Buddhist Pilgrimage

Buddhist Pilgrimage

Chan Khoon San

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' S B O O K L I B R A R Y E-mail: bdea@buddhanet.net Web site: www.buddhanet.net Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. Published for Free Distribution by:

Subang Jaya Buddhist Association Lot PT 12593, Jalan Kewajipan, SS 13, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Tel: 03-56348181, 03-56315299. Fax: 03-56315262 e-mail: sjba@po.jaring.my

ISBN: 983-40876-0-8 © Copyright 2001, Chan Khoon San First printing, 2002 – 2000 copies All commercial rights reserved.

Any reproduction in whole or part, in any form, for sale, profit or material gain is strictly prohibited. However, permission to print this book, in its entirety, for free distribution as a gift of Dhamma, is hereby granted and no further permission needs to be obtained.

Cover Design: Credit is due to Bro. Hor Tuck Loon, of Sukhi Hotu in Petaling Jaya, for his artistic design of this book’s cover. It shows Ven. Sayadaw U Rewata of Chanmyay Yeiktha Meditation Centre, Yangon offering lights at the main shrine hall of the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya during the 1999 Pilgrimage to India. Originally printed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia by:

Majujaya Indah Sdn. Bhd., 68, Jalan 14E, Ampang New Village, 68000 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-42916001, 42916002. Fax: 03-42922053.

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Sabbadanam dhammadanam jinati –

The gift of Dhamma excels all gifts.

Dedication

This book is dedicated to our spiritual advisors, who accompanied the various pilgrimage groups to India from 1991 to 2001. Their guidance and patience, in helping to create a better understanding of the significance of the pilgrimage in Buddhism, have helped to make those journeys of faith more meaningful and beneficial to all the pilgrims concerned. They are: Venerable Sayadaw U Jnanapurnik of Kathmandu, Nepal; Venerable B. Saranankara Mahathera of Sentul, Kuala Lumpur;

Venerable Sayadaw U Rewata of Yangon, Myanmar;

and Sister Uppalavanna of Kathmandu, Nepal.

Acknowledgement

The Subang Jaya Buddhist Association wishes to thank the generous donations of supporters and well-wishers for making this gift of Dhamma possible.

May the merits accrued by the donors and all persons involved in the collection of donations and distribution of this Dhammadana be shared with relatives, friends, readers and all beings.

Sadhu! Sadhu! Sadhu!

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Preface

OBJECTIVE The idea of a pilgrimage came from the Buddha himself. Before He passed into Mahaparinibbana, the Buddha advised pious dis-ciples to visit four places that may be for their inspiration after He was gone. They are Lumbini, where He was born; Buddhagaya, where He attained Supreme Enlightenment; Deer Park in Sarnath, where He preached the First Sermon; and Kusinara, where He passed into Mahaparinibbana. The pious disciple should visit these places and look upon them with feelings of reverence, reflecting on the particular event of the Buddha’s life connected with each place. Since the Mahaparinibbana of the Buddha, these four shrines of Buddhism have become the focal points for pious disciples to rally around and seek inspiration. By the time of King Asoka, four more places, namely: Savatthi, Sankasia, Rajagaha and Vesali, that were closely associated with the Buddha and scenes of His princi-pal miracles, were added to the pilgrimage itinerary. Together they make the Eight Great Places of pilgrimage.

The aim of this book is to share my experience and knowledge with fellow Buddhists about the benefits of undertaking a pilgrim-age to the Eight Great Places with the correct mental attitude. In Buddhism, understanding plays the key role in one’s spiritual progress. So, for the intending pilgrim, it is imperative to under-stand that a pilgrimage is essentially a spiritual journey in ven-eration of the Blessed One. This act of veneration purifies one’s thoughts, speech and action and through it, many noble qualities can be developed. Part I of this book discusses these mental aspects. A book on Buddhist pilgrimage would not be complete without reference to the famous pilgrims of old, namely: Asoka and the Chinese pilgrims, whose faith and fortitude are an inspiration to all who follow their footsteps. The downfall of Buddhism and the devastation of Buddhist shrines in the 13th century followed by six centuries of oblivion, which was the darkest period of Buddhism, is retold in this book. Finally, the restoration of Buddhist shrines and the revival of Buddhism in India is described to enable the reader to appreciate the efforts of the great men who have dedicated their lives to restore the holy shrines back to their past glory. Parts II & III of this book trace the history and religious significance of each of the Eight Great Places and the objects of interest that can be found there. Part IV provides information on travelling around the Buddhist circuit (as the area is now called), road distances and maps showing the locations of the shrines. A pilgrimage to the Eight Great Places can be one of the happiest and most fulfilling moments of one’s life and make one realize how fortunate it is to be able to gaze upon these ancient sacred shrines, with feelings of reverence. It is hoped that this book will be useful to readers who intend to go on a pilgrimage and encourage more Buddhists to undertake a pilgrimage so that they too, can benefit from the jour- ney of piety and faith.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Once again, I wish to express my gratitude to Sis. Wooi Kheng Choo of the Subang Jaya Buddhist Association for proof-reading the text, helping to correct the typographical errors and making several useful suggestions, which are deeply appreciated. The assistance of Mr. Tey Seng Heng, my ex-colleague at Applied Agricultural Research Sdn. Bhd. in the computer work is grate-fully acknowledged. I also wish to record my indebtedness to the following persons who have helped to make the previous pilgrim-ages successful and memorable, namely: our spiritual advisors Sayadaw U Jnanapurnik of Nepal in 1991, Ven. Saranankara of Sentul in 1997, Sayadaw U Rewata of Myanmar in 1997, 1999, 2001 and Sister Uppalavanna of Nepal in 1991; the tour co-leaders Dr. Wong Wai Cheong and Sis. Flora Tan in 1991; Sis. Helen Too, Bro. Chan Weng Poh, Bro. Wong Fok Gee, Bro. Yap Pak Choong and Bro. Lam Cheok Yew in 1997; Sis. Wooi Kheng Choo, Bro. Teh Kok Lai and Sis. Kieu Choon Lai in 1999; Sis. Tan Lei Hong and Bro. Chiu Sheng Bin in 2001. I take this opportunity to thank all members of the Pilgrimage groups from 1991-2001, for their co-operation and assistance, in making the journeys smooth and pleasant. Last but not least, I wish to acknowledge the gener-osity of all the donors who have contributed in cash and kind to the purchase of requisites, for offering to the various monasteries in the holy places during the four pilgrimages mentioned.

FORGIVENESS OF FAULTS During the two weeks or so of the pilgrimage, it is inevitable for many of the pilgrims, including the author, to lapse into moments of heedlessness and commit faults through body, speech or mind against our spiritual advisors or against our fellow pilgrims. On behalf of all the members concerned, the author takes this oppor-tunity to ask for forgiveness from our spiritual advisors and also from each other. If we had been heedless at the holy shrines, we too seek forgiveness from the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

Kàyena vàcà cittena – Pamàdena maya katam Accayam khama me bhante – Bhåri pa¤¤a tathàgata!

If by deed, speech or thought, heedlessly, we have done wrong, forgive us, 0 Master! 0 Teacher Most Wise.

REJOICING AND SHARING OF MERITS May the merits of this Dhammadana be shared with relatives, friends and all beings. Sadhu! Sadhu! Sadhu!

Chan Khoon San, Klang, 2001 4

List of colour plates

Plate 1. 1991 Pilgrimage Group Group photo with Sayadaw U Jnanapurnik and Ven. Bhikkhu Sumangala of the Buddha Vihara Bhrikutimandap, at the latter’s monastery in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Plate 2. 1997 Pilgrimage Group Group photo with Ven. Saranankara and Sayadaw U Rewata at the ruins of Nalanda.

Plate 3. 1999 Pilgrimage Group Group photo with Sayadaw U Rewata at Tilaura Kot, Kapilavastu. Plate 4. 2001 Pilgrimage Group Group photo with Sayadaw U Rewata at Tilaura Kot, Kapilavastu. Plate 5. Lumbini Garden in 1991 Photo of the author standing in front of Puskarni pond.

Plate 6. Lumbini Garden in 2001 Lumbini Garden showing the famous Asokan Pillar and the excavated site of the old Maya Devi temple.

Plate 7. Lumbini The author at the excavated site of the old Maya Devi temple.

Plate 8. Kapilavastu (Tilaura Kot)

Ruins of the Eastern Gate of Kapilavastu, through which Prince Siddhattha left the city on the night of his Great Renunciation.

Plate 9. Kapilavastu (Niglihawa)

The broken Asokan pillar at the village of Niglihawa, believed to be the birthplace of Kanakamuni or Konagamana Buddha.

Plate 10. Kapilavastu (Gotihawa)

The stump of the broken Asokan pillar below ground level at the village of Gotihawa, believed to be the birthplace of Kakusandha Buddha.

Plate 11. Bodhgaya View of the south side of the magnificent looking Mahabodhi Temple. The Bodhi tree is on the left at the back of the temple. Plate 12. Bodhgaya The ancient Asokan stone gateway at the entrance of the Maha- bodhi Temple.

Plate 13. Bodhgaya The Animisilocana shrine, where the Buddha spent the second week after his Enlightenment gazing at the Bodhi tree without blinking his eyes, out of gratitude to the tree for providing him shelter.

Plate 14. Bodhgaya The Cankama, or Promenade, where the Buddha spent the third week after Enlightenment pacing up and down in walking meditation.

Plate 15. Bodhgaya Close view of the Vajrasana, or Diamond Throne, seat of the

Buddha’s Enlightenment.

Plate 16. Bodhgaya The site of Lady Sujata’s house on a mound in the village of

Senani.

Plate 17. Bodhgaya Dhongra hill near Bakraur, where the Bodhisatta is believed to have practised self-mortification for six years.

Plate 18. Bodhgaya Steps leading to the entrance of Dungeswari, the cave at Dhongra hill in which the Bodhisatta is said to have meditated.

Plate 19. Bodhgaya An image of the skeleton-like Bodhisatta inside Dungeswari. Plate 20. Sarnath The ruins of the Mulagandhakuti or Main shrine.

Plate 21. Sarnath The imposing Dhamek stupa, whose lower portion is encased in beautifully carved stones of the Gupta period.

Plate 22. Sarnath The sunken shrine of Pancayatana is believed by some sources to be the place where the Buddha preached the First Sermon.

Plate 23. Kushinagar The Mahaparinibbana Temple and the Nirvana stupa behind it.

Plate 24. Kushinagar The Reclining Buddha image inside the Mahaparinibbana

Temple.

Plate 25. Kushinagar The Makutabandhana cetiya or cremation stupa of the Mallas.

This is a favourite place for pilgrims to come and meditate.

Plate 26. Sravasti The imposing Sudatta stupa at Mahet, built over the foundations of the house of Sudatta, popularly known as Anathapindika.

Plate 27. Sravasti The Angulimala stupa at Mahet, showing the opening of a tunnel cut through its base for drainage.

Plate 28. Sravasti The site of the Kosambi kuti, used by the Buddha for his meditation.

Plate 29. Sravasti Site of the original Gandhakuti, or Perfumed Chamber, residence of the Buddha. This is a favourite place for pilgrims who come to meditate.

Plate 30. Sankasia Front view of the 3rd century BC Elephant Capital. Inset at the top right hand corner is the side view, clearly showing the elephant. Plate 31. Sankasia The mound at Sankasia, believed to be the remains of a Buddhist structure. At the top, dedicated to the Hindu goddess Visharidevi, is a shrine believed to be the site where the Buddha descended from Heaven at Sankasia. Plate 32. Sankasia The author in front of the Hindu shrine, believed to be the site where the Buddha set foot during his descent from Heaven at

Sankasia. Plate 33. Rajgir The Bimbisara road leading up to Gijjhakuta or Vulture Peak.

Plate 34. Rajgir View of the top of Vulture Peak.

Plate 35. Rajgir Ruins of ancient monastic buildings at Jivaka’s mango grove.

Plate 36. Rajgir The Karanda pond at Veluvana or Bamboo Grove.

Plate 37. Rajgir The Pippala cave on the lower slopes of Vebhara hill. Plate 38. Vaishali The Asoka stupa and the Asokan pillar with a Lion Capital on top at Kolhua.

Plate 39. Vaishali The dome-shaped roof of the shelter over the ruins of the original Relic stupa of the Licchavis at Basrah.

Plate 40. Vaishali View of the remains of the original mud stupa of the Licchavis in the centre, surrounded by enlargements of burnt bricks of a later period. 9

Part I Religious Significance and History

CONTENTS 1. Mental Aspects of a Pilgrimage 2. Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage 3. Famous Pilgrims of the Past 4. Record of the Buddhist Country by Fa Hsien 5. Record of the Western World by Hsüan Tsang 6. Devastation and Downfall of Buddhism in India 7. Restoration of Buddhist Sites in India 10

1. Mental Aspects of a Pilgrimage * 24

a) Faith and Reverence For the majority of Buddhists, going on a pilgrimage to the holy places mentioned by the Buddha, is a once-a-lifetime undertak-ing. With so much time, money and effort involved, it behoves the intending pilgrim to truly understand what a pilgrimage is all about, especially the mental aspect, since the physical part is normally taken care of by a travel company. A pilgrimage is a jour-ney to a sacred place as an act of devotion and faith. In the scrip-tures, faith or saddha is the professing of confidence in and the sense of assurance based on understanding that one places on the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. It is not the blind belief based on wrong view. As ignorance is the leader of immoral mental states, so saddha is the leader of moral mental states because its chief characteristic is the purification of the mind.

Thus the pilgrim is not an ordinary tourist who travels for the pleas-ure of sightseeing and enjoyment. Unlike sensual delights, the sight of the holy shrines does not arouse craving but acts as a condition for wholesome mental states to arise in the pilgrim’s mind. The Buddha himself advised us to visit those places where he was born, where he attained Enlightenment, where he preached the First Sermon and where he passed away into Mahaparinibbana, and look upon them with feelings of reverence. By showing veneration or reverence at the holy shrines, one is able to purify one’s thought, speech and action. In this way, the pilgrim is endowed with the mor-

* Throughout this book the blue superscript numbers following headings are linked to the Bibliography, which begins on page 149. To return to your place in the text from a Bibliography entry, click the left arrow in Acrobat’s View History Toolbar. RETURN ality of Right Thought, Right Speech and Right Action. So we can see that visiting the places of pilgrimage with the correct men-tal attitude can help us in our practice of the Buddha’s Teaching. According to the great commentator, Ven. Buddhaghosa, the posi-tive feeling produced by seeing these sites is the religious excitement or the sense of urgency they produce. Another commentator, Ven. Dhammapala, explained that this sense of urgency means the mind possesses the knowledge that one should shrink from doing wrong, namely, the knowledge of morality.

b) Four Bases of Success Like all meritorious actions (punna kiriya), the potency of one’s volition depends on the intensity of the four bases of success (iddhipada), namely: desire-to-do (chanda), mind (citta), effort (viriya) and knowledge (vimansa). It is superior, medium or inferior when these four bases are strong, medium or weak respectively. A strong desire stems from one’s devotion to undertake a pilgrimage in order to heed the Buddha’s advice. When the mind or will is strong, it is not easily distracted from its objective, nor discouraged by the rigours of the journey. Effort means the energy to undertake the journey, which in olden days meant travelling long distances on land, sea or across desert. Nowadays travelling by plane and air-conditioned bus is easier and faster, but preparations are essential, especially finding out the significance of each holy shrine. With this knowledge, one is able to associate each place with a certain event in the Buddha’s life and form a mental picture to condition the arising of wholesome mental states when visiting that place. This success comes from one’s prior effort in preparing for the pilgrim-age. All these ingredients were present in the hearts of the Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hsien, Hsüan Tsang, I-Ching and many others, when they embarked on their journey to India centuries ago.

c) Development of the Perfections (Paramis)

The second aspect of a pilgrimage is that it is also an act of renunciation whereby the pilgrim does not crave for luxury but is contented with simple, clean accommodation, food and transport. This non-greed state of mind enables one to endure any discom-fort without complaint but with patience and loving-kindness. In the course of visiting the sacred places, one feels that one is in the Master’s presence and this fullness of faith conduces to joy and the observance of morality, the foundation of all merit. Many pil-grims take the opportunity to bring with them requisites to per-form dana out of reverence and gratitude to the Sangha, who take care of the holy places. The holy shrines are also conducive places for pilgrims to reflect on the Buddha’s virtues and practise mind-fulness to develop wisdom. These are various practices by which one can show veneration at the holy shrines or cetiyas in addition to the normal acts of devotion like the offering of flowers, lights, incense, and worship (puja). In the course of the pilgrimage, one can arouse many wholesome factors that cause one’s volition to become superior and lead to the accumulation of superior whole-some kamma. Indeed, one can develop the Perfections (Paramis) and earn much merit when going on a pilgrimage. But it should not end when one has returned home. After the journey is over, one should always try to recollect the joyful moments spent at holy places to keep them vivid in one’s memory. Such recollec-tion is productive of joy and is a skillful means of re-enforcing one’s good kamma already acquired. In times of sickness, fear and worry, or sorrow, one can easily dispel these negative mental states by rejoicing in one’s wholesome actions during the pilgrimage.

13 d) Buddhist Fellowship Fellowship means a community of interest involving regular meetings, the sharing of responsibilities and good friendship for mutual support. This aspect of Buddhist fellowship is important in order to encourage and help one another in the practice of the Buddha’s Teachings and strengthen our faith in times of trial and tribulation. A pilgrimage in a group to the Eight Great Places is one of the best ways to cultivate Buddhist fellowship. Over the two weeks or so of the journey, members of the group will have the opportunity to interact closely and get to know each other well under conditions whereby loving-kindness, appreciative joy, generosity and faith prevail. The bonds of comradeship formed through the performance of meritorious actions together will endure long after the pilgrimage is over and members will cherish fond memories of each other whenever they recollect the happy moments spent at the holy places. A journey to the Eight Great Places with fellow Buddhists united by faith and piety is true Buddhist fellowship and a wonderful way of forging friendship.

2. Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage 2, 3

In answer to Venerable Ananda’s concern that the monks would no longer be able to see the Buddha and pay their respects after His Mahaparinibbana, Lord Buddha mentioned four places which a pious disciple should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence. What are the four?

a) Lumbini: “Here the Tathagata was born! This, Ananda, is a place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence.”

b) Buddhagaya: “Here the Tathagata became fully enlightened, in unsurpassed, Supreme Enlightenment! This, Ananda, is a place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence.”

c) Sarnath: “Here the Tathagata set rolling the unexcelled Wheel of the Law! This, Ananda, is a place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence.”

d) Kusinara: “Here the Tathagata passed away into Nibbana wherein the elements of clinging do not arise! This, Ananda, is a place that a pious man should visit and look upon with feel- ings of reverence.”

“And whosoever, Ananda, should die on such a pilgrimage, with his heart established in faith, he at the breaking up of the body, after death, will be reborn in a realm of heavenly happiness.”

Mahaparinibbana Sutta The four other sacred sites are the places sanctified by the Buddha and scenes of four principal miracles that He performed, namely:

e) Savatthi, where the Buddha performed the Twin Miracle to silence the heretics, after which He ascended to Tavatimsa Heaven to preach to His mother.

f ) Sankasia, where the Buddha descended from Tavatimsa Heaven accompanied by Brahma and Sakka, after preaching to His mother and the devas for three months.

g) Rajagaha, where the Buddha tamed the drunken elephant,

Nalagiri.

h) Vesali, where a band of monkeys dug a pond for the Buddha’s use and offered Him a bowl of honey.

Together, they make the eight great places of Buddhist pilgrimage. Of the eight, seven are in India while the eighth, the Buddha’s birthplace, Lumbini, is in Nepal. According to the Buddhavamsa Commentary (Pages 188, 428), for all Buddhas there are four places that do not vary or are unalterable, namely:

(i) the seat of Enlightenment (Bodhi pallanka) at Bodhgaya, (ii) the turning of the wheel of Dhamma in Deer Park, Isipatana at Sarnath, (iii) the placing of the first footstep at the gate of the city of

Sankasia at the Descent from Heaven, (iv) the placement of the four legs of the bed in the Perfumed Chamber (Gandhakuti) at Jetavana in Savatthi.

The four unalterable places of all Buddhas are included in the

Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage.

Note: The names of some of the places mentioned in the Pali scriptures are no longer used in India. Their modern names are in parentheses: Buddhagaya (Bodhgaya), Kusinara (Kushinagar), Rajagaha (Rajgir), Savatthi (Sravasti) and Vesali (Vaishali).

3. Famous Pilgrims of the Past 6, 10, 11, 12

The four sacred places and four places of miracles are known as Atthamahathanani or the Eight Great Places. Emperor Asoka called a visit to these eight shrines “dhammayatra ” (dhamma ex-pedition) or a pilgrimage of piety. On his twentieth regnal year in 249 BC, he heeded the exhortation of the Buddha and embarked on a holy pilgrimage visiting all these places. His pilgrimage was literally a “landmark” journey because wherever he went, he built stupas and raised pillars with inscriptions to commemorate his visit to these holy places. These towering monolithic pillars made of polished sandstone and topped with animal capitals have helped to identify the exact locations of the Buddhist world’s most sacred places even after they fell into ruins following the downfall of Buddhism in India. Today after 2,250 years, many of these Asokan pillars still stand proclaiming his faith and devotion. Modern day pilgrims can still see these Asokan pillars in Lumbini, Kapilavatthu and Vesali, the famous Lion Capital at Sarnath Museum and the Elephant Capital at Sankasia. Asoka’s example was emulated by succeeding Buddhist kings, queens, nobles and wealthy men and women. As a result, India became studded with Buddhist monu- ments and shrines.

From China came the devout and earnest Buddhist monks, like Fa Hsien, Hsüan Tsang and many others, who travelled great distances braving immense hardships, perils, and even death to fulfill their desire to visit the holy places. In the Kao-seng-chuan (Chinese Monks in India, by I-Ching), another pilgrim, I-Ching, described how he had to pass many days without food, even with-out a drop of water and wondered how the other travellers, under such difficult conditions, could keep up their morale and spirit.

On the long, long trek, many died from sheer physical exhaus-tion or sickness and some had to leave their bones in desert-sands or somewhere out in India. Yet, in spite of these difficulties, they never faltered nor wavered, such was their indomitable spirit and desire to gaze on the sacred vestiges of their religion. Never did men endure greater suffering by desert, mountain and sea and ex-hibit such courage, religious devotion and powers of endurance!

The pioneer among them was Fa Hsien. He took five years to walk from the Western border of China across the Takla Makan desert, one of the most hostile environments on this planet, and over the windswept passes of the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountain ranges to Northern India. After spending six years in India, he sailed to Sri Lanka, where he spent two more years. His homeward journey by sea took another year in which he stopped for five months in Java. Fa Hsien left an account of his journey of 399-414 AD in the Fo-kwo-ki (Record of the Buddhist Country). One hundred years after Fa Hsien, two monks, Sung Yun and Hui Sheng of Loyang (Honan-fu), were sent by the Empress of the Northern Wei dynasty to obtain Buddhist books from India. They started out in 518 AD and after reaching as far as Peshawar and Nagarahara (Jalalabad), returned to China in 521 AD. Sung Yun left a short narrative of his travels but Hui Sheng did not record any details of the journey.

Undoubtedly the most renowned Chinese pilgrim was the great Tipitaka master, Hsüan Tsang, who secretly set out on the long journey to the West in 629 AD at the age of twenty-seven. His travel in India was the most extensive, taking almost seventeen years (629-645 AD) and when he returned to China, he was given a great ovation and public honour by the T’ang Emperor, T’ai Tsung. Hsüan Tsang’s record of his travels, known as Si-yü-ki (Record of the Western World), is a detailed and romantic account of the Buddhist shrines in India and other countries he passed through. His devotion, piety and love for learning became a source of inspiration to his contemporaries and later generation of pilgrims including I-Ching, who took the sea route to India and back. His travels covered the period 671-695 AD in which he spent ten years studying in Nalanda and another ten years in Sri-vijaya, Sumatra translating the scriptures. He wrote his account in the Nan-hai-ki-kuei-nai-fachuan (Record of the Inner Law sent home from the South Sea).

The records of the Chinese pilgrims are the only available writ-ings describing the condition of Buddhism and the Buddhist sites as they existed at that time and have proven to be invaluable in locating their ruins during excavations in the 19th century by Sir Alexander Cunningham and others.

4. Record of the Buddhist Country by Fa Hsien

Fa Hsien went to India with some fellow monks, namely: Hui-king, Tao-ching, Hui-ying, Hui-yu and others, for the purpose of seeking the Vinaya or Monastic Rules. Starting from Ch’ang-an (Xian) in 399 AD, they travelled by stages on foot till they reached Chang-yeh, a military station at the north-west extremity of the Great Wall, where they met another party of Chinese monks led by Pao-yun and Sung-king, also on their way to India. After spending the rainy season together in Chang-yeh, they pressed on to Dunhuang at the edge of the Takla Makan desert, where they stopped for over a month. The local prefect provided them with the necessities to cross the desert and Fa Hsien’s party started out first on their long trek across the Takla Makan desert. Walking for seventeen days about 1,500 li (1 li = 1 mile) in a south-westerly direction, keeping to the edge of the desert, they reached the rug-ged and barren country of Shen-shen (Loulan), south of Lop Nor.

The king of this country honoured the Buddhist religion and there were some 4,000 monks, belonging to the Small Vehicle or Hinayana1. After resting there for about a month, they travelled north-west for fifteen days, probably following the course of the Tarim river, and arrived at the country of Kara-shahr (Korla), near the lake Bagarach.

There, they met again the party of monks led by Pao-yun, who had travelled by the northern route to Hami and Turfan. While Fa Hsien’s group remained at Kara-shahr under the protection of an important official, Pao-yun’s group were not so lucky and they had to return to Turfan to procure the necessities for their jour-ney. After staying in Kara-shahr for two months, Fa Hsien and his company continued their journey south-west across the desert. On the road, there were no dwellings or people. The sufferings of their journey on account of the difficulties of the road and rivers exceeded human comparison. They were on the road for a month and five days before they reached the prosperous, oasis town of Khotan. The ruler of the country provided them with accom-modation in a monastery where they stayed for three months and were able to witness the grand procession of images, which began on the first day of the fourth month and lasted for fourteen days.

From Khotan, the pilgrims spent twenty-five days on the road to Yarkand, where they stopped for fifteen days before continu-ing their journey. After another twenty-five days of walking, they arrived at Kashgar, in the middle of the Tsung-ling range (Pamirs), in time to witness the Pancavassika Parisa or Quinquennial assembly, a five-yearly event instituted by King Asoka, in which the ruler made a great offering to the Sangha. Leaving Kashgar, they entered Tajikistan through the Sarykol range, taking a month to cross the Pamir mountains, and continued their journey south-west for fifteen days over a difficult, precipitous and danger-ous road. Fa Hsien described it thus: “The mountain side is simply a stone wall standing up 10,000 feet. Looking down, the sight is confused and there is no sure foothold. Below is a river called Sint’u-ho (Indus). In old days, men had cut away the rocks to make a way down and spread out side ladders, of which there are 700 steps to pass. When these are negotiated, the river is crossed by a hanging rope bridge. The two banks of the river are something less than 80 paces apart.”

After crossing the river, they arrived at the country of Udyana, which comprises the regions from Chitral to Swat in present day Northern Pakistan. It was then a flourishing centre of Buddhism, with five hundred monasteries belonging to the Small Vehicle. Three of the pilgrims, Hui-king, Tao-ching and Hui Yu went on ahead to Nagarahara (Jalalabad) to pay reverence to the Buddha-shadow2 at the Gopala Naga cave and the tooth and skull bone relics at Hadda while Fa Hsien and Hui Ying remained at Udyana to spend the rains-retreat. When this was over, they journeyed south to Swat and descending eastward for five days arrived at Gandhara (region between Takkasila and modern day Charsadda). From there, they travelled south to Peshawar to see the famed stupa of Kaniska and the alms-bowl relic. Here they met the party of Pao-yun and Sung-king who had come to pay homage to the alms-bowl relic. One of Fa Hsien’s friends, Hui-yu, who had previously gone to Nagarahara also came to Peshawar and at this point, he decided to return to China with Pao-yun and Sung-king. Meanwhile Fa Hsien’s companion, Hui-ying, dwelling in the temple of the alms-bowl relic, died there.

Fa Hsien now proceeded alone westward to Nagarahara. On the borders, in the city of Hadda, he visited the vihara of the Buddha’s skull-bone. At the capital of Nagarahara, he visited the viharas of the Buddha’s religious staff and sanghati (outer robe) and the Gopala Naga cave to pay homage to the Buddha shadow. He teamed up with his two remaining companions, Tao-ching and Hui-king and together they spent two months of winter there. When winter was over, they proceeded south and encoun-tered great difficulties and extreme cold crossing the Safed Koh mountain range. Hui-king, barely recovering from an earlier ill-ness, was unable to proceed onwards. He died of exhaustion in Fa Hsien’s arms, urging them to press on lest they too perished. With great effort, the surviving pilgrims crossed the mountain range and entered Afghanistan where they spent the rains-retreat in the company of 3,000 monks in the vicinity.

After the rains-retreat they crossed the Punjab, where they saw the Buddhist religion flourishing and after passing many monasteries with myraids of monks, the pilgrims reached Mathura country.

Fa Hsien then visited in succession Sankasia, Kanauj, Saketa or Ayodha and Savatthi, where the monks at Jetavana monastery were astonished to see them, for they had not seen men from Han (Chinese) come so far as this before in search of the Buddha’s law. Moving eastward, they travelled to the ancient Sakyan kingdom, where they visited the birthplaces of Kakusandha Buddha and Kanakagamana Buddha and saw the Asokan pillars erected there. The capital, Kapilavatthu, was like a great desert, without any in-habitants. There were only a congregation of monks and about ten families of lay people. The roads were devoid of travellers for fear of wild elephants and lions.

From Kapilavatthu, the pilgrims travelled to Kusinara, scene of the Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana. In this city too, there were few inhabitants and such families as were there, were connected with the congregation of monks. Moving onwards, they went to Vesali and Pataliputta, the capital of ancient Magadha. From there, they moved on to Nalanda and Rajagaha, where Fa Hsien ascended Gijjhakuta hill and after offering flowers, incense and lights, re-mained there the whole night contemplating and reciting the suttas. Continuing the pilgrimage, they went to Buddhagaya, scene of the Buddha’s Enlightenment, Deer Park at Sarnath where the Buddha preached the First Sermon, Varanasi and lastly Kosambi in Allahabad district, where they visited the ruins of Ghositarama monastery. Returning to Pataliputta, Tao-ching decided to take up permanent residence in India after seeing the strict decorum observed by the monks in India with regard to the Disciplinary rules compared with the meagre character of the precepts known in China.

For Fa Hsien, the purpose of his sojourn was to seek copies of the Monastic Rules to take home but throughout the journey, he was unable to obtain a single copy as the rules were transmitted orally.

Here he was able to obtain a copy used by the Mahasanghikas at Jetavana monastery. Fa Hsien spent three years learning Sanskrit and copying out the Rules. Then following the course of the Ganges river in an easterly direction, he travelled to Tamralipti (modern Tamluk in West Bengal), where he spent a further two years copying the sacred texts and drawing image pictures. From the port of Tamralipti, he took a ship to Sri Lanka where he spent two more years collecting and copying the Buddhist texts includ-ing the Mahisasaka monastic rules, unknown in China.

Fa Hsien had been away from his homeland for many years. Of the four monks who accompanied him to India, one returned to China after going only as far as Peshawar, two died in India and one remained behind in India. At the Abhayagiri monastery in Anuradhapura, the sight of a merchant making a religious offering of a white silk fan from China, made him feel sad and homesick. Having completed his original purpose of obtaining the knowledge of the precepts to spread throughout the land of Han, he decided to return home. In his voyage home by sea, he had several miracu-lous escapes. His ship sprung a leak during a violent storm and was driven to the island of Java, where he spent five months. He took another boat bound for Canton but after a month and some days, he encountered another storm that drove the boat off course and landed on the shores of the Shantung Peninsula instead. Yet in spite of all the perils of the sea, he had managed to return home safely with his precious cargo of the sacred texts intact.

After resting at Tsing-Chow for the summer, he proceeded to Nanking where he exhibited the sacred books he had brought back. He was away fourteen years and had encountered great hardships and dangers in his travels through nearly thirty differ-ent countries. Having been protected by the power of the Triple Gem and delivered safely from all dangers, he desired to share his experiences with readers by writing these records of his travels from 399-414 AD. He died at the age of eighty-six after having accomplished his mission of translating into Chinese the Buddhist texts, which he had taken so much time and trouble to bring back from India.

5. Record of the Western World by Hsüan Tsang

The T’ang Dynasty Record of the Western World is an objective record composed in twelve books by the famous Chinese pilgrim Hsüan Tsang about his epic journey from China to Central Asia and the Indian Sub-Continent and back in 629-645 AD. It should not be confused with the popular Chinese fiction Si-yü-ki or Travels to the West featuring the adventures of the mythical Monkey God, which have been made into films and TV shows for entertainment.

While Fa Hsien went to India to seek the Vinaya or Monastic Rules, Hsüan Tsang’s purpose of going to India was to learn from the wise men there on the points of doctrine that were troubling his mind. When his application to leave China was refused by the authorities, he departed in secret from Chang’an (Xian) in 629 AD at the age of twenty-seven. Heading up the Gansu cor-ridor, he passed Lanzhou and worked his way to the end of the Great Wall near Dunhuang. There he took the northern branch of the Silk route passing through Yumen Guan (Jade Gate Pass)

and after crossing the Gobi desert, arrived at Hami. There, he was summoned to Turfan, the capital of the Uighur country, by its pious Buddhist ruler to become the country’s chief priest, which Hsüan Tsang declined. After failing in his attempt to detain Hsüan Tsang, he remitted the pilgrim to Kara-shahr, from which he advanced to Kucha.

Kucha was an oasis town on the edge of the desert, famous for its excellent horses. The ground was rich in minerals and its soil was suitable for agriculture. It had one hundred monasteries with over five thousand Sarvastivadin monks. All the monasteries had high-ly adorned images of the Buddha, which were paraded on special occasions in a procession of idol-carriages. In Kucha, the king ob-served the Quinquennial Assembly, originally instituted by King Asoka, whereby a great offering was made to the Sangha every five years. Outside the main city gate, Hsüan Tsang saw two erect fig-ures of the Buddha, about 90 feet tall, and in front of them was a place erected specially for this festival. After staying here for two months, he continued his journey to Aksu and crossing the snowy Tian Shan mountains, reached the shores of lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan. This mountain lake, 5,200 feet above sea level, is the second largest in the world covering an area of 6,200 sq. km.

He then proceeded north-west along the fertile valley of the Chu river passing the Kyrgyz lake-land area of Myn-bulak, known as the “Thousand springs”. Moving westward, he passed the Tartar town of Taras and the country of Nujkend on the Chatkal range, and arrived at Tashkent in Eastern Uzbekistan, which was then under the control of the Tuh-kiueh (Huns or Eastern Turks). The next stop was Samarkand, a very populous country located at the junction of the trade routes between China and India. It was the emporium of the Silk route where the merchants bartered their goods, and according to Hsüan Tsang, “The precious merchandise of many countries is stored up here.

Its inhabitants are skilful in the arts and trades beyond those of other countries. The people are brave and energetic and are copied by all surrounding people in point of politeness and propriety.” From Samarkand, the pilgrim proceeded to Kesh (Karshi) and moving south, entered the mountains. After climbing the steep and precipitous road, he arrived at the Iron Gate, a mountain pass bordered on both sides by very high rocky walls with an iron col-our. Here double wooden doors had been erected and many bells were fixed on them. The doors were strengthened with iron and impregnable. Because of the protection afforded to the pass when these doors were closed, the pass was called Iron Gate. Passing Iron Gate, he reached Tukhara, a country controlled by the Turks and crossing the Oxus river (Amu Darya) near Termez, arrived at Kunduz in Afghanistan. Here he met the eldest son of the Turkish Khan, brother-in-law of the king of Turfan, from whom Hsüan Tsang had letters of recommendation. After some delay, he pro-ceeded with some monks from Balkh to that city, formerly capi-tal of the Bactrian kingdom of Milinda. It had about a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks.

After paying reverence to the sacred relics, he departed from Balkh and made the difficult and dangerous journey across the Hindu Kush mountains to Bamiyan. Here the people worshipped the Triple Gem but still maintained a hundred tutelary deities, which the merchants sought to propitiate when business was bad.

There were ten monasteries with about a thousand monks of the Lokuttaravadin school. Hsüan Tsang saw the two colossal Buddha images, about 55 and 35 metres tall, carved out of a mountain-side in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, and mistook the smaller one to be bronze due to its gilded surface. He also saw a large reclining Buddha image and paid reverence to some tooth relics. (Note: In an act of religious bigotry, the fanatical Talibans of Afghanistan destroyed the ancient Buddha images in 2001, despite worldwide protests and condemnations.)

Moving eastward, Hsüan Tsang entered the passes of the Hindu Kush and crossing the Siah Koh ridge, arrived at the country of Kapisa. It had one about hundred monasteries with six thousand Mahayana monks and a great monastery with three hundred monks of the Small Vehicle. There were also some ten Deva tem-ples with about a thousand Hindu ascetics of various sects, such as naked ascetics (Digambaras), those who covered their bodies with ashes (Pasupatas) and those who wore chaplets of bones on their heads (Kapaladharinas). Every year, the king would make a silver image of the Buddha and offer alms to the poor, desti-tute and bereaved in his kingdom. After spending the summer of 630 AD in Kapisa, Hsüan Tsang went to Nagarahara (Jalalabad). Here he found many monasteries but few monks. The stupas were desolate and ruined. He visited the famous Naga Gopala cave, which according to legend, once contained the shadow left by the Buddha after he had tamed the naga (serpent). At the vihara of the skull-bone relic, he found that the caretakers were Brahmans appointed by the king and they charged the worshippers a fee in order to see the relic. From Nagarahara, the pilgrim entered Gandhara by the Khyber Pass. Here he found the towns and villages deserted with few in-habitants. There were about a thousand monasteries, which were in ruins, overgrown with wild shrubs and empty. The stupas were mostly decayed. At the capital, Purushapura (Peshawar), there was only one monastery with fifty Mahayana monks. However, the Deva temples numbering about one hundred were fully occu- pied with heretics. According to Hsüan Tsang, “Centuries ago, there was a treacherous Hun king from Sakala named Mahirakula, who killed his benefactor, the king of Kashmir and usurped the throne. Then he came to Gandhara and killed its ruler in an ambush. He extermi-nated the royal family and the chief minister, overthrew the stupas and destroyed the monasteries, altogether one thousand six hundred foundations.”

Travelling north, the pilgrim arrived at Udyana, a flourishing centre of Buddhism during the time of Fa Hsien. But now, all its one thousand four hundred olden monasteries lay waste and desolate. Formerly, there were some eighteen thousand monks but now there were very few. After visiting the shrines, he continued his journey to Takkasila (near Rawalpindi). Here again, he saw the aftermath of the devastation by the Hun king Mahirakula – many monasteries destroyed and deserted. From Takkasila, he went to Kashmir where Buddhism still prevailed. There were still a hundred monasteries and five thousand monks. It appeared that after the death of Mahirakula, his descendants, who then ruled Kashmir, atoned for his misdeeds by erecting stupas and monaster-ies for the Buddhists. At the capital Srinagar, Hsüan Tsang spent two years (631-633 AD) studying philosophy and copying the scriptures under a Mahayanist teacher.

From Kashmir, the pilgrim travelled south passing Jammu and reached Sakala (Sialkot near Lahore), the seat of the Bactrian king Milinda of old and of the infamous Mahirakula of late. As he was leaving Sakala, he was robbed by brigands and spent the night in a neighbouring village. Moving on, he reached a large town, proba-bly Lahore, where he remained for a month. Then he went to stay a year in Chinapati. In 634 AD, he travelled to Jalandhar and reach-ing the Sutlej river, passed Satadru and Paryartra before arriving at Mathura. Along the way, he could see the decline of Buddhism and the rise of neo-Brahmanism of the Gupta age. Mathura, a stronghold of Buddhism during the time of King Asoka and cen-tre of the Sarvastavadin school under the famous monk Upagupta, was now a shadow of its past, with only twenty monasteries and two thousand monks. After visiting the local shrines, the pilgrim ascended the Yamuna river to Kuru-kshetra (Thaneswar), the holy land of the Hindus and scene of the legendary Mahabharata wars between the Pandava brothers and the Kauravas, cousins as well as bitter rivals. There were only three monasteries with about seven hundred monks but one hundred Deva temples with great numbers of various sectarians.

Travelling east, he reached the Ganges and following its down-ward course, passed several towns where he noted the rising tide of Brahmanism. He visited Sankasia and saw the shrines associ-ated with the Buddha’s descent from Heaven. Next he went to Kanauj also known as Kanyakubja, i.e., “city of the hump-backed women”, which King Harsha Vardhana had made his capital. He did not meet the king, who was away, but who later became his friend and patron. From Kanauj, he went to Ayodha or Saketa, where the Mahayanist teacher Vasubhandu composed his sastras or treatises and reaching the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, arrived at Prayag (Allahabad). There were two monasteries with few followers but many Deva temples with great numbers of sectarians. At the confluence of the two rivers, Hsüan Tsang saw hundreds of Hindu devotees drowning themselves in the waters after fasting for seven days, in the belief that this would wash away their sins and lead them to heaven. He went to Kosambi and visited Ghositarama, now an old habitation in ruins, which the rich merchant Ghosita had built for the Buddha to stay in when- ever he was in Kosambi.

Moving northwards, the pilgrim travelled to Sravasti and vis-ited Maheth, where he saw the Sudatta stupa marking the site of Anathapindika’s house and beside it the Angulimala stupa. At Saheth, he found Jetavana in ruins and deserted. From Sravasti, he went to Kapilavastu, capital of the old Sakyan kingdom; Lumbini, birthplace of the Buddha; Ramagama, which had been waste and desolate for many years; and Kusinara, scene of the Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana. Travelling south 500 li, through a great forest, he reached Varanasi, the sacred city of the Hindus. There were about thirty monasteries with three thousand monks but over a hundred Deva temples with about ten thousand sectar-ians, mostly Siva worshippers. At the Deer Park in Sarnath, he visited a monastery with fifteen hundred monks of the Sammitiya school and paid reverence at the shrines in the vicinity. Following the course of the Ganges eastward to Ghazipur, then north east, he arrived at the city of Vesali. There were several hundred mon-asteries, which were mostly dilapidated with very few monks. The city was in ruins and practically deserted. He saw the Asokan pil-lar with a lion capital on top and beside it, the stupa built by King Asoka. Near the pillar was a pond dug by a band of monkeys for the Buddha’s use and further south was a stupa marking the spot where the monkeys, taking the Buddha’s bowl, climbed a tree and gathered him some honey . Travelling north-west, he passed the Vajjian country and went to Nepal. Then returning to Vesali and crossing the Ganges, he arrived at the country of Magadha.

Pataliputta (Patna), capital of the great Mauryan empire during the time of King Asoka, was in decay. There were fifty monasteries with about ten thousand monks, the majority being Mahayanists. In the old city, Hsüan Tsang saw hundreds of monasteries, Deva temples and stupas lying in ruins. He also visited Kukkutarama monastery built by Asoka, but the building had long been in ruins and only the foundation walls remained. Travelling south, he passed the Tiladaka vihara where learned men and scholars from different countries came to study. Inside one building, he saw images of Tara and Avalokitesvara beside an erect image of the Buddha, an indication of the growing influence of Tantrism. Moving on he reached the Neranjara river and crossing it, arrived at Gaya. Here he visited Pragbodhi where the Bodhisatta under-went six years’ austerities, Sujata’s village, Uruvela forest and Bodhgaya, scene of Buddha’s Enlightenment and holiest spot to all Buddhists. Then he went to Rajagaha where he visited all the sacred shrines, including Vulture Peak, Bamboo Grove, the hot springs, Pippala stone house and Sattapanni caves, venue of the First Buddhist Council.

He was in Nalanda around 635 AD and enrolled at the famous Nalanda University, India’s premier Buddhist seat of learning, to fulfill his purpose of coming to India and learn from the wise men about Buddhism. Admission was based on merit in which the gate-keeper, a responsible officer of considerable learning, would ask some difficult questions and the candidate had to answer them to his satisfaction. Normally, out of ten candidates, seven or eight would fail this screening test. Hsüan Tsang, who already had a solid grounding of scholarship, was able to gain admission into the University. Here he studied Yogacara philosophy under the famous Mahayanist teacher Silabhadra. He also studied Hindu philosophy and mastered the Sanskrit language. During his resi-dence in Nalanda, he distinguished himself by his diligence and scholarship.

In 638 AD he interrupted his studies and travelled to Champa (Bhagalpur) and West Bengal, ending up at Tamralipti, where he intended to take ship to Sri Lanka and study the Theravada doctrine. There he was told that the island was within easy reach of South India. So he decided to travel by land rather than take the risk of a long sea voyage. Moving in a south-westerly direc-tion he passed Orissa state, which had some hundred monasteries with ten thousand Mahayanist monks, and Kalinga where the heretics, mostly Niganthas predominated. Then continuing the journey through Kosala (the land of Nagarjuna, founder of the Madhyamika doctrine) and Andhra, he reached Amaravati. There were numerous monasteries but they were deserted and ruined. Of those preserved, there were about twenty with a thousand monks of the Mahayana tradition. He saw two establishments situated on two cliffs, one in the east called Purvasaila (East cliff), and the other on the west called Aparasaila (West cliff). Both used to be inhabited by monks but were now deserted and wild. After spend-ing the rainy season of 639 AD in Amaravati, the pilgrim proceed-ed south passing the country of Chola, which he described as

“…wild and deserted, a succession of marshes and jungle, with a small population and troops of brigands go through the country openly”.

Then, continuing south through a wild forest district and travel-ling 1,500 li, he arrived at the country of Dravida.

At the capital Kanchipuram (near Madras), there were about a hundred monasteries with ten thousand Mahayanist monks. Here he learned that Sri Lanka was facing unrest and famine following the death of its ruler. So he gave up the idea of going to the island.

Moving northwards, he entered a forest and passed many deserted villages where brigands roamed in search of victims. After travel-ling 2,000 li without incident, the pilgrim arrived at Konkanapura (Golconda near Hyderabad), which had about a hundred mon-asteries with ten thousand monks from both traditions. From Konkanapura, he crossed a wild country, infested with wild beasts and robbers, and arrived safely in the state of Maharashtra, where he visited the famous rock-cut cave monasteries or lenas at Ajanta. From Ajanta, he travelled to Valabhi around 641 AD passing Bharoch, Malava and Kachha. Valabhi was the capital of the Maitraka kingdom in Gujerat and a famous centre of learning and commerce. According to Hsüan Tsang:

“There were about a hundred families who possess a hundred lakhs (millionaires). The rare and valuable products of some distant regions are stored here in great quantities.”

He visited a great monastery where two distinguished Mahayana masters, Sthiramati and Gunamati had resided and composed their treatises. Moving west, he passed Surashtra and Gurjjara be-fore arriving at Ujjain, the capital of Avanti. There were scores of monasteries but they were mostly in ruins and only three hundred monks remained. Moving west, he travelled to Sindh where he saw several hundred monasteries occupied by some ten thousand monks of the Sammatiya school. Then moving north and cross-ing the Indus river, he arrived at Multan. Here the believers and monks were few. There were ten monasteries, all in ruins. At this point, he decided to return to Nalanda as he had visited most of the Buddhist shrines in India.

Back at Nalanda, Hsüan Tsang devoted his time fully to the study of the Mahayana doctrines and participated in philosophical de-bates. After acquiring an encyclopedic learning, he was looking forward to returning to China and spreading the new learning. The king of Assam, Kumara-raja, heard about the Chinese mas-ter’s ability and invited him to the capital Kamarupa in 643 AD. While Hsüan Tsang was there, Kumara-raja received an order from his overlord, King Harsha Vardhana, to bring the Chinese monk to see him at Kajinghara, a small kingdom on the banks of the Ganges. At the meeting, both men established a close rela-tionship. Harsha Vardhana invited Hsüan Tsang to his capital at Kanauj where he convoked a religious assembly on the banks of the Ganges, attended by the kings of twenty vassal states, together with monks and Brahmans. Hsüan Tsang was appointed ‘Lord of the Discussion ’. For the next three weeks, Harsha would offer food to the monks and Brahmans daily. After this, he would carry a life-size golden image of the Buddha on his shoulder up a tall tower, where he paid homage to the Triple Gem with a great of-fering of silken garments decorated with precious stones. On the last day, the heretics tried to sabotage the assembly by setting fire to the tower and attempting to assassinate the king in the result-ing confusion. But the attempt on Harsha’s life was foiled when the culprit was caught by the king himself. He confessed that he was hired by the heretics and Brahmans, who were jealous of the reverence and honour accorded to the Buddhist monks by the king. Thereupon the king punished the ringleader and banished the Brahmans to the frontiers of India. After this, Harsha took his honoured guest to Prayag, where he held the Quinquennial festival in which he gave away all his wealth accumulated over five years, following the example of King Asoka. After witnessing the ceremonies at Prayag, Hsüan Tsang stayed for ten more days with Harsha and then started his return journey to China. To ensure his safe passage to the border, Harsha provided him with a military escort led by Kumara-raja. He returned to China by the opposite direction to which he came to India, by way of Jalandhar, Takkasila and Nagarahara. Then crossing the Hindu Kush, he entered northern Afghanistan. Moving in a north-west direction, he reached Badakshan and traversing the moun-tains and valleys of the Pamirs, passed several towns in Tajikistan.

Then crossing the Sarykol range, which forms the border between China and Tajikistan, he reached Kashgar in Xinjiang province. From Kashgar, he travelled to Yarkand and Khotan, and cross-ing the Takla Makan desert, arrived at Dunhuang. After resting for some time at Dunhuang, he returned to Chang’an (Xian) in 645 AD, where he was received with great honour by the officials and monks. He appeared before the Emperor a few days later to pay his respects. He had brought back with him the following articles:

1. One hundred and fifteen grains of Buddha relics.

2. Six statues of the Buddha.

3. One hundred and twenty-four Mahayana works or sutras.

4. Other scriptures amounting to six hundred and fifty-seven works, carried by twenty-two horses.

Hsüan Tsang spent the remainder of his life translating the Sanskrit works brought back by him with the aid of a team of translators.

He died in 664 AD at the age of sixty-two, after fulfilling his mission of learning from the wise men in India about Buddhism and bringing back the knowledge to China

Click HERE to see a map showing the route taken by Hsüan Tsang in the Si-Yü-Ki.

6. Devastation and Downfall of Buddhism

in India 6, 7, 8, 25, 26

There were two devastations on an extensive scale of Buddhist shrines and monasteries of northern India. The first was by the Ephthalites or White Huns, who invaded India in 500-520 AD and conquered the border provinces of Gandhara and Kashmir. The Hun king, Mihirakula was a barbarian and a sworn enemy of Buddhism, bent on destroying the Buddhist establishment. The Gupta kings fought on and off against the Huns but it was not until 533 AD that Mihirakula was subjugated by Yasodharman of Mandasor. Hsüan Tsang, who passed through Gandhara and Kashmir one hundred years later, heard about the devastation and reported that in Gandhara alone,

“Mihirakula overthrew stupas and destroyed monasteries, altogether one thousand and six hundred foundations.”

At that age, Buddhism had enough vitality to heal the wounds inflicted by the Huns for over a decade. Sangha life picked up again in new monasteries built over the ruins of the demolished ones. However, in the western part of India, namely: Gandhara, Kashmir and western Uttar Pradesh, Buddhism had lost much ground to the neo-Brahmanism of the Gupta age. In the eastern part, in Magadha (Bihar) and West Bengal, it began to revive again under the Buddhist king, Harsa Vardhana (7th century AD) and later on, under the patronage of the Pala kings (8th-12th century AD).

This was a period when the viharas expanded from being centres of monastic training to larger institutions or Mahaviharas dedicated to learning and scholarship. These Mahaviharas such as Nalanda, Odantapura and Vikramasila in Magadha had as many as 10,000 students from every Buddhist country. Kings, nobles, wealthy merchants and ordinary people all contributed their share towards the maintenance of these famous universities, but although their financial support made these Buddhist institutions famous and prosperous, yet they undermined the high ideals of renunciation and sacrifice on which the Sangha was founded. Philosophical speculations and logic in the Mahayana tradition to counter the realistic Nyaya position of right knowledge propounded by the Brahmin scholars of Mithila across the Ganges was the chief activ-ity of these Mahayana centres. The monks slowly became accus-tomed to an easy life devoted to academic pursuits and religious rituals and relaxed their moral code to accommodate worldly practices and beliefs. This led to the disintegration of the Order into diverse sects, to a weakening of morality and to correspond-ing erosion of the laity’s faith in the Sangha.

During the Pala period of its history from the 9th-11th century AD, Buddhism became heavily adulterated by the Tantric cult, with its magic spells, yoga and practices that were completely alien to the earlier form of Buddhism. Prior to this in the Gupta period (c. 300- 550 AD), the Mahayana doctrine had reached the stage whereby Arahantship was openly condemned and Bodhisattaship held up as the goal towards which every good Buddhist should aim. According to the Pali scholar Rhys Davids in his book “The History and Literature of Buddhism”, the whole exposition of this theory was set in the Lotus Sutra or the Saddharma Pundarika as it is called in Sanskrit. It was so subversive of the original Buddhism and even claimed to have been preached by the Buddha himself.

During the Gupta period, more philosophical speculations in the Mahayana tradition emerged and led to the worship of various Mahayanist gods and “ Bodhisattas” conceived to symbolize the philosophical speculations. According to Rhys Davids, as time went on, converts to the Mahayana who were well acquainted with the Hindu deities of the day, conveniently adopted many Hindu deities into the Buddhist pantheon. These Hindu deities were rep-resented as “ Bodhisattas” and supporters of the Buddha in order to bring about reconciliation between the two faiths and to attract more devotees.

Grand temples were built in honour of these new “ Bodhisattas”, in which elaborate ceremonies were performed, which attracted peo-ple from all walks of life and encouraged different superstitious beliefs and modes of worship. These practices formed the basis for the development of Tantrayana by Buddhists who adopted the methods of Hindu Tantrists by incorporating Vedic and Hindu beliefs into the religion (refer to Indian Buddhism by Hajime Nakamura). Buddhism was now reduced to an esoteric cult in which spells and magic rites and practices supposedly capable of producing supernatural effects predominated. Tantric mystics were accepted as great leaders who claimed to have discovered the shortest route to Deliverance. In some quarters, it was believed that the “ grace of the teacher” was sufficient for the realization of the Sublime. Some of these gurus openly ridiculed the monastic code and even propagated mass indulgence in wine and women. The discovery in the ruins of Nalanda of several Tantric images, all of which belonged to the Pala period of its history, provides evidence of the development of Tantrayana at Nalanda University.

According to Ven. Jagdish Kashyap (Chapter 1, Path of the Buddha), Buddhism had become so polluted and weakened by these perverted forms of practice that it became practically impos-sible to revive after the destruction of the Mahayana temples and monasteries by the Muslim invaders.

The fatal blow was dealt around the turn of the 13th century AD by the Turaskas or Khalijis from Afghanistan. They were fanati-cal Muslims, bent on conquest and destruction. By then, they had conquered the western part of Uttar Pradesh called the Doab, the region bordered by the Yamuna and the Ganges rivers, where they had settled themselves with expansionist aims. Soon they began their invasion, spreading terror and panic through all the towns and countryside in their path, and their advance posed a tremen-dous threat to all monasteries and temples of northern India. The whole doomed area in the east, ancient Magadha (Bihar) and North Bengal, fell to the marauders. Especial ferocity was directed towards Buddhist institutions with huge Buddha and “ Bodhisatta”

images, which were systematically destroyed or vandalised. The shaven-headed monks wearing distinctive monastic robes were easily spotted and massacred wholesale as idolaters. These grue-some killings and destruction are all on historical record.

The story of an assault upon the Mahavihara at Odantapura, Bihar in 1198 was told long afterwards, in 1243 by an eye-witness to the Persian historian Minhaz. In his book, Tabaquat-I-Nasiri, he reported as follows (refer to Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India, Part V, 3, by Sukumar Dutt): “Most of the inhabitants of the place were Brahmanas with shaven heads (monks). They were put to death. Large num-bers of books were found there, and when the Mahammadans saw them, they called for some person to explain the contents.

But all of the men were killed. It was discovered that the whole fort and city was a place for study (madrasa): in the Hindi language the word Bihar (i.e. Vihara) means a college.”

In the destruction of the University of Nalanda, the same histor-ian recorded that thousands of monks were burned alive and yet more thousands beheaded, and the burning of the library contin-ued for several months.

The extermination of Buddhist monks dealt a fatal blow to the organization of the Sangha in India. With the monks gone, no one was left to carry on their work or lead the demoralized laity who were forcibly converted to Islam or absorbed into Hinduism and Jainism. Although the latter religions were subjected to the same persecution, their priests and leaders were not easily recognized among their people to be singled out for extermination. So they could survive and rebuild their communities, but for Buddhism in India, it was the end. The high-caste Brahmin priests had always opposed Buddhism because of its criticism of the caste system and while it was under the protection of royal patronage, they had remained silent. After the downfall of Buddhism, they could act without restraint, and began to convert Buddhist tem-ples that had escaped destruction into Hindu temples. In parts of India far from the invaders’ control, the caste system regained its dominance and under community pressures, the demoralized Buddhist laity were slowly absorbed into Hinduism. According to Ven. Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap, the three factors discussed earlier contributed to the downfall of Buddhism in India, namely:

• Decay and disintegration of the Sangha.

• Extermination of the Sangha by external invaders.

• Internal opposition from the Hindu caste system.

Yet a handful of survivors were left in the aftermath of the Holocaust. They dispersed and fled with their cherished treasures of holy scriptures to remote, secluded monasteries far from the in-vader’s track or to the nearest port to take ship and sail to Arakan or Burma for safety. A few of them were later found to be sheltered and settled at the areas of Chittagong and Arakan, the South-eastern corner of Bangladesh, who have been claiming direct lineage with the Buddhists of the glorious past. Most trekked northwards across the Himalayas to seek sanctuary in the more hospitable countries of Nepal and Tibet. Thus came the final dispersal of the Buddhist Sangha in India. With the downfall of Buddhism in India, the Buddhist shrines and monuments fell into disuse. They were plundered and destroyed, or just ignored and neglected, and in the course of time fell into ruins and oblivion. This period was the saddest era of Buddhism – and one that must not be forgotten.