convenor of the First Council. According to Samyutta V, 78, the Buddha visited Maha Kassapa on one occasion when the latter was ill and expounded the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, upon hearing which Maha Kassapa recovered from the illness.

(iii) Sattapanni caves The Sattapanni caves, site of the First Buddhist Council held three months after the Mahaparinibbana in 543 BC, is situated on top of Vebhara hill, beyond the largest Jains temple. There a narrow foot-path descends some 30 m to a long artificial terrace in front of a line of six caves (there might have been seven originally). The caves have been sealed off to ensure the safety of visitors. The terrace in front of the caves is about 36.6 m long and 10.4 m at the widest point and part of the retaining wall of large unhewn stones on the outer edge can still be seen. This place agrees with the description of Sattapanni found in the Pali texts, where five hundred Arahants convened to codify the Buddha’s Teaching. Over the last 2,500 years a lot of erosion would have taken place, so the terrace was probably bigger in those days, to accommodate so many Arahants.

118 (iv) Bimbisara Jail About 21⁄2 km south of Veluvana beside the main road is an area about 60 m square enclosed by the remains of a stone wall 2 m thick. This area has been identified as the prison in which Bimbisara was jailed by his son Ajatasattu, who usurped the throne. It is said that from this prison the king could see the Buddha up in Gijjhakuta, the sight of whom provided great joy to the prisoner.

(v) Jivaka’s mango garden (Jivaka ambavana)

According to Pali sources, Jivaka’s mango garden is situated between the city’s East Gate and Gijjhakuta, and the site has been identified a short distance from the foot of Gijjhakuta. According to the Vinaya Texts, Jivaka Komarabhacca was the adopted son of Prince Abhaya, who found him alive (jivati) in a dust heap when he was an infant and raised him up. When he was old enough, he set out for Taxila to study medicine for seven years. To test his knowledge, his teacher asked him to go all round Taxila to search for any plant which was not medicinal and bring it back. Jivaka proved to be so proficient in medicinal plants that he returned after a long search and declared that he had not seen any plant that was not medicinal within a yojana (13 km) of Taxila.

Returning to Rajgir, he cured many people suffering from seri-ous ailments and even performed surgery, something unheard of in those days. He became the leading physician and surgeon of Rajgir and earned great wealth through his medical practice. At some point in his career, he became a lay disciple and used to attend on the Buddha three times a day. When the Buddha’s foot was injured by a splinter from a rock hurled by Devadatta, it was Jivaka who attended on him and healed the wound. Realizing the advantages of having a monastery near his home, Jivaka built one on his extensive mango garden and donated it to the Buddha. The site of this monastery was excavated recently, which exposed the buried foundations of elliptical buildings, possibly of monastic nature, of an early date.

(vi) Gijjhakuta (Vulture Peak) Gijjhakuta hill was the favourite resort of the Buddha and the scene of many important discourses while he was in Rajgir. To reach the top, one has to climb up a long stone stairway, 6.1 m to 7.3 m wide, called the Bimbisara road, built by the King to en-able him to reach the summit to see the Buddha. The rocky path ends near the top of the hill where one can see two natural caves believed to be used by Ven. Sariputta and Ven. Ananda. At the summit, one can see the huge granite rock formation resembling a vulture standing with folded wings, from which the hill derived its name. Recently, a cement staircase has been constructed to facilitate the pilgrim’s climb to the top, which is a flat terrace sur-rounded by a low retaining wall with a shrine near the precipice. This spot offers a commanding view of the valley below. It is a favourite place for pilgrims to perform puja or circumambulate while reciting the virtues of the Buddha. Nearby is another small-er cave believed to be used by Ven. Moggallana.

(vii) Maddakucchi (Rub-belly)

The Pali name maddakucchi, which means “ rub-belly”, was derived from a story that at this place the queen of Bimbisara, knowing that she was carrying a patricide, tried to abort the foetus by a forcible massage of her belly. Maddakucchi, which finds men-tion in the Pali scriptures, is situated at the base of Gijjhakuta.

It is believed to be the place where the Buddha was brought by stretcher after being wounded on the leg by a splinter of a big rock hurled by Devadatta from the summit of Gijjhakuta hill. Formerly, this place contained a deer park and a monastery.

(viii) Burmese Monastery The Burmese monastery standing on top of a hillock in New Rajgir was the first modern monastery established in Rajgir in 1958 by an old Theravada monk, Sayadaw U Zayanta. Recently a new shrine hall has been built to enshrine a sacred Buddha relic.

(ix) Ruins of Nalanda Mahavihara The ruins of Nalanda Mahavihara were first excavated in 1871 by Sir Alexander Cunningham, who identified its site at the modern village of Bargaon on the basis of the accounts of the Chinese pil-grim, Hsüan Tsang. Located only 12 km from Rajgir, the ruins ex-tend over a vast area. The structures exposed represent only a part of the vast establishment and consist of monastic sites, stupa sites and temple sites. Lengthwise, they extend from south to north, the monasteries on the eastern flank and temples on the west. The monasteries were all built on more or less the same plan and to date at least eleven monastic sites and five main temple sites have been identified. The most prominent standing structure at Nalanda is the Sariputta stupa, erected in honour of the Chief Disciple, who was born and passed away in the nearby village of Nalaka.

4. Vesali, Place of Offering of Honey by a Band of Monkeys

a) How to reach there Vesali or Vaishali is located around the village of Basrah in the Muzaffapur district of Bihar, 55 km north of Patna across the Ganges River. All distances are approximate.

b) Religious Significance 1, 2, 3 Vesali or Vaishali, capital of the Licchavis or Vajjis, was the head-quarters of the powerful Vajjian confederacy of eight clans, of whom the Licchavis and Videhans were the most important. It was the first republic in the world modelled on the Aparihaniya Dhamma, or the seven conditions leading to welfare, which the Buddha taught to the Vajjians when he was dwelling at the Saranda shrine in Vaishali. Thus united, they became so powerful that Ajatasattu of Magadha had to resort to treachery by sending the brahmin Vassakara to sow discord among the Vajjian princes for three years in order to weaken them. By then, they were too disunited to defend their country and Ajatasattu conquered them.

The Buddha visited Vaishali several times, spending his 5th and 44th vassas there and many Licchavi nobles became his disciples.

When Vaishali was plagued with famine, disease, and evil spir-its, the Buddha was invited by the Licchavi nobles to help them alleviate the plagues. The Buddha then preached the Ratana Sutta (Jewel Discourse) and instructed Ven. Ananda to go around the city walls reciting it as a Protection. Thereafter, the Buddha recited it for seven days and all the plagues then abated. But the event that elevated the status of Vaishali to an important pilgrim-age site was the offering of a bowl of honey by a band of monkeys to the Blessed One, an incident mentioned among the Four Great Miracles in the Buddha’s life.

At Vaishali, the Buddha allowed women to be admitted to the Sangha after Ven. Ananda successfully pleaded to the Buddha for the ordination of Maha Pajapati Gotami and several Sakyan ladies. The Buddha then decreed the Eight Chief Rules, in addi-tion to the Disciplinary Code observed by monks, which bhikk-hunis or nuns “should revere, reverence, honour and respect for life and which should not be transgressed”. Thus the Bhikkhuni Sangha came to be established in Vaishali.

Once, the Buddha was staying in a mango grove of Ambapali, the chief courtesan of Vaishali, who invited him to a house dana, forestalling the Licchavi nobles who then offered her money in exchange for the invitation. But she politely declined their offer for she valued the dana more and after the meals even donated her mango grove to the Buddha and Sangha. The Buddha spent the last vassa in Vesali where he relinquished the will to live at the Capala shrine. After the Mahaparinibbana, the Licchavis obtained a share of the Buddha’s relics from Kusinara and erected a grand stupa over the holy relics in Vaishali.

c) Historical Background 5, 6, 9, 22 After the Mahaparinibbana, the Vajjian confederacy was defeated by Ajatasattu, whose son Udayibhadda slew his father and moved the capital from Rajgir to Pataliputta, across the Ganges river from Vaishali. According to the Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle of Ceylon), the dynasty of Udayibhadda was succeeded by three generations of parricidal kings, namely: Anuruddha, Munda and Nagadasa, who each slew his own father to take over the throne. By then, the people could not tolerate this dynasty of parricides. Nagadasa was deposed by the minister Sisunaga, son of a Licchavi prince. Sisunnaga was succeeded by his son, Kalasoka, and by then a hundred years had passed since the Mahaparinibbana.

At that time in Vaishali, many shameless bhikkhus of the Vajji clan were practising the Ten Points, which were not in conformity with the Vinaya or monastic rules. The Venerable Yasa of Kosambi, while in Vaishali, noticed the deviations and strongly protested against them, resulting in his expulsion by the Vajji monks. Ven. Yasa, together with other monks appealed to Ven. Revata of Soreyya, the chief of the Sangha to settle the dispute. Thereupon, the Second Council was convened at Valukarama monastery in Vaishali during the reign of King Kalasoka and attended by seven hundred Arahants. The Venerable Sabbakami, the most senior Arahant, questioned by Ven. Revata, adjudged the Ten Points as unlawful according to the Vinaya. Although the decision was accepted unanimously by the Council, the Vajjian monks did not accept the verdict. This resulted in a schism in the Sangha and the secession of the Mahasanghika (Vajji monks), who held a great assembly of their own called the Mahasangiti, from which the sect derived its name, and decided matters according to their own light. From then on, further schisms led to the formation of dif-ferent subsects, and in the course of time, eleven sub-sects arose out of the Theravada while seven issued from the Mahasanghika, leading to the well-known Eighteen Schools of Buddhism.

Asoka, the Mauryan emperor who had his capital in Pataliputta, near Vaishali, raised a stupa in which he enshrined some of the Buddha’s relics and erected beside it an Asokan column with a lion capital when he visited Vaishali during his pilgrimage to the holy places in 249 BC. Fa Hsien visited Vaishali around 400 AD and mentioned the stupas built in its vicinity in honour of the Buddha. He also saw a stupa built at the site of the Second Council as well as a stupa built over half the remains of Ven. Ananda.

According to a story, when Ven. Ananda reached the age of 120 years he knew that his end was near and went from Rajgir to Vaishali, following the Buddha’s example. Hearing of his intention, the citizens of Magadha and Vaishali hurried from both directions to bid him farewell. To do justice to both sides, Ven. Ananda levi-tated in the air and entered into the Samadhi of the Fire Element, whereby the body was consumed by spontaneous combustion and reduced to ashes, which fell on both sides. So the people of each city taking half the relics, returned and erected stupas over them.

Hsüan Tsang, who came in 630 AD, described Vaishali as cover-ing an area of 26-31 sq. km, but it was in ruins. He saw the stupa built by the Licchavi princes over their portion of the Buddha’s relics from Kusinara, the Asoka stupa and stone pillar surmounted by a lion capital and nearby the pond dug by a band of mon-keys (Markata-hrada) for the Buddha’s use. Not far to the south were two more stupas; one at the site where the monkeys, tak-ing the Buddha’s alms-bowl, climbed up a tree to gather honey and another at the site where the monkeys offered honey to the Blessed One. Hsüan Tsang wrote that both within and without and all around the city of Vaishali, the sacred monuments were so numerous that it was difficult to remember them all. After Hsüan Tsang’s visit, the history of Vaishali remained blank for over twelve centuries. It lay in ruins, unknown and unheard of until the late 19th century, when Cunningham identified the ruins at and around Basrah in Muzaffapur district of Bihar with ancient Vaishali. Today, most of the principal ruins are located in the vil-lage of Kolhua, about 55 km from Patna.

d) Objects of Interest 6, 9, 27 (i) Raj Vishal ka Garh Basrah, 35 km south-west of Muzaffarpur, has been identified as the site of the ancient city of Vaishali. The site of the Raj Vishal ka Garh is believed to represent the citadel of Vaishali, where the 7,707 rajas or representatives of the Vajjian confederacy used to meet and discuss the problems of the day. The ruins consist of a large brick-covered mound 2.5 m above the surrounding level and 1,500 m in circumference, with a 42.7 m moat surrounding it. Beside it is a pond believed to have been used by the Licchavi princes to take their bath. It is located about 3.2 km south-west of the Asokan pillar at Kolhua.

(ii) Relic Stupa of the Licchavis About a kilometre to the north-west of the citadel stands an open shelter with a dome-shaped roof. Inside it are the remains of a stupa, which was originally a mud structure with thin layers of cloddy clay, 25 feet in diameter. It appeared to have undergone enlarge-ment in which burnt bricks were used, increasing its diameter to 40 feet. The original mud stupa was a very old one, believed to be pre-Mauryan. From its primitive features and from the fact that a trench had been driven into its core in olden times, it is believed that this stupa is none other than the one erected by the Licchavis over their share of the relics of the Buddha. The trench was prob-ably excavated by Asoka to reach the relics, some of which, accord-ing to Hsüan Tsang, were left in their original position by Asoka.

(iii) Asokan Pillar At Kolhua, 3.2 km north-east of the citadel of Vaishali, stands the impressive Asokan Pillar erected by Asoka 2,250 years ago. It is a complete monolithic pillar of highly polished sandstone surmount-ed by a lion capital. The height is 6.7 m above the ground with a considerable portion sunk underground over the years. Though devoid of inscription, it appears to be a part of the line of pillars that Asoka erected along his pilgrimage route from Pataliputta to Lumbini during 250-249 BC. Around the Asokan Pillar at Kolhua are the ruins of many smaller brick stupas.

(iv) Asoka Stupa Just near the Asokan pillar are the ruins of the Asoka Stupa seen by Hsüan Tsang. The dome-shaped mound is 4.6 m high and has a diameter of 20 m. During excavation by Cunningham, a stone casket containing some relics of the Buddha was found enshrined beneath it. This site is a conducive place to offer puja, followed by walking or sitting meditation at the stupa.

(v) Monkey’s Tank (Markata-hrada) Near the stone pillar is a small tank (pond) called Rama-kunda, identified by Cunningham with the ancient monkey’s tank believed to have been dug by a colony of monkeys for the Buddha’s use.

e) Places of Interest in Patna 6, 23 (i) Kumhrar or Asokarama Park This park in Patna is believed to be the site of the Third Buddhist Council held in Pataliputta in the 17th year of King Asoka’s reign, about 236 years after the Mahaparinibbana. It was attended by 1,000 Arahants and presided over by the Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa. At this Council, the Kathavatthu or Points of Controversy, one of the seven books of the Abhidhamma, was compiled wherein the heretical doctrines were thoroughly examined and refuted. The Third Council marked a turning point for Buddhism which, prior to this, was confined mainly to Magadha and some neighbouring states. With King Asoka of the Mauryan empire reigning supreme over the whole Indian sub-continent as its chief patron, the time was now ripe for expansion. Accordingly, it was decided to send competent Arahants to propagate the Buddha’s Teachings all over India as well as Sri Lanka in the south, Kashmir and Gandhara in the north, Bengal and Burma in the east and Yonaka and countries in the west. Thus the Teachings of the Buddha spread in the four directions after the Third Council.

At the Kumhrar one can see a large pool, where 32 ancient pillars of polished sandstone were found, a specimen of which is exhib-ited at a nearby pavilion. Within the vicinity of the park is the site of a vihara of Asoka’s time.

(ii) Patna Museum (Closed on Mondays) The museum at Patna, capital of Bihar, where Buddhism origi-nated, houses one of the largest collections of ancient Buddhist antiquities in the world. The sculptures of stone and bronze on display can be divided into a few distinct periods, namely:

• Mauryan Sculptures (4th-3rd century BC)

On display here are Indian stone sculptures of highly polished sandstone in magnificent forms of animals such as the lion, bull and elephant capitals, fashioned to be placed atop Asokan pillars.

Besides this refined courtly art, an archaic religious art based on the widespread cult of tutelary deities is on display, featuring the gigantic Patna yaksa (yakkha) and yaksi (female yakkha).

• Gandhara and Mathura Buddha Images Prior to the beginning of the Christian era, the Buddha was never represented in human form but only by symbols. The demand for Buddha images started when the movement of ‘Bhakti’ or devo-tion gained strength among the Buddhist laity due to Mahayana influence. Buddha images came into existence in the first century AD, when two ancient schools of sculpture emerged separately – Gandhara (Afghanistan) in the far north-west of India and Mathura (Muttra) in the east.

In Gandhara, the Buddha-image is represented in Grecian style, almost Apollo-like in physical beauty and even the robe is sculpted with folds characteristic of Greco-Roman sculpture. The contours are not rounded off and great pains are taken to model the human form to display the physical perfection through sharp, elegant features. In Mathura, the sculptures are indigenous, in the Mahapurisa style, large and rounded. A typical example is Bhikkhu Bala’s image of the Bodhisatta in Sarnath. The treatment of the Buddha’s robe is schematic and clinging, so no folds are shown and the body is revealed as though it were nude. In Patna Museum one is able to see some rare specimens of Buddha and Bodhisatta images from Gandhara that survived destruction by Muslim fanatics when they conquered Northern India.

• Gupta Period (AD 300-550)

The Gupta period was the golden age of Indian art and the great Buddha images of Mathura, Sarnath, Ajanta and Bihar are magnificent specimens from this age. The Buddha images from Mathura during this period underwent some modifications by the Indo-Grecian art mode. There is a large collection of Buddha-images from the Gupta period in this museum for one to admire.

• Pala Period (9th-12th century AD)

During the Pala period metal images became increasing popular and elegant bronze Buddha images were produced in Bihar. For stone sculptures, Nalanda in Bihar state was famous for its distinc-tive black slate Buddha images. In Patna Museum there is a sec-tion showing black slate and bronze images of the Buddha and some bronze images of Tantric deities as the cult of Tantrayana, a decadent and perverse form of worship of deities unrelated to the Buddha’s Teaching, emerged during the Pala Period.

130 Examples of Gandhara Sculpture from Calcutta Museum: Birth of Gautama Bodhisatta Padmapani

Part IV Travelling to the Eight Great Places

CONTENTS 1. Travelling to the Pilgrimage Places in India 2. Suggested Itinerary 3. Performing Dana or Offerings to the Sangha 4. Information and Tips on Travel in India 5. Distances by Road between the Pilgrimage Places

1. Travelling to the Pilgrimage Places in India

All the pilgrimage places described in this book are located in the Northern Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, except Lumbini, which is in Nepal. In ancient times, this area was called Puratthima (Eastern Tract) but today it is known as the Buddhist Circuit. The majority of the Buddhist shrines are in remote places where taxi service and public transport are poor, making it diffi-cult to get there unless one travels in a group by chartered bus. The capacity of the tour bus is normally 35 seats and air-conditioning is provided at extra cost. The suggested group size is around 25 persons, so that it is not too crowded. For a smaller group, an 18-seater air-conditioned coach is also available.

For the first-time pilgrim, travelling in a group is the best way to visit the Eight Great Places for several reasons. First is the conven-ience, since all the travelling arrangements and itinerary would have been made by someone who has experience in the pilgrim-age. Secondly, group travel provides safety, especially for female pilgrims. Lastly, and probably most important is the spirit of Buddhist fellowship among pilgrims travelling together, especial-ly in the company of a venerable monk to act as a spiritual advisor, making the journey more pleasant and meaningful. A minor dis-advantage of a group tour is that the itinerary is less flexible.

The best time to travel in Northern India is during autumn/ winter, from November to February when the weather is pleas-ant. From March to June, the weather is hot and dusty while from July to October, the rainy season sets in. By the end of October the weather turns dry and cool, the countryside is full of greenery and travelling in Northern India is pleasant because of the general cleanliness of the land after the rains.

Precaution One should always travel during the daytime for safety reasons, as the roads in the pilgrimage places are narrow and not lighted. Also, if the bus breaks down, it is easier to do repairs in the daytime. 135

2. Suggested Itinerary

When organizing a pilgrimage it is strongly advised to exclude side trips to other countries that might divert one’s attention from the objectives of the pilgrimage. The temptation to take the oppor-tunity to visit other countries along the way, such as Sri Lanka, Nepal or Myanmar, will arise but one should not cut down the duration of the pilgrimage to accommodate these side trips. If the duration is shortened, one tends to rush from place to place, giv-ing rise to impatience and dissatisfaction, which is exactly the opposite of what one wishes to cultivate on a pilgrimage. In order to visit all the principal shrines in the Eight Great Places at a com-fortable pace, it is advised that a minimum of 12 days be reserved for the pilgrimage. A suggested itinerary of 12 days, based on the writer’s experience, is given below.

Important a) On Day 2, from Etawah to Sankasia, use the state highway to Kishni-Bewar-Sankasia. From Sankasia to Kanpur, use the state highway to Chhibramau-Kanpur.

On Day 10, it is more convenient to travel by train from Patna to Calcutta, which takes 10 hours, compared with 14 hours from Patna to Delhi.

If the pilgrimage group is travelling with a venerable monk, it is advisable to carry packed lunches always when leaving the hotel in the morning. This will enable the venerable monk to have his meal before noon while on the road. Secondly, it will save a lot of time if members of the group eat at the same time as the venerable monk. Try as far as possible not to have lunch in the hotel, as it is usually not ready , and one has to wait for it to be prepared, thereby losing precious time.

b) c) 136

3. Performing Dana or Offerings to the Sangha

As D-day, or departure day, approaches the pilgrim will naturally experience great joy and religious excitement at the prospect of actually journeying to the land where the Buddha and the Arahants lived and preached more than 2,500 years ago. For Malaysian Buddhists, who are well known for their generosity, the desire to perform dana will prompt the pilgrims and their well-wishers to donate generously towards the purchase of monks’ requisites for offering to the Buddhist monasteries located in the vicinity of all the holy shrines. Many of the monks in these monasteries, notably those from Sri Lanka and Myanmar, have spent the major part of their lives in India. They are dedicated to the safeguarding of the holy shrines and reviving the traditions of Vaisakha Purnima ( Wesak) and Kathina (robe offering after the rains-retreat) in the land where Buddhism was born but had disappeared for six hun-dred years after its downfall in the 13th century AD. Their pres-ence at the holy shrines has helped to keep these shrines ‘ alive’, so that pilgrims who come from far and wide can benefit from their advice and help. By performing dana to these bhikkhus, one expresses one’s gratitude, reverence and loving-kindness to the Sangha, for its role in safeguarding these holy places for future gen-erations of Buddhists to come and “look upon them with feelings of reverence”, in accordance with the Buddha’s advice.

For pilgrims travelling in a group, there is less restriction on lug-gage weight during group check-in at the airport. This provides them with the opportunity to bring items such as monks’ robes, towels, medicines, multi-vitamins, writing materials for student-monks, foodstuffs and other requisites not obtainable in India and offer them to the Sangha. Money remaining after the purchase of requisites may be converted into Indian rupees and placed into the donation boxes of the monasteries during the visits, so that the money may be used for the maintenance of the monasteries and the bhikkhus.

4. Information and Tips on Travel in India

a) Travel Visas Pilgrims who intend visiting the Buddhist circuit by flight in and out of India should ensure that they hold a multiple entry visa for India. An ordinary tourist visa for single entry will not allow the visitor to re-enter India from Nepal after visiting Lumbini. Nowadays one can apply for both Indian and Nepalese visas in Kuala Lumpur.

b) Insurance and Expenses • Pilgrims are advised to insure themselves against loss/sickness/ accident during the journey.

• Pilgrims should exercise care and precaution to safeguard their luggage and belongings. They should not bring jewelry, expen-sive watches and other valuables on the journey.

• They should keep their passports and cash with them at all times, as the loss of a passport will cause a lot of inconvenience to everyone.

• What is the minimum amount of money to bring along?

As all expenses for the trip – such as the tour fare, airport taxes, visa fees, entrance fees and tips – have been paid before depar-ture, one need not bring a lot of money for the journey. Overall, US$100 is sufficient to cover all personal expenses such as purchasing souvenirs and donations to the various temples. Of course, one may bring more money if one wishes.

c) Health Precautions • To avoid sickness, one should always drink boiled/mineral water and not consume any uncooked food, not even iced drinks, as the ice is made from tap water. Arrangements may be made with the travel agent to provide one bottle of mineral water per day to each pilgrim free of charge.

• Inoculation against Cholera: Those who wish to inoculate against cholera should do it 2-3 weeks before departure to avoid developing a fever while travelling.

• Medicines: A first aid kit containing normal medicines for cuts, sprains, diarrhea, flu, food poisoning, ointment for insect bites, Panadol for fever, etc. should be brought along to cater for emer-gencies. Costs may be shared by members of the group.

d) Things to bring along Important: In view of the strict security checks when boarding an airplane, please ensure that no sharp objects are carried in your hand carry luggage. The following are useful on a short tour:

• Torchlight in case of emergency/power failure in the hotel.

• Warm clothes for mild winter, e.g. sweater, jacket, pants for ladies. • For shoes, wear walking or jogging shoes and socks.

• Umbrella – foldable type for ladies. • Toilet articles, tissues, shampoo, washing powder.

• Dry foodstuffs, e.g. biscuits, sweets, coffee or tea sachets, fast- cooking noodles, etc.

• It is good to carry multi-vitamins for personal use.

e) Donations to Charity Begging appears to be a profession in India and even village chil-dren enjoy begging from visitors at the first opportunity. By giving to one beggar, one will find oneself being swarmed by a crowd of beggars asking for more, and generally making a nuisance of themselves. In giving charity to the poor, it is advisable to give all donations in cash and kind to the monasteries for fair distribu-tion. One may bring ballpoint pens, sweets, old clothes, etc. and donate them to the Maha Bodhi Society branches in Sarnath and Bodhgaya, which provide free education to the poor children in their areas.

6. Maps showing Locations of the Pilgrimage Places

(Note: Locations of place names on maps are indicative only.)

INDIA – showing Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Nepal, where the Pilgrimage Places are located.

NORTH-EASTERN INDIA – showing locations of the Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage.

7. Pilgrimage Groups from 1991-2001

Since 1991, the writer has organised four pilgrimages to India and many Buddhists in the Klang Valley have undertaken the jour-neys of piety and faith. The names of members who made up the pilgrimage groups are given below to help them remember their fellow pilgrims and the happy moments spent at the holy places. An important factor that contributed to the success of the pilgrim-ages was the reliable service offered by the tour agent at reasonable tour fares.

a) 11 Days Nepal/India Pilgrimage:

15-25 Nov 1991 Travel Agent: Keris Travel & Tours (KL) Sdn. Bhd., Lot 2.3 & 2.7, 2nd Floor, Kompleks Selangor, Jalan Sultan, 50000 Kuala

Lumpur.

Ven. Sayadaw U Jnanapurnik, Sister Uppalavanna, Dr. Wong Wai Cheong, Mr. Chan Khoon San, Mr. Tan Su Hah, Mr. Lim Boon Hang, Mr. Tan Boon Chhai, Mr. Lim Liang Guan, Mdm. Tan Kooi Chin, Ms. Tan Poh Em, Mdm. Lim Yew Choo, Mdm. Yeo Peck Hoon, Mdm. Teh Swee See, Mdm. Ng Kooi Meng, Mdm.

Ler Siew Khwai, Mr. Kweh Kim Swee, Ms. Lye Kwai Ying, Ms. Saw Hong Poh, Ms. Hoe Soon Ying, Mdm. Wong Yuit Mooi, Ms.

Ng Keh Eng, Ms. Chuah Chew Hing. 146 b) 15 Days Sri Lanka/India Pilgrimage:

21 Nov-5 Dec 1997 Travel Agent: Mr. Terence Chong, Ameriasa Tours & Travel Sdn. Bhd., 9-2B, 2nd Floor, Jalan Pandan 2/2, Pandan Jaya, 55100 Kuala Lumpur. Tel: 03-92839920. Fax: 03-92838526.

Ven. B. Saranankara Thero, Ven. Sayadaw U Rewata, Mr. Chan Khoon San, Mr. Chen Kok Chin, Mr. Chan Weng Poh, Mr. Lee Fan Kiat, Mr. Wu Chee Meng, Mr. Tan Su Hah, Mr. Loh Kok Yong, Mr. Ooi Chin Chye, Mdm. Tan Lei Hong, Mdm. Wong Hee Leong, Ms. Loo May Lin, Mdm. Lim Eng Lian, Mdm. Hong Kim Choo, Ms. Tan Kok Yee, Mdm. Cheoh Siew Cheng, Mdm. Kee Phaik Ean, Mr. Wong Fok Gee, Mdm. Tay Seok Im, Mr. Too Yewn Hiang, Mdm. Tan Ming Tin, Mr. Yap Pak Choong, Mdm. Goh Siew Khim, Mr. Chey Shaw, Mdm. Huang Saw Heen, Mr.

Chiu Sheng Bin, Mdm. Tan Lean Cheoh, Mr. Lim Peng Lai, Mdm. Lian Kai Hong, Mr. Lam Cheok Yew, Mdm. Tay Mo Lee, Mdm. Lam Kwai Eng, Ms. Lam Hui Peng, Mr. Lam Siew Mun,

Mr. Khong Kok Keong.

c) 12 Days India Pilgrimage:

31 Oct-11 Nov 1999 Travel Agent: Mr. Terence Chong, Ameriasa Tours & Travel Sdn.

Bhd., Lumpur. Tel: 03-92839920. Fax: 03-92838526.

Ven. Sayadaw U Rewata, Mr. Chan Khoon San, Mr. Cheong Chee Kwong, Mr. Ng Tom Sing, Mr. Teh Kok Lai, Mr. Wong Suk Chin, Mr. Loh Cheng Kee, Mr. Tang Hau Seng, Mr. Tang Weng Yew, Mdm. Ang Guar Gor, Mdm. Lim Cheng Suan, Mdm. Chou Cheng Phaik, Ms. Tan Qui Ying, Mdm. Lim Sook Liew, Mdm.

Foo Choon Sim, Mdm. Yap Sew Hong, Mdm. Wooi Kheng Choo, Mdm. Ong Guat Eng, Mdm. Cheah Suan Cheng, Mdm. Ng Yoke Moy, Ms. Kieu Choon Lai, Mdm. Lim Lai Sun.

d) 12 Days India Pilgrimage:

27 Oct-7 Nov 2001 Travel Agent: Mr. Terence Chong, Ameriasa Tours & Travel Sdn. Bhd., Lumpur. Tel: 03-92839920. Fax: 03-92838526.

Ven. Sayadaw U Rewata, Mr. Chan Khoon San, Mr. Chiu Sheng Bin, Mdm. Tan Lei Hong, Mdm. Tan Jok Hong, Mr. Ng Swee Aun, Mdm. Lee Mee Fong, Ms. Ng Hui Wen, Mdm. Lee Suat Yee, Mdm. Tan Yew Kim, Mr. Soo Khoon York, Mdm. Chia Wai Kee. 148

8. Bibliography

1. A Manual of Buddhism, by Ven. Narada Mahathera. Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1977.

2. The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon, by Bhikkhu Nanamoli. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1972.

3. Last Days of the Buddha. A Translation of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, by Sister Vajira. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri

Lanka, 1964.

4. The Great Chronicles of Buddhas, Volume Two, Part One, by the Most Venerable Mingun Sayadaw. Translated into English by U Ko Lay, U Tin Lwin. Ti-Ni Publishing Center, Yangon, 1994. 5. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger. Pali Text Society, London.

6. 2,500 Years of Buddhism. General Editor Prof. P. V. Bapat, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, India, 1956.

7. Origin and Expansion of Buddhism, by Bhikkhu J. Kashyap in The Path of The Buddha. Edited by Kenneth W. Morgan,

Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1986.

8. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries in India, by Sukumar Dutt,

Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1988. 12. Si-Yü-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. Translated from the Chinese of Hsüen Tsang (629 AD) by Samuel Beal, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1981.

13. Contribution of Sir Alexander Cunningham to Indian Archeology . By K. M. Srivastava in Dharmadoot Vaisakha Purnima Special 1997. Maha Bodhi Society of India, Sarnath, Varanasi, India.

14. Kapilavastu – The Ancient Sakya Kingdom in Nepal, by Basanta

Bidari. Ibid.

15. Lumbini, the Birthplace of Lord Buddha – Visit Nepal ’98. Published by Dept of Tourism, Kathmandu, Nepal.

16. The Vow Still Remains, by Ven. B. Pannarama Mahathera in Sambodhi Vaishakha, Issue 1996. Maha Bodhi Society of India,

Buddhagaya, India.

17. The Early Constructional Phases of the Bodhimana at Bodhgaya, by Roland Silva in Sambodhi Buddha Purnima Souvenir 1993, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddha Gaya, India.

18. The Bodhidruma – Its History and Significance, by M.

Shahabuddin. Ibid.

19. Buddha Vandana Souvenir. Published by Buddha Mahotsav Organizing Committee, Gaya 823001, Bihar, India, Oct. 1998.

20. Kushinagar – The Holy City of Lord Buddha’s Maha Parinibbana, by Pimbure Samitha Thero, Assistant Bhikkhu-in-charge, Japan-Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Kushinagar, 1977. 21. Rajgir – Archeological Survey of India, 1991 Reprint.

22. Some Notes on the Political Division of India when Buddhism Arose, by T. W. Rhys Davids. Journal of the Pali Texts Society,

1897-1901, London.

23. The Origin of the Buddha Image, by Ananda K. Coomara-swamy. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 54 Rani Jhansi Road, New Delhi 110055, India, 1972. 24. The Significance of the Places of Pilgrimage, by Sayagyi U Chit Tin. First published in the Dhammadana Series 10 – The First International Conference and Pilgrimage in the Tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin. Sayagyi U Ba Khin Memorial Trust, U.K.,

1988.

25. The History and Literature of Buddhism, by T. W. Rhys Davids. Bhartiya Publishing House, B9/45, Pilkhana Sonarpur, Varanasi, U.P., India. First Ed. 1896. Sixth Ed. 1975.

26. Indian Buddhism – A Survey with Bibliographical Notes, by Hajime Nakamura. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Reprinted: Delhi, 1989. 27. Buddhist Monuments, by Debala Mitra. Published by Shishu Sahitya Samsad Pvt. Ltd., 32A Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road, Calcutta 9, India.

151

Map Symbols

Map showing route taken by Hsüan Tsang in the Si-yü-ki (AD 629-645)