The Diamond Needle, Treatise on the Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle, The Key to the Secret of the Heart Sutra

V. Analysis and Synthesis of Vehicles and Teachings

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle and dharmas both exist.] They also established the five treasuries of dharmas: past, future, present, the uncreated, and the inexpressible. This latter one is precisely self, because self cannot be expressed in terms of created or uncreated. 2. Existence of Dharmas but Nonexistence of Self

Second is the tenet that dharmas exist but self does not exist, as in the Sar vāsti vāda and others like it. They teach that all dharmas are included within two kinds (i.e., modes of existence): name and form. Or, they are all included in four: the three times—past, present, and future—and the uncreated. Or, in five: mind, mental functioning, form, factors that don't correspond to the preceding three, and the uncreated. Thus, all dharmas without exception really exist. 3. Dharmas are Devoid of Past and Future

Third is the tenet that dharmas have neither past nor future existence, as in the Mahāsāṃghika and the like. They teach the existence of only present and uncreated dharmas, because in the past and future essence and function do not exist.

4. Both Nominal and Real in the Present

Fourth is the tenet that the present has both nominal and real dharmas, as in the Prajñaptivāda and others. They teach that there is no past and future, and that all the dharmas of the present time are real insofar as they are aggregates, but are merely nominal in terms of cognition and sensation. Whether dharmas are nominal or real is not fixed, but accords with the situation. The Treatise on the True Attainment and other texts, and certain masters of Sautrāntika, are also of this category. 5. Mundane as False but True as Real

Fifith is the tenet that the mundane world is false and the truth [of enlightenment] is real, as in the Lokottaravāda and the like. All the dharmas of the mundane world are nominal, because they are delusions. The dharmas of the supramundane are real, because they are not delusions.

6. Nominal Existence of all Dharmas

Sixth is the tenet that all dharmas exist in name only, as in the Ekavyāvahārika and the like. Self and dharmas, everything, only exist as provisional names, and all are without essence. You should understand that this view is found throughout the early phase of the initial teaching. 62

V. Analysis and Synthesis of Vehicles and Teachings

7. Emptiness of all Dharmas

Seventh is the tenet that everything is empty, as in the Early Teaching of the Great Vehicle. It teaches that all dharmas are truly empty. This is beyond deluded sentience, where there is no false discrimination. This is in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings. 8. True Quality of Nonemptiness

Eighth is the tenet that the true essence of all things is not empty, as in the Final Teaching. Various scriptures teach that all dharmas do have this true thusness, the real virtue of the tathāgatagarbha. They have their own essence, and are completely endowed with the virtue of true nature. 9. Severance of Both Subject and Object

Ninth is the tenet that characteristics (i.e., of objects of perception, dharmas) and perception [of characteristics] (i.e., a perceiving self) are both severed, as in the Sudden Teaching. It manifests the principle that severs language— like what is manifested in the silence of Vimalakīrti, and so on. Understand this accordingly.

10. Perfect Illumination Endowed with Virtues

Tenth is the tenet of perfect illumination endowed with all virtues, as in the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle, the Dharma gate that manifests the infinite freedom of the interdependent arising of principal and attendants in full. V. Analysis and Synthesis of

Vehicles and Teachings

Fifth gate: Analysis and synthesis of the relationships among the vehicles and teachings. There are three parts within this. First, analysis and synthesis from the perspective of teachings. Second, encompassing the vehicles within the teachings. Third, all the teachings mutually include each other. A. Analysis and Synthesis from the Perspective of Teachings As to the perspectives of the teachings: although these five kinds of teachings mutually interfuse and pervade each other, still, my analysis yields five distinct significances.

One, they may be combined as one. That is, the root teaching and its ramifications are fused into a single great teaching of skillful means. 63

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Two, they may be divided into two: the root teaching, that is, the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle, which is the root of all teachings; and the ramified teachings, that is, the three vehicles and Lesser Vehicle, which spread out [from the root teaching]. These two are also called the ultimate and the expedient, because from the point of view of the One Vehicle, it's clear that the three vehicles and the Lesser Vehicle are all skillful means. Three, they may be divided into three: the teachings of the One Vehicle, the three vehicles, and the Lesser Vehicle. Within the expedient teachings, the two vehicles of the ignorant teaching are separated out. Four, they may be divided into four: the Lesser Vehicle, the Gradual, the Sudden, and the Perfect. They can be divided in this way because the Early and Final teachings are both within the verbal teachings. Five, they may be separated into five, as explained above. B. Encompassing the Vehicles within the Teachings

As to using the teachings to encompass the vehicles, there are two aspects. First, the One Vehicle accords with the teachings in five ways. One is as the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle, and so forth. Two is as the Common Teaching of One Vehicle, and so forth. Three is as the One Vehicle that severs conceptualization, as in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra; this is the Sudden Teaching. Four takes the universality of buddha-nature to be the One Vehicle; this is the perspective of the Final Teaching, and so forth. Five is as the One Vehicle of esoteric intention, as in the eight implicit intentions of the teachings; this is the perspective of the Early Teaching, and so forth. Second, in clarifying how the three vehicles accord with the teachings, there are also five ways. One, the three are within the Lesser Vehicle; that is, the beginnings are different, but the ends are the same, because they all reach the stage of arhat. Two, the three are within the Early and Final teachings; the beginnings and ends are both different, because they enter into their respective quiescences. Three, the three are within the Final Teaching; the beginnings and ends are the same, and all become buddhas. Four, the three are within the Sudden Teaching; beginnings and ends are abolished, and so forth. Five, the three are within the Common Teaching; the beginnings and ends are all the same. "Your practices are the bodhisattva way," [as stated in the Lotus Sutra] and so on, and so forth.

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C. The Various Teachings Mutually Include Each Other

As to the ways in which the various teachings mutually include each other, there are two gates: the gate of the root containing the ramifications, and the gate of returning to the root by way of its ramifications. As to the former gate, within the Perfect Teaching there may be only the one Perfect Teaching, because all the characteristics of the others are exhausted; or there may be all five teachings, because the Perfect Teaching encompasses them all as skillful means. In the Sudden Teaching, there may be only the one Sudden Teaching, also because the characteristics of the others are exhausted; or it may contain four teachings, because it too encompasses skillful means. In the mature teaching, there may be one or three. In the initial teaching, there may be one or two. In the Lesser Vehicle there is only one. You should understand all of this according to the above. The latter gate is that of returning to the root by way of its ramifications. Within the Lesser Vehicle, there may be one, because it is based on its own tenets; or there may be five, as it is considered to be skillful means within the four later teachings. In the initial teaching there may be one, as by its own tenets, or four, as the three later teachings all have it serve as skillful means. In the mature teaching there may be one or three. In the Sudden Teaching there may be one or two. In the Perfect Teaching there is only one. You should understand this accordingly.

Such are the distinctions and interrelationships of the doctrinal principles that the various teachings above have clarified; reflect on them accordingly. Such are the numerous logical possibilities of the roots and ramifications of the many teachings, tied together to form a great net of teaching. The skillful means of the Great Sage continually nurture beings' opportunities for enlightenment, so that all are completely accommodated. Thus, this [Flower Garland] Sutra states, "Cast widely this great net of teaching, all the way across the ocean of samsara! Pull out humans, celestial beings, and dragons, and place them on the shore of nirvana!" This is what it means.

VI. The Sequence of the Emergence

of the Teachings

Sixth gate: The sequence of the emergence of the teachings. Within this there are two parts. The first part clarifies the root teaching that accords with 65

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle Dharma. The second part clarifies the ramified teachings designed for practitioners. A. Root Teaching in Accord with the Dharma

As to the first part, it is the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle. It is what the Buddha taught in the second week after he first accomplished the Way, seated under the bodhi tree. Like the sun just coming up and first illuminating the tallest mountains, while remaining within the ocean-seal samādhi he expounded the infinitely manifold Dharma gate in which the interdependent arising of principal and attendants is complete, all-pervasive and autonomous, and inclusive of the realms of Indra's net and subtle particulars, throughout the nine times and the ten aspects of time. At that moment, all causes and results, principles and phenomena, and so on—all earlier and later Dharma gates, even such future phenomena as the circulating of buddha relics among the believers of later ages—were all together simultaneously manifest. What is the reason? It is because of the absolute autonomy of his rolling up and unrolling the teachings.15 Unrolled, it is found in the nine times; rolled up, it exists in a single moment. This rolling up is precisely unrolling, and unrolling is also precisely rolling up.

What is the reason? It is because they interdependently arise together as one. It is because of their characteristic nonduality. The [Flower Garland] Sutra originally states, "Established within a single mote of dust are the three periods of time and all the Buddha's activities." It also states, "Within a single thought are all eight periods of the Buddha's life, even his nirvana and the circulation of his relics." This is extensively explained in the sutra. Thus, according to this universal Dharma, all Dharmas of the Buddha were taught together in the second week. He taught at one time, in sequence; he taught sequentially, at one time. It is like the printed Dharma of this world: when we read the text, the sentences are in sequence, but as printed text, they are manifest simultaneously. Simultaneity and sequence are not contradictory in principle. You should understand that the principle of the Buddha's first teaching is also like this. Reflect on it accordingly.

B. Ramified Teachings Designed for Practitioners

The second part is the ramified teachings designed for practitioners. This refers to the three vehicles, and has two significances. One, the three vehicles 66

VI. The Sequence of the Emergence of the Teachings

were taught with the One Vehicle at one time but in different places; and two, the three vehicles were taught at different times and in different places. As to the former significance, it is the Common Teaching. The ramifications are not separate from the root; they are formed dependently on the root. As to the latter significance, the characteristics of the root and the ramifications are separate from one another; the ramifications are not one with the root. Each of these significances also has two kinds: the three vehicles and the Lesser Vehicle.

1. Taught at One Time but Different Places

[As to being taught at one time but different places], the Sutra on the Warrior with the Hidden Tracks explains that when the Buddha first attained the Way, upon completing the seven days of contemplation, then at Deer Park he adorned his Dharma seat with a multitude of treasures and gathered great assemblies of the three vehicles. A Brahmā king asked for a teaching, so the Buddha turned the wheel of the Dharma to the great benefit of the assemblies of the three vehicles, causing them to attain the Greater and Lesser results, and so on, as is extensively explained in that sutra. The Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra also states:

When the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel of the four noble truths at Deer Park, innumerable beings gave rise to the mind of the śrāvaka, innumerable beings gave rise to the mind of the pratyekabuddha, and innumerable beings gave rise to the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and practiced the six pāramitās. Innumerable bodhisattvas attained tolerance of the understanding of the unproduced nature of dharmas and resided in the first bodhisattva stage, the second stage, and so on up to the tenth stage. Innumerable bodhisattvas in their final lifetime of benefiting beings became buddhas at once.

Interpretation: By means of this evidence from the teachings, you should understand that at the very beginning, in the second week after enlightenment, the Buddha taught the Dharma of the three vehicles simultaneously with the One Vehicle.

Second is the Lesser Vehicle. As the Mahīśāsaka-vinaya teaches, "the Buddha first accomplished the way and entered into samādhi. After seven 67

VII. Determining the Reasons for the Sequence of the Teachings

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle days he turned the Dharma wheel at Deer Park." Thus we know that the Lesser Vehicle was also taught at the same time as the One Vehicle. In addition, the Sutra on Universal Brilliance states:

In the second week five hundred merchants, such as Trapuṣa, offered the Buddha roasted grain and honey. The Buddha bestowed on them accounts of their future attainment of buddhahood.

Although the teachings of this sutra are shared with the teachings of the three vehicles, its significance encompasses the Dharmas of the human and heavenly vehicles and was also taught at the same time as the One Vehicle. Question: So, the times of teaching are same; how are the places of teaching different?

Reply: The Dharma is manifested for the perspectives of times and places, so there must be similarities and differences. Thus, the Treatise on the Ten Stages states, "The differences of time and place contrast to demonstrate the excellence of this teaching." Being taught at the same time manifests the Common Teaching. Being taught in a different place shows it is not the Distinct Teaching. As to the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle being taught under the bodhi tree, it is to clarify that this very place of attaining bodhi is right where the Tathāgata taught the realized Dharma in accord with the root. It was taught without moving places. The Dharmas of the other three vehicles and so on are taught in different places to clarify that in designing teachings for practitioners of different capacities, changes are made. Moving the place to Deer Park to teach for the sake of practitioners shows that it is not the root teaching. 2. Taught at Different Times and Different Places

The latter significance is that of time and place both being different. Since the other vehicles do not have the same significance as the One Vehicle, the time and place are both distinct. Some Dharma was taught after three weeks, such as the Lotus Sutra. Some was taught only after six weeks, such as the Four-part Vinaya and the Sarvāstivāda-vinaya-vibhāṣā. Some was taught only after seven weeks, such as the Sutra on Awakening of Practice. Some was taught only after eight weeks, such as the teachings of Vinaya in Ten Recitations. Some was taught after fifty-seven days, as taught in the Treatise 68

VII. Determining the Reasons for the Sequence of the Teachings on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra. Some Dharma was not taught within a year, but during the second year five people were delivered, as taught in the Sutra of the Buddha's First Twelve Years. Someone has interpreted this as follows: "The fifty-seven days of the Treatise on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra are actually fifty seven-day weeks, the same as the one year of the Sutra of the Buddha's First Twelve Years."

You should understand by means of this evidence from the teachings. Neither the teachings of the three vehicles nor those of the Lesser Vehicle were taught in the second week. For this reason, they are to be distinguished from the One Vehicle. They are designed to suit practitioners' capacities. You should understand the rest accordingly.

VII. Determining the Reasons for

the Sequence of the Teachings

Seventh gate: Determining the reasons for the sequence of the teachings. It is difficult to understand the differences in the sequences of the various teachings. I will distinguish the reasons summarily in ten gates. A. Lesser Vehicle Capacities

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are set from start to finish within the Lesser Vehicle of this world. They see the Tathāgata, from his beginning to his attainment of the Way and even his nirvana, as only teaching the Lesser Vehicle; they never see the turning of the Dharma wheel of the Great Vehicle. These are such as those of the various schools of the Lesser Vehicle who are attached to their views and do not have faith in the Great Vehicle. B. Early Teaching Capacities

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are not set in the Lesser Vehicle of this world. Thus, they can advance into the initial teaching of the Great Vehicle and then their capacities are set. They see the Tathāgata first turning the Dharma wheel of the Lesser Vehicle in order to overturn the various heterodox ways, and later see him turning the Dharma wheel of the initial teaching of the Great Vehicle, which is emptiness, in order to convert the various Lesser Vehicle practitioners. This is as taught in the beginning of the Treatise on the Middle Way.

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C. Final Teaching Capacities

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are set neither in the Lesser Vehicle nor in the initial teaching of this world. Thus, they can advance into the Final Teaching and then their capacities are set. They see the turning of the Dharma wheel of the Lesser Vehicle in the first period, they see the turning of the Dharma wheel of the teaching of emptiness in the middle period, and they see the turning of the Dharma wheel of the teaching of nonemptiness in the later period. This is what is taught in such scriptures as the Sutra on the Explication of Underlying Meaning.

D. Sudden Teaching Capacities

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are not set in the Gradual Teaching. Thus, they can enter the Sudden Teaching, and then their capacities are set. They see that the first teaching shown by use of verbal explanation is not the ultimate, but rather the teaching later manifested by the severing of language is the ultimate. These are such beings as those who take the teaching of the Vimalakīrti-sūtra, in which the first thirty-two bodhisattvas and Mañjuśrī explain nonduality in words and then Vimalakīrti manifests it in the severing of words, to be the ultimate.

E. Capacity for Sudden Enlightenment

There are some living beings whose opportunity for sudden awakening has ripened in this world, and so their capabilities are set. They see that the Buddha did not teach a single word, from his starting-out to his attainment of the Way and even his nirvana. This is as taught in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra. Also, the Nirvana Sutra states, "If there is one who knows that the Tathāgata never taught the Dharma, that one is called a bodhisattva of great learning," and so on.

F. Three Vehicles Capacities

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are set in the three vehicles of this world. They see the Buddha teaching the Dharma of the three vehicles, and nothing else, from the beginning to his attainment of nirvana. This is as in the Sutra on the Warrior with the Hidden Tracks and the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra, discussed above. 70

VII. Determining the Reasons for the Sequence of the Teachings G. Capacity for the Common Teaching of One Vehicle

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are not set in the three vehicles of this world, so they are able to advance into the Common Teaching of One Vehicle. They see that the Dharmas of the three vehicles that they acquired all rely on the One Vehicle's inexhaustible arising of teachings; those Dharmas are formulated as its skillful means, its Āgamas. Thus, all that they have cultivated is entirely converted into the One Vehicle. This is as in "the three returning to the one" [in the Lotus Sutra], and as in the three vehicles being taught at the same time as the One Vehicle, as in the citations above. H. Capacity for the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle

The spiritual capacities of some living beings are not set in the three vehicles of this world, so they are able to advance into the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle. They know that the Dharmas of those three vehicles are originally no different from the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle. How so? Because it is what they intend; because it is not a different matter. This is as in the Common Teaching of the Lotus Sutra. I. Capacity of Samantabhadra

There are some living beings who have the full spiritual capacity of Samantabhadra in this world. They see that all the Dharmas of the Tathāgata, from the first accomplishment of the Way to the attainment of nirvana, are all within the first time of teaching, the ocean-seal samādhi of the second week, when in absolute autonomy he taught the repletion of the infinitely manifold interdependent arising of principal and attendants and the inexhaustible realms of Indra's net and of subtle particulars. Originally there was no teaching of the Dharmas of three vehicles or Lesser Vehicles to be seen. This is as in the Distinct Teaching of the Flower Garland Sutra. This is taught from the perspective of the previous lifetime of seeing and hearing and the present lifetime of understanding and practice in Samantabhadra's aspect of the teaching. J. Already Accomplished

There are some living beings who have fulfilled the lifetime of understanding and practice in the Distinct Teaching of One Vehicle and have already realized entry into the ocean of result. They see the various teachings described above to be formed according to conditions from the infinite ocean of true nature, 71

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle and they see that they are not a different matter [than the One Vehicle]. Thus, the various teachings are the universal illumination of the rich virtues of the infinite ocean of result, difficult to conceive, truly the inexpressible of the inexpressible. This is taught from the perspective of the extent of the realization that is entered into via the One Vehicle. The rest can be understood by this standard. VIII. Comparison of their

Formulations

Eighth gate: Comparing the formulations of the teachings. Now, the differences among these teachings are very many. I will summarize them in ten gates in order to manifest the infinitude of their differentiation. What are these ten differences?

A. Difference in Times

First is the difference in times. This One Vehicle must be taught in the second week of the first period, like the sun rising to first shine on the highest mountains. Thus, the Treatise [on the Ten Stages] states, "Because this is the most excellent Dharma, it is taught in the first period and at the most excellent place." But if this is so, "then why wasn't it taught in the first week? This was due to the Buddha contemplating the activity of causes and conditions [in order to become enlightened for the benefit of others]," as elucidated in that treatise. Moreover, this very time of teaching, because of Indra's net and so on, encompasses all times. Whether before or after incalculable kalpas, the parameters of future and past are both encompassed within this single time. The teachings of the three vehicles are not so, because in order to accord with the capacities of practitioners and suit their times, their times are not fixed. Sometimes before and sometimes after, they are not taught at the one time that incorporates all kalpas.

B. Difference in Locations

Second is the difference in places. This One Vehicle must be taught under the bodhi tree that is adorned with the multitude of treasures in the ocean of the lotus flower treasury worlds. This location encompasses the seven places and the eight assemblies, and even all the inexpressibly inexpressible oceans of worlds are within it, because this one place encompasses all places. Thus, the Buddha does not move from the tree of the Way even while ascending 72

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the six heavens: this is its significance. Furthermore, Indra's net pervades these flower treasury worlds, so this is true of every mote of dust within them. In this place that accords with the Dharma realm, the Buddha teaches the One Vehicle Dharma gate that accords with the Dharma realm. But the three vehicles are not so. Their Dharmas are taught under trees in the sahā world and such places, and they do not have the teaching of the one place that is identical to all places.

Question: If so, why are the Sutra on the Buddha Stage and such scriptures then taught in the Pure Land?

Reply: Those scriptures only state that there are brilliant palaces in which the eighteen kinds of perfection [of the Buddhaʼ

s saṃbhogakāya (reward body)]

are complete, but they do not specifically indicate the kingdom of Magadha and so on. Because they teach the virtue of the buddha stage for the sake of those bodhisattvas in the stages, they teach that it exists in the enjoyment land beyond the triple world. This is taught in the Final Teaching of the three vehicles and the Common Teaching of One Vehicle. As to this Huayan teaching, however, it is said to be taught in the kingdom of Magadha that is within the flower treasury worlds, and so on. It is not said to be within the sahā world, and yet neither is it said to be beyond the triple world. Thus, we know it is distinct. You should understand the other significances accordingly. C. Difference in Principals

Third is the difference in principals (i.e., sovereigns). With reference to this One Vehicle, the principal figure is necessarily Vairocana Buddha of the ten buddha bodies and their infinite teachings throughout the three times. As the "Samantabhadra's Practice" chapter of the Flower Garland Sutra states, "Buddhas teach, bodhisattvas teach, kṣatriyas teach, all living beings teach, everything of the three times teaches," and so on. This is not the same as the three vehicles' teachings of the principal figures being the transformation body and the enjoyment body. Understand the other significances accordingly.

D. Difference in Assemblies

Fourth is the difference in assemblies. That is, the One Vehicle scriptures begin by only listing assemblies of bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra, and various divine kings of the buddha realms. It is not the same in the three vehicles 73

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle scriptures, which sometimes have assemblies of only śrāvakas and sometimes have the two assemblies of the Lesser and Great Vehicles. Question: If so, for what reason does the eighth assembly [of the Flower Garland Sutra] include the śrāvakas?

Reply: The reasons for which śrāvakas are listed in that assembly are two. One, it illuminates the Dharma by making a contrast, manifesting the surpassing profundity of the Dharma of the One Vehicle by showing those śrāvakas to be as if deaf and blind. Two, the six thousand bhikṣus gathered by Mañjuśrī when he left the assembly are not those previously included in the assembly. All of these were already within the three vehicles. This teaching was made to cause beings to convert to the One Vehicle. E. Difference in Sources

Fifth is the difference in sources. The arising of this One Vehicle teaching is necessarily based on the Buddha's ocean-seal samādhi from whence it came. This is different from the three vehicles, which are based on what came out of the wisdom the Buddha attained later.

F. Difference in Explanations

Sixth is the difference in explanations. This One Vehicle, at the time when it teaches from this one direction about one phenomenon, one significance, one type, or one assembly, always connects to and includes all the worlds of the ten directions; all share in this teaching. Principal and attendants together form one whole. For this reason, by pursuing any single word or single line of this scripture you can extend your understanding to the ten directions. By pursuing many words and many lines, you can also extend all of them to the ten directions. The three vehicles are not so; their explanations only pursue the single characteristic of a single direction. They do not have the pervasive thoroughness of the teaching of principal and attendants, and so on. G. Difference in Ranks

Seventh is the difference in ranks. As to this One Vehicle, all its ranks, high and low, are equal, for each single rank encompasses all ranks within it. Thus, all ranks, even up to buddhahood, are within the initial rank of faith. The other ranks are also this way. Within the three vehicles, it is not so. One 74

VIII. Comparison of their Formulations

can only proceed with one's rank in the sequence, whether high or low, ascending or descending sequentially, never intermixing. The rest is as explained below.

H. Difference in Practices

Eighth is the difference in practices. In the One Vehicle, any one bodhisattva practice includes the six ranks, such as the ten stages of faith and so on. Within each and every rank, all definitive activities with their differences of concentration or distraction and so on are cultivated together at once. If while one is in the eastern realms one constantly enters into states of concentration, then in the western realms one constantly makes offerings to the buddhas. It is to be here in these realms of the ten directions fully exhausting the practices of the Dharma realm, even without dividing one's body. At one time all [ranks] are universally fulfilled. With one thought, all [activities] are universally cultivated. Within each and every thought it is also like this. From the fulfilled mind of the stages of faith and onward, each and every stage is cultivated thus. There can be no superior or inferior practices. Moreover, "one practice is all practices" and such principles pervade universally, like Indra's net. In the three vehicles it is not like this. Even the bodhisattvas of the stages have their respective distinctions; how much more so those who are prior to the bodhisattva stages! The rest is as explained below. I. Difference in Dharma Gates

Ninth is the difference in Dharma gates. In summary there are ten kinds. 1. That has three buddhas, this has ten buddhas.

2. That has six supernatural powers, this has ten supernatural powers. 3. That has three kinds of insight, this has ten kinds of insight. 4. That has eight kinds of liberation, this has ten kinds of liberation. 5. That has four kinds of fearlessness, this has ten kinds of fearlessness. 6. That has five kinds of vision, this has ten kinds of vision. 7. That has three temporal worlds, this has ten temporal worlds. 8. That has four noble truths, this has ten noble truths. 9. That has four teaching abilities, this has ten teaching abilities. 10. That has eighteen special marks of a buddha, this has ten special marks. The other gates are innumerable, as extensively explained in the scriptures. 75

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts]

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle J. Difference in Particular Phenomena

Tenth is the difference in particular phenomena. Follow any phenomenon, such as a house, a forest, a pond, some earth, or a mountain: all are Dharma gates, whether of practice, rank, or doctrine—but that does not destroy their phenomenality. Even within every single mote of dust, the Dharma realm with all its different phenomena is complete, and Indra's net and the simultaneous accommodation of subtle particulars are realized. Follow the arising of a single phenomenon: all are completely thus. In the three vehicles, however, it is not so. They only can teach that this phenomenon is empty, and truly thus, and so on, and so it is not the same as this One Vehicle teaching. Moreover, although they use spiritual insight of inconceivable power, what they encounter is but a momentary manifestation, not this Dharma's fundamental nature of thusness. The rest you can understand accordingly. This is the end of the eighth section. Next, there are the two gates on explanations and doctrinal principles, completing the ten gates. IX. Differences in their Explanations

[of Essential Concepts]

Ninth gate: Clarification of the differences among the explanations of the various teachings. This will be summarized in ten gates. Because there are differences in their doctrines, it is apparent that the differences in what they can explain are numerous. The rest is as taught elsewhere (i.e., in the work of my teacher Zhiyan). 1. Fundamental consciousness

2. Clarification of buddha seed-nature

3. Distinctions in practices and ranks

4. Duration of cultivation

5. Embodied basis of cultivation

6. Distinctions in the severing of delusions

7. Conversion of the two vehicles

8. Characteristics of buddhahood

9. Worlds encompassed and transformed

10. Analysis and synthesis of buddha bodies

A. Fundamental Consciousness

First are the differences in the explanations of fundamental consciousness. 76

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] 1. Lesser Vehicle

As to the Lesser Vehicle, it only has six consciousnesses. Their significance is divided into mind (citta), thought (manas), and consciousness (vijñāna). When the Lesser Vehicle treatises teach of the storehouse consciousness (ālayavijñāna) they only get to its name [and don't explain its significance], as taught in the Incremental Āgama Sutra, for example.

2. Early Teaching

As to the Early Teaching, with regard to the storehouse consciousness, it only attains one part of its significance—that is, that it is produced and extinguished. It is not yet able to see that it is thoroughly pervaded by true principle. It only teaches a reified [storehouse consciousness] that does not create the myriad dharmas. Thus, it just establishes storehouse consciousness among the interdependently arising phenomena of production and extinction. It is produced through the differentiation of the essence of karmic and verbal seeds. As the consciousness of the recompense of their different ripenings, it becomes the basis of various dharmas. It is a skillful means to gradually draw Lesser Vehicle practitioners toward true principle, so it teaches that all things, such as the permeating influence of karmic impressions and so on, are in fact empty. This is as explained in the Sutra on the Explication of Under lying Meaning, which states:

If a bodhisattva, looking within and without, does not see the storing [of seeds], does not see the permeating influence of karmic impressions, does not see the storehouse, does not see storehouse consciousness, does not see appropriation (ādāna), does not see the appropriating consciousness (ādānavijñāna)—if there is one who can understand thusly, this one is called a wondrously skilled bodhisattva. The Tathāgata in this way established all the esoteric and wondrously skillful teachings of mind, thought, and sense consciousness.

In Yogācāra we also find this same teaching.

Interpretation: In this way, on the basis of not seeing [storehouse consciousness] and so on, mind, thought, and so on are established as teachings of wondrous skill. For this reason, you should know that all the characteristics 77

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle of storehouse consciousness that are established in the Early Teaching, such as its production and extinction and so on, have esoteric intent, and are not to be taken literally. It ultimately returns to true thusness. 3. Final Teaching

As to the Final Teaching, it attains two parts of the significance of storehouse consciousness, which is that true principle and phenomenality both pervade it. The Treatise [on the Awakening of Faith] states only, "no production and no extinction, production and extinction—harmoniously combined, neither the same nor different: this is called storehouse consciousness." Because the Final Teaching recognizes that true thusness and the karmic impressions that permeate true thusness are harmonized and combined to form this original consciousness, it is not the same as the abovementioned teaching in which karmic and verbal seeds produce it. The Laṅkāvatārasūtra states, "The tathāgatagarbha, being what is permeated by beginningless evil habits, is called storehouse consciousness."16 It also states, "The tathāgatagarbha receives suffering and pleasure and their causes; together they are born or they are extinguished." It also states, "The tathāgatagarbha is called 'storehouse consciousness,' and it exists together with ignorance and the seventh consciousness."

Also, The Awakening of Faith states, "The immaculate mind of self-nature, moved by the winds of ignorance, becomes the impure mind," and so on. Teachings like this are numerous.

Question: [According to you, the Final Teaching] has said that true thusness is a permanent dharma. How then can it teach that it arises and is extinguished in being permeated by karmic impressions? Having recognized that it arises and goes extinct, how can the [Final Teaching] also teach that it has reified permanence?

Reply: The permanence of true thusness spoken of is not permanence as posited in words. Why would the sages teach that true thusness is reified? This is because even when it produces various dharmas according to conditions, it does not lose its own essence; thus, it is taught to be permanent. This is no different from the permanence of impermanence, which is called "the inconceivable permanence." It is not saying that [the storehouse consciousness, 78

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] being truly thus,] does not create myriad dharmas, as in the reified view posited by deluded sentience. Thus, the Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion's Roar calls it "what is not defiled, and yet defiled." This clarifies the production of various dharmas according to conditions. "Defiled and yet not defiled" clarifies that it does not lose its self-nature when according with conditions. By the former significance, mundane truth is realized. By the latter significance, the absolute truth is also established. In this way the absolute and mundane truths have two significances, but do not have two essences. Interfused without obstruction, they are beyond the grasping of sentient beings. Thus, the Commentary [on the Summary of the Great Vehicle] states, "When beings in the darkness of the extreme myopia of cognitive hindrances talk about the absolute and the mundane, they form attachment to their separation," it refers to this. These two significances of true thusness are the same as what was discussed above in the section on the Early Teaching. Because the Early Teaching takes the perspective of the Dharma gate of differentiated dharma characteristics, it only teaches the one reified aspect of the significance of true thusness. Within this Final Teaching, because it takes the perspective of the Dharma gate of the interfusion of essence and characteristics, it teaches the significance of the nonduality of both aspects of true thusness. This doctrine is broadly explained in my Commentary on The Awakening of Faith.

Also, it is as stated in the Ten Stages Sutra, "The triple world is delusion, only the creation of one mind." The Summary of the Great Vehicle and such texts take the perspective of the Early Teaching and explicate this [one mind] to be the various consciousnesses, such as the storehouse consciousness. The Treatise on the Ten Stages takes the perspective of the Final Teaching, explaining it to be the true mind of the ultimate principle. It is furthermore as in the verses of the Abhidharma Sutra, in explanation of which the Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "As to 'this realm' (dhātu) and so on, 'realm' means cause; it is the consciousness that contains the seeds (i.e., storehouse consciousness)," and so on. The Treatise on the Jewel Nature interprets it from the perspective of the Final Teaching: "This nature is the nature of tathāgatagarbha. Depending upon this, the various destinies of sentient beings exist." As the Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā teaches, "Depending upon tathāgatagarbha, birth and death exist; depending upon tathāgatagarbha, 485b

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle nirvana exists"; and so on, as extensively taught. For these reasons, you should understand that the two gates of the Early and Final teachings are distinct. 4. Sudden Teaching

According to the Sudden Teaching, all dharmas are only the one mind of true thusness. [The one mind] exhausts distinguishing characteristics, abandoning words and cutting off thoughts. It is inexpressible. As in the Vimalakīrti-sūtra, the Dharma gate of "not two" taught by the thirty-two bodhisattvas is the Final Teaching doctrine discussed above; that is, the nonduality of interfused impurity and purity. What Vimalakīrti manifests is the "not two" that abandons words; this is the Dharma gate of the Sudden Teaching. Because in this latter view all impure and pure characteristics are exhausted, there are no two dharmas that could be harmonized, and thus one cannot even explain them as being "not two."

5. Perfect Teaching

As to the Perfect Teaching, it takes the perspective of the perfect illumination of the ocean of original nature, the unobstructed freedom of the interdependent arising of the Dharma realm in which one is everything and everything is one and principal and attendants are perfectly interfused. Thus, it teaches the ten kinds of mind in order to manifest the infinite. This is as taught in the "Transcending the Mundane" chapter of the Flower Garland Sutra, and in the section on the ninth bodhisattva stage. Moreover, there is only one mind of the Dharma realm that arises from original nature, and it is replete with the Ten Virtues, as taught in the "Arising from Original Nature" chapter. These are based on the Distinct Teaching.

6. Common Teaching

If we take the perspective of the Common Teaching, it encompasses all the foregoing teachings of mind and consciousness. How so? Because they are its skillful means; they all flow out from it. The rest can be understood by this standard.

7. Explanation of Differences

Question: How can one mind have such different significances in the perspectives of the various teachings? 80

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Reply: There are two significances to this. First, from the perspective of Dharma, all the teachings are completely included. Second, from the perspective of living beings' capacities, there are distinctions.

As to the first significance, five doctrinal gates originate from this extremely profound one mind of interdependent arising. Thus, a sage may encompass and transform all the living beings by means of the one gate appropriate to each. [They are as follows:] One: the gate that adumbrates the significance [of storehouse consciousness] in giving precedence to the name, as taught in the Lesser Vehicle. Two: the gate that adumbrates the true principle [of storehouse consciousness] in giving precedence to its phenomenality, as taught in the Early Teaching. Three: the gate of the nonobstruction of true principle and phenomena [with regard to storehouse consciousness], as taught in the Final Teaching. Four: the gate of reaching the end of phenomenality in order to reveal the true principle, as taught in the Sudden Teaching. Five: the gate of the ocean of original nature replete with virtues, as taught in the Perfect Teaching. This is how the unmoving root continually ramifies; without destroying the ramifications, the root is permanent. Thus, the characteristics of the five doctrines are fused in the evolutions of the one mind. As to the second significance, it clarifies that there are distinctions in the Dharma from the perspective of living beings' capacities. There are beings who attain the name but do not attain the significance, as in the Lesser Vehicle teachings. Or, there are those who attain the name and attain one part of the significance, as in Early Teaching. There are those who attain the name and attain all parts of the significance, as in the Final Teaching. There are those who attain the significance but do not preserve the name, as in the Sudden Teaching. Or there are those who have the name and the significance together, infinitely, as in the Perfect Teaching. The other gates of doctrine are as taught in the "Essay on Consciousness Only."

B. Clarification of Buddha Seed-nature

Second is the difference in the explanations of the seed-natures. 1. Lesser Vehicle

According to the Lesser Vehicle view, there are six kinds of seed-natures. These are backsliding, concern [for backsliding], protection [of the progress one has gained], abiding [in the rank one has gained], ascension [to higher 81

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle ranks], and immovability. Within the immovable nature, there are three types. The highest is buddha seed-nature, the middle is pratyekabuddha-nature, and the lower is śrāvaka-nature—for example, those such as Śāriputra. Although within this Lesser Vehicle it is taught that the Buddha alone has buddha seed-nature, this is not the great bodhi-nature, because it is not taught that the Buddha's meritorious activities include the arising of great salvific function unto the very limit of the future, and so on. You should understand that within this teaching, besides the one person of the Buddha, all the myriad beings are taught as not having great bodhi-nature. The rest of the doctrine is as taught in the Lesser Vehicle treatises.

2. Three Vehicles

According to the three vehicles teachings, there are in summary three explanations of the different seed-natures.

i. Early Teaching

One is from the perspective of the Early Teaching. That is, because seednature is established within created, impermanent dharmas, it can't extend to all sentient beings. Thus, within the five kinds of seed-nature there is one part of living beings without seed-nature. The Treatise on Praise of the Sacred Teachings states, "What is the reason for the five different kinds of seednature? It is because it is possible [even] given the differences of the many realms," and so on, to "If only in this present world [and not in other temporal worlds, one part of living beings] did not have the dharma of parinirvāṇa, that would not correspond to the true principle"; and so on, as extensively taught. Therefore, you should understand that by reason of things-as-theyare, from beginningless time there are five kinds of seed-nature for all sentient beings. But the fifth seed-nature lacks the meritorious cause of transcendence, and so [beings of this nature] never extinguish delusions and cross over [to the other shore]. Because of this principle, the buddhas' meritorious activity of benefiting sentient beings has no end.

Regarding the existence of natures, the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages states: Summarily, there are two kinds of seed-natures. One is what is originally inherent. Two is what is formed through habituation. As to what is originally inherent, it means that bodhisattvas have such a characteristic in the superior faculties of the six cognitive fields. Since beginningless time, 82

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] [this inherent nature] has evolved and continued, and is attained by virtue of things-as-they-are. As to what is formed through habituation, this refers to what is attained by the repeated cultivation of good roots from the past. Within this statement, original nature is identified with the cognitive field of thought, which is considered to be most superior among the six cognitive fields. It is the originally awakened liberated nature within storehouse consciousness, which is seed-nature. Thus, the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "The permeating influences received harmonize with the liberated nature that is within storehouse consciousness. All the sages take this as their cause." However, the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages states, "those who have both kinds of nature are able to aspire to enlightenment." You should know that the two dharmas of inherent and habitual nature together form one seed-nature. For this reason, these two arise interdependently and are not two. If one is lacking, seed-nature is not complete. It does not teach that inherent nature is first and habituation is after; it only allows that they exist from the rank of the fulfillment of faith and above. Then, from the perspective of origin, [Yogācāra] teaches that there is inherent nature, while from the perspective of cultivation, it teaches habitual nature. Thus, there are two significances, but it is not two things. We can understand this from the above statement from the Summary of the Great Vehicle: the two significances are harmonized as one cause.

Question: What is the difference between these two seed-natures and [the explanation given by] the Benevolent King and Basic Activities sutras on the habituated seeds and inherent seeds among the six seed-natures? Reply: Those sutras are mostly taught from the perspective of ranks. They consider what is there in initial habituation to be habitual seed-nature, and what is accumulated through long habituation to be inherent seed-nature. They teach that the habitual seed-nature exists in the ten abodes and the inherent seed-nature exists in the ten practices. Before the stage of the three worthy sets of practices, those sutras only refer to good destinies and do not refer to seed-nature.

In the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages, long habituation is called habitual seednature, while from the perspective of origin, it is called inherent seed-nature; 83

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle of these two seeds, however, neither is first, nor middle, nor last. Thus, scripture teaches that inherent nature forms because of habituation. The treatises explain it as habituation arising dependent upon nature. Truly this is because these two form mutually and arise interdependently, without any characteristic of duality. The scriptures and the treatises complement each other to provide the full significance. At the same time, the scriptures teach that seed-nature exists after the aspiration to enlightenment, while in the treatises it is taught that seed-nature exists before the aspiration to enlightenment. It is like this because the effective power [of seed-nature] only manifests when the respective rank is attained. For this reason, the scriptures teach that it exists at the rank of the three worthy sets of practices. But its effective power must depend on something. For this reason, in the treatises it is explained as existing before the rank is attained. The effective power must become manifest for it to be said to exist: the scripture does not contradict the treatises. The nature must exist for it to give rise to effective power: the treatise does not contradict the scripture. They uphold each other, and the meaning is thoroughly interfused. Question: By what reason am I to understand that seed-nature exists at the rank of fulfillment of faith?

Reply: You can understand it by means of the teaching in the treatises that seed-nature must necessarily include both inherent and habitual natures. If there is already habituation, there must be practice. If there is already practice, the fulfillment of faith must be attained. If one does not cultivate these repeated habituating practices from the rank of ignorance until reaching the fulfillment of faith, then at what rank will one cultivate it? Because in the rank of ignorance one has not yet cultivated habituation, and since after attaining this rank is the second abode, then for these reasons you should understand that from the rank of ignorance one [first] cultivates repeated habituating practices. Upon reaching the rank of fulfillment of faith, repeated habituation is then accomplished, and so the inherent nature and habitual nature are thoroughly fused to become seed-nature.

Question: If inherent nature is taught as necessarily following habituation, then given that those at the rank of ignorance have not yet cultivated habituation, 84

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] shouldn't they lack inherent nature? If they don't have it then, they shouldn't have it later, because something that does not exist before but does exist later would not be inherent. If they do have it, then this is having inherent nature without habituation, which does not accord with the principle stated above, and is not what the treatises teach.

Reply: These two both arise interdependently, so that when there is no habitual nature, there is likewise no inherent nature. Through this they establish that there are sentient beings who have no inherent nature. As to your claim that what does not exist before and does exist later would not be inherent, you are not correct. Based on the fact that habituation is accomplished, it is certain that the natures existed before. Because there is still no habituation [of good practices] at the rank of ignorance, the natures are not taught [to exist]. Of beings that later give rise to the habituation [of good practices], it cannot be said that there is no habituation. For this reason, the natures are taught to exist after habituation is accomplished. When practices pertinent to the respective vehicle have been repeatedly habituated, then at that time those natures are said to originally exist.

Question: If it is like this, then there is only one indeterminate nature. How could it be that there are five differentiated natures?

Reply: It is because of this significance (i.e., the interdependent arising of the two kinds of seed-nature) that we securely establish five natures. How is that? Having cultivated the six perfections [of the Great Vehicle] through repeated habituation, upon attaining the rank of fulfillment of faith, one forms bodhisattva seed-nature. If one has habituated Lesser Vehicle practices and attained the rank of endurance, one forms śrāvaka-nature. Thus, the Treatise on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra states, "'Warmth,' 'pinnacles,' 'patience,' and so on (i.e., the four roots of goodness) are names for the stage of nature." The Sutra on the Good Moral Discipline of Bodhisattvas states, "If one attains the world's highest (i.e., fourth of the roots of goodness), this is named 'the second rank.'" Thus, you should know that the first three roots of goodness belong to the rank of seed-nature. According to the Abhi dharmakośa-bhāṣya, seednature is taught to exist at the rank where one attains the good root of the cause leading to liberation. Thus, that treatise states:

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle As to the cause leading to liberation, this is the good root that determines one's ability to experience the result of nirvana. Having produced this good root, those sentient beings are said to have the dharma of nirvana in their life.

The pratyekabuddhas should also be understood by this standard. The three vehicles teaching on seed-nature is established in this way. So, if one cultivates any one of the three practices and has not yet arrived at the basic rank, at this time one establishes indeterminate seed-nature. If one has not yet cultivated any of the three practices, at this time no seed-nature is established. By this you should fully understand that the seed-natures of the various vehicles are all taught as pertaining to habituation.

Question: If in the rank of ignorance there is no habituation and therefore no [seed-]nature,17 then later, even if one gives rise to habituation, how could it be that one has it?

Reply: When habituation exists, it is not the rank of no habituation. Thus, if habituation exists, then [seed-nature] exists eternally. If habituation does not exist, [seed-nature] has never existed. One does not take nonhabituation and make it into habituation; likewise, one does not make non-nature become nature. This is because of the difference in rank. As the Nirvana Sutra states: Of the three kinds of people, those who will die in the end [without reaching nirvana] are compared to icchantikas, who lack buddha-nature. Good sons, whether those who are icchantikas meet good friends, buddhas, and bodhisattvas, and hear them teach the profound Dharma, or whether they don't meet them, either way they do not depart from the mind of icchantika. Why? Because their good roots are severed. Yet those who are icchantikas may attain the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. By means of what? If they can aspire to bodhi-mind, then they are no longer named icchantikas. Good sons, under what conditions are icchantikas said to attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi? Those who are icchantikas in fact do not attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi [as icchantikas], like those whose life span is ended. And so on, as extensively taught. You should understand from this that the existence or nonexistence [of seed-nature] is eternally fixed in regard to 86

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] one's position relative to the ranks. [Habituation and nonhabituation] do not depend on each other.

ii. Final Teaching

Two is from the perspective of the Final Teaching. Because it establishes seed-nature within the nature of true thusness, all living beings have seednature—each and every one. The Treatise on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra states:

White stones have the nature of silver, yellow stones have the nature of gold, water is of the nature of wetness, and fire is of the nature of heat. All living beings have the nature of nirvana.

This is because among all beings of deluded consciousness, there are none who cannot return to their own true nature, as the sutra teaches when it states: Living beings are thus: they all have minds; each being that has a mind will definitely realize anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Because of this principle, I have always taught that all living beings have buddha-nature. Question: What if a critic were to say, "All beings possessing minds attain bodhi, and buddhas also have minds, so buddhas also should definitely attain bodhi. If you say that buddhas have minds, but have nothing further to attain, then that would mean that although living beings without nature have minds, they also have nothing to attain."

Reply: In the scripture, in order to prevent such confusion, it only states that living beings have minds, and does not state the same about buddhas. Those who receive births in various realms are called living beings. They are not the same as buddhas.

Question: If all beings have [buddha-]nature, why establish those without nature among the five kinds of nature?

Reply: The treatises have exegeses on this. The Treatise on the Jewel Nature states:

It has been taught that icchantikas do not have the nature of nirvana and do not enter nirvana. What is the significance of this? It is meant to show 87

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle that the cause [of having no buddha-nature] is slandering the Great Vehicle. What significance does this clarify? It is meant to convert the minds of those who would slander the Great Vehicle, because in reality they do have the pure buddha-nature. [The scripture] made this teaching in consideration of the immeasurable time [of icchantikas' debasement, to frighten slanderers].

Moreover, the Treatise on Buddha-nature states:

Question: If it is as you say, why did the Buddha teach that living beings in whom the nature does not abide will never gain parinirvāṇa? Reply: If there are beings who spitefully turn against the Great Vehicle, that dharma is the cause of becoming icchantikas. It is meant to make living beings abandon that dharma. If they fall into the cause of becoming icchantikas, then they will turn over and over in the long night without respite. For this reason, the scripture makes this teaching. But according to true principles, all of the myriad living beings originally have pure buddha-nature. There is no basis for the idea that some do not attain parinirvāṇa. Thus, buddha-nature definitely originally exists. It is beyond existence and beyond nonexistence.

Interpretation: An earlier passage of this treatise extensively refutes the non existence of nature, down to the end of the passage, which states: As to the third point, its mistake is the same as in the heterodox ways— that existence is originally fixed as existence and nonexistence is originally fixed as nonexistence, existence being imperishable and nonexistence being improducible. Such errors and mistakes originate in your perverse attachment to the doctrine of naturelessness.

And so on, as extensively taught.

Question: The Early Teaching, as explained above, definitely teaches that there are living beings without [buddha-]nature. Now in this Final Teaching, they all have [buddha-]nature. How can these statements be reconciled? Reply: The treatises again have exegeses on this. The second fascicle of the Treatise on Buddha-nature states:

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Why do the scriptures repeatedly state that, among living beings, icchantikas definitely do not have the nature of parinirvāṇa? If it is so, then the two scriptures contradict each other. How can the two explanations be reconciled? One is complete and one is incomplete, so there is no contradiction. Interpretation: According to the Lesser Vehicle, only the one person of the Buddha has buddha-nature, and all the rest of the people cannot be said to have it. According to the Early Teaching of the three vehicles, it is slightly different and many people have it, but still it is not completely different from the Lesser Vehicle teaching; it still allows that one part of beings have no buddha-nature. For this reason, in the treatises it is judged as being the provisional and incomplete teaching. Question: According to the Final Teaching, all living beings will definitely become buddhas. Although living beings are many, they will come to a final end. If it is so, then when the last one becomes a buddha there will be nothing left to transform. Because there is nothing to transform, the practice of benefiting others [which constitutes buddhahood] is absent, and becoming a buddha when the practice of benefiting others is absent does not correspond to true principles. Moreover, the merits of the buddhas' activities of benefiting others would be severed completely. If it is the case that all beings without exception will become buddhas, and yet the teachings say that living beings are ultimately infinite, then this is a fallacy of the words themselves contradicting each other, because if they are endless they will never all become buddhas. Furthermore, if one buddha crosses over innumerable beings, is there a decrease in the realm of living beings? If there is a gradual decrease, then there must be a final end. If there were a decrease without an end, that would not accord with reason. If there is no decrease, then there is no extinction and crossing over. If there were extinction without decrease, that would not accord with reason. Given such principles as these, the Treatise on the Sutra on the Buddha Stage and such texts establish the concept of sentient beings without buddha-nature to avoid the various mistakes above. What is the meaning of all this?

Reply: In reference to the teaching that living beings come to an end, due to having buddha-nature and thus becoming buddhas together, this is to give 89

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle rise to the partial view that mistakenly maintains there is decrease within the realm of living beings. If there is decrease in the realm of living beings, there must be increase in the realm of buddhas; this is to give rise to the partial view that mistakenly maintains there is increase in the buddha realm. Such partial views of decrease and increase are not the correct view. Thus, the Sutra on No Increase and No Decrease states, "Śāriputra, as to the greatly mistaken view, it is to see increase in the realm of living beings, or to see decrease in the realm of living beings," and so on, as extensively taught. In order to avoid this mistaken view, the teachings establish this one division of sentient beings without buddha-nature as those which do not increase or decrease. But that teaching ultimately cannot avoid the partial views of increase and decrease. Why? Because seeing all those beings who do have buddha-nature and become buddhas together gives rise to annihilationism and the partial view of decrease; seeing those beings who do not have buddhanature and do not become buddhas, it gives rise to eternalism and the partial view of increase. This is because they do not apprehend the realm of living beings. For this reason, the sutra states:

All ignorant ordinary people do not truly understand the absolute Dharma realm. Because they do not truly see the absolute Dharma realm, they give rise to mistaken views, believing that the realm of living beings increases or decreases.

Furthermore, Mañjuśrī's Sutra on Prajñāpāramitā states: Even if one buddha dwells in the world, whether for one kalpa or more than one kalpa; even if, as in that one buddha world, there are myriad buddhas like that one buddha, as innumerable as the boundless sands of the Ganges River; even if each and every buddha, whether for one kalpa or more than one kalpa, teaches the Dharma day and night without resting their heart for a moment, crossing over each and every one of the living beings, who are as innumerable as the grains of sand of the Ganges River, so that they all enter nirvana—even so, the realm of living beings does not increase or decrease. All the buddha worlds of the ten directions are also like this. Every single one of the myriad buddhas teaches the Dharma and causes the transformation of living beings. Each crosses over living 90

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] beings as innumerable as the grains of sand of the Ganges so that they all enter nirvana, and in the realm of living beings there is neither increase nor decrease. How so? Because a fixed characteristic of living beings [by which to count them] is not obtainable.

To expand upon the significance of this, the realm of living beings is like an empty sky. Suppose that innumerable conquering deities pass through it, each flying across the empty sky for innumerable kalpas in search of the boundaries of the sky. Yet ultimately they cannot reach the end of it. It is not the case that because the sky has no limit, they can't roam across it; it is not the case that by roaming across it they will reach its boundaries. You should understand that the true principle within this [teaching on no increase or decrease] is likewise. It is not the case that because living beings will attain buddhahood they will come to an end; it is not the case that because they have no end, there are some who do not attain buddhahood. Thus, none of the various criticisms are unaccounted for.

Moreover, in order to make the point that a buddha's merits of benefiting others are never severed or exhausted, the teachings established one division of living beings without buddha-nature. This means that those buddhas would have only the merits of benefiting others through their transformation bodies, while the various merits of their enjoyment bodies would be severed, because there would be no bodhisattvas to attest to the various bodhisattva stages. Furthermore, among the beings transformed, there would only be beings of coarse capacities while those beings of subtle capacities would be severed and extinguished, because there would be not one person to attain the uncontaminated mind of the two vehicles. Furthermore, as to the buddhas of this time and after, there would not be one buddha to reach the point of teaching the three vehicles teachings, because none would have the opportunity to attain sagehood. This would sever the buddhas' great compassion and empathetic identity with all beings. Furthermore, if you insist that because all beings have buddha-nature they will certainly all come to an end, and you fear that the very last buddha would then lack the practice of benefiting others, and so you establish one part of living beings to be fixed without buddha-nature, still, that last buddha's practice of benefiting others would not be perfectly fulfilled in the end, 91

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle because among those beings they tried to transform there would be not one sentient being to attain the result of sagehood. Only benefiting others, among the two benefits of the buddhas and bodhisattvas, is the greatest. How could there be one who does not cause even a single being to attain the result of sagehood and yet attains buddhahood in their own body?

Furthermore, originally all buddhas make the great vow, saying, "I will cause all living beings to attain bodhi." Thus, by causing them to attain it, this original vow is not in vain. And yet the realm of living beings cannot be emptied, so the original vow is not severed. If it was not like this, they would be contradicting their original vow, and the practice of the vow would be vain. To become a buddha through vain practice does not accord with true principles. For this reason, although [the authors of the texts you mention] wished to avoid the above mistakes by establishing beings without buddhanature, they did not realize that they fell into those very errors within this tenet. For this reason, [the existence of beings] without buddha-nature is not to be taken as the ultimately realized significance of the doctrine. Question: When discussing seed-nature, it must be discussed as a created phenomenon. How can this teaching make a claim about seed-nature from the perspective of true thusness?

Reply: It is because when true thusness accords with conditions and is harmonized with impurities to become root consciousness (i.e., storehouse consciousness), then within that true thusness there is an original awakening without contamination, influencing living beings as the cause of their turning against the current [of samsara]; so there is seed-nature. The Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle teaches it as the nature of liberation within storehouse consciousness. The Awakening of Faith teaches it as original awakening, being among the two significances of storehouse consciousness. In that treatise, the tathāgatagarbha is completely without contamination, eternally influencing living beings as the cause of pure dharmas. Also, the Treatise on the Jewel Nature states:

As to "and that nature of true thusness," it is as stated in the Sutra on the Accumulations of the Six Senses,18 which teaches that the six sense faculties are thus since the beginningless beginning, ultimately becoming the essence of all dharmas.

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Interpretation: Although true thusness pervades all dharmas, the text here excludes nonsentient beings. From the perspective of those numerous living beings who do possess the six sense bases, the principle of ultimate true thusness is to be taken as the inherent nature. This is the same in name as what is taught in Yogācāra, but that only teaches it from the perspective of the Early Teaching in terms of its coarse characteristics, true principle being secondary to particular phenomena. Thus, within the perspective of phenomena, it clarifies seed-nature. The Bodhisattva Stages Sutra states, "The coarse characteristics of seed-nature I have already summarily taught." It refers to this. The Treatise on the Jewel Nature takes the perspective of this Final Teaching, in which phenomena are secondary to true principle, to teach its profound subtleties. This is thusness clarifying the inherent nature. For this reason, the Treatise on Buddha-nature states, "The mind of pure self-nature is named 'the truth of the way' (i.e., the way to extinguish affliction, fourth of the four noble truths)." Also, the Nirvana Sutra states, "As to buddhanature, it is what is called emptiness in its primary significance. Emptiness in its primary significance is called wisdom." These are both just the wisdom of the nature of original awakening, taught as inherent nature. The habitual seeds are likewise formed by following from true thusness. The Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "The habituating influence of hearing the Dharma flows from the most pure Dharma realm," and so on.

Moreover, in The Awakening of Faith the two great aspects of true thusness, essence and characteristics, are taken as the causes of internal permeating influence, while the great aspect of function of true thusness is the condition of external permeating influence. These are harmonized with the impure dharmas of ignorance, and thus the three great aspects of thusness are taught in terms of internal and external permeating influence. When ignorance is eliminated due to the power of permeating influence, they are profoundly joined and nondual, only one true thusness.

iii. Sudden Teaching

Third is clarification from the perspective of the Sudden Teaching. Only the one true thusness, beyond characteristics that could be described in words, is called seed-nature. The Sudden Teaching does not distinguish between inherent nature and habitual nature, because all dharmas are without dualistic 93

Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle characteristics. For this reason, the Sutra on the Emptiness of All Dharmas 488a

states:

How can this phenomenon be called seed-nature? Mañjuśrī, all living beings are of one characteristic. Ultimately they are not produced and are beyond all naming. Sameness or difference cannot be obtained. This is called seed-nature.

You should understand according to this standard. This is the end of the above section on the perspectives of three vehicles teachings. 3. One Vehicle

Third is from the perspective of the One Vehicle, containing two teachings. i. Common Teaching

One clarifies seed-nature by encompassing all the previous teachings; together they form the tenet in which principal and attendants are complete. Because this is the Common Teaching, it encompasses them as skillful means. ii. Distinct Teaching

Two, according to the Distinct Teaching, seed-nature is very profound, such that cause and result are nondual. It pervades circumstantial and direct karmic compensation throughout the three times. It includes all the various Dharma gates of principle and phenomena, understanding and practice, and so on. It is always already fulfilled and completely realized. Thus, the great [Flower Garland] Sutra states in reference to this, "The seed-nature of the bodhisattvas is profound and vast, equal to the Dharma realm and empty space." If it manifests according to the Dharma gates (i.e., as provisional teachings), then the six determining factors of each of the ranks among the five ranks are called seednatures. It is this dharma that is named the result-characteristic (one of the three characteristics of the storehouse consciousness), because cause and result are of a common essence and a single nature. This is as extensively taught in the scripture. The rest can be understood accordingly.

4. Explanation of Differences

Question: Why is seed-nature differentiated in dissimilar ways by the various teachings?

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Reply: There are two significances to this. One is the analysis of the mutual inclusion of its hidden and manifest facets from the perspective of Dharma. The other is the clarification of distinctions in the dharmas attained from the perspective of beings' spiritual capacities.

As to the former significance, it consists of five gates of significance by which we can understand how this seed-nature arises interdependently without obstruction. The various teachings each describe one gate, according to beings' capacities to accept and be transformed by the teaching. The doctrines do not contradict each other. What are the five? One is the gate of nonexistence of seed-nature, following from consideration of attachment, as explained in the Lesser Vehicle. Two pursues the gate of deficiency and fullness of seed-nature, following from consideration of its phenomenality, as explained in the Early Teaching. Three is the gate of seed-nature's universality in sentient beings, following from consideration of true principle, as explained the Final Teaching. Four is the gate of cutting off characteristics and going beyond language, as explained in the Sudden Teaching. Five is the gate in which seed-nature is endowed with myriad virtues, as explained in the Perfect Teaching. Although there are five significances, seed-nature is all-pervasive and universally inclusive. The hidden and manifest facets are equally present. As to the second [significance], the clarification of distinctions in the dharmas attained from the perspective of beings' spiritual capacities: sometimes all things lack seed-nature, with the one exception of the Buddha, as in the Lesser Vehicle teachings. Sometimes all things have it, except for herbs and trees and such, as explained in the Final Teaching. Sometimes it both exists and does not exist, because one division of beings without nature is recognized, as explained in the Early Teaching. Sometimes it neither exists nor does not exist, as explained in the Sudden Teaching, because it is beyond characteristics. Sometimes the doctrine of seed-nature consists of all the preceding four explanations, being taught as the One Vehicle's skillful means. Sometimes it is both cause and result pervading the three times, as explained in the Perfect Teaching. The rest can be understood by this standard. C. Distinctions in Practices and Ranks

Third are the distinctions in practices and ranks. All of the various teachings will be summarized by means of three significances: clarification of 95

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle the characteristics of the ranks, clarification of the stage of nonreturning, and clarification of the characteristics of practices.

1. Lesser Vehicle

First, according to the Lesser Vehicle, there are four ranks: skillful means, insight, cultivation, and the ultimate. It teaches that the twelve abodes of the Lesser Vehicle are to be considered the ultimate. It also teaches the triple world, the nine stages, and the eleven stages, and so on, as extensively taught in the Lesser Vehicle treatises. Second, as to nonreturning, within this teaching those who practice up to the rank of patience (i.e., third of the four good roots) attain the status of nonreturning. The characteristics of their practices are as taught in those various treatises.

Question: For what reason are the characteristics of the Lesser Vehicle practices and ranks not broadly explored in this discussion? Reply: The intention of this is to show that the teachings are not the same by means of obvious differences in their doctrines. There can be no doubt that the Lesser Vehicle teaching differs from the true principles of the Great Vehicle, so it does not need further explanation.

2. Early Teaching

As to the initial teaching, it will also be made clear by means of the three significances (i.e., ranks, nonreturning, and practices). First, the characteristics of ranks. This contains two parts. One is the teaching of the conversion of mind, which is made to draw in the followers of the two vehicles of the ignorant teaching and convert their minds. It also has only four ranks—insight and cultivation and so on—and the nine stages and so on, of which the names are the same as in the Lesser Vehicle. Or, it establishes five ranks, which are included in the seven expedient attainments before the path of insight. Among the seven, the first three kinds are separated out as the rank of preparation because they are distant skillful means, while the latter four, the roots of goodness, are designated as the rank of applied practices, being the near skillful means. The other names are the same as above. The Early Teaching also teaches the stage of dry wisdom and the other ten stages. The ninth is named the bodhisattva stage; the tenth is named the buddha stage. This is to attract the two vehicles practitioners who wish to 96

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] advance and are not satisfied, so that they may gradually progress in practices until reaching the result of buddhahood. Now, as to buddhahood being a stage within the ten stages and not beyond them, it is taught this way in order to draw in those two vehicles practitioners by the skillful means of appearing similar to their own teachings, because in the two vehicles people attain the result of sagehood in this present life, and not after it. Furthermore, the characteristics of these ranks and practices are extensively expounded in the "Decision" section on śrāvakas in the Treatise on the Yogācāra Stages and in the Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma.

Question: Why are the characteristics of the practices and ranks clarified in the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages and the other works not the same as those in the Abhidharma?

Reply: There are two significances to their different characteristics. One is in manifesting the incompleteness of the teaching of the various dharmas among the ignorant people of the Lesser Vehicle. Two is in using skillful means to gradually draw them into the Great Vehicle. The dharmas of the practices and ranks that these works clarify are all skillful means to get beings to enter into the teachings of the Great Vehicle, so they are not the same. These beings are not those of the Lesser Vehicle of the ignorant teaching, and also not the bodhisattvas; so we know they are of the śrāvaka vehicle within the teachings of the three vehicles.

The second part of the characteristics of ranks in the Early Teaching is about the people who advance directly into the Great Vehicle. When demonstrating the characteristics of the ranks for them, they are taught the differences among the ten bodhisattva stages. Moreover, the ten bodhisattva stages are explained to be the path of insight and the path of cultivation, and together with the ranks that precede the ten bodhisattva stages they are considered to be the meaning of the twelve abodes of the Great Vehicle. Why? This is in order to appear similar to the Lesser Vehicle. Furthermore, those ranks before the bodhisattva stages include the forty levels of mind, since the ten stages of faith are established as a rank therein; this also is done in order to be similar to the four skillful means prior to the way of the Lesser Vehicle. Thus, the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states:

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle There are four ranks before śrotaāpanna (stream-enterer), which are warmth, pinnacles, patience, and the world's highest Dharma. The four ranks before the bodhisattva stages are also like this; they are the ten stages of faith, the ten understandings, the ten practices, and the ten conversions of merit (i.e., the forty levels of mind). Likewise, in order to be similar to the teaching of the conversion of mind, the stages of faith and the rest of the four ranks are considered to be the rank of preparation. After the ten conversions of merit, it separately establishes the four roots of goodness as the rank of applied practices. The path of insight and so on are the same as the above.

Question: Why do many of the names of the ranks in this Early Teaching appear like those of the Lesser Vehicle?

Reply: It is in order to draw in the Lesser Vehicle practitioners by the skillful means of appearing similar, because it has superior skillful means. If the names were entirely different, they would find it difficult to believe and accept. If the names were completely the same, it could not be called drawing them in to the Great Vehicle.

Question: If it is taught for the sake of drawing in the followers of the two vehicles, it can certainly be similar to their teachings, but if it is for the sake of people who advance directly into the Great Vehicle, why should it imitate the Lesser Vehicle?

Reply: There are two meanings for its resemblance to the Lesser Vehicle. One, because the spiritual capacities of the people of the Early Teaching who advance directly into the Great Vehicle are coarse and shallow, they are unable to completely receive the profound Dharma of the Great Vehicle. For this reason, the Dharma characteristics of the ranks that are shown to them do indeed resemble those of the Lesser Vehicle, but the doctrinal principles are in fact different. Two, whenever the Great Vehicle is taught in a way that is similar to the Lesser Vehicle, there are two significances: one is in order to draw in the followers of the Lesser Vehicle, and the other is in order to teach those beings of shallow capacity. For these reasons, these characteristics of ranks are taught in the Early Teaching.

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Now, as to the significance of all this, it is as taught in the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages, which states:

What are the characteristics of the realized pudgala (individual person)? This refers to those śrāvakas who have already repeatedly habituated good dharmas. If they dwell a while in lower-level maturation, at that time they will have lower-level desires and lower-level application of practice, and they will tend toward evil destinies. In this present state they will not confirm the result of śramaṇahood, and in this present state they will not attain parinirvāṇa. If they dwell a while in the middle-level maturation, at that time they will have middle-level desires and middle-level application of practices, and they will not tend toward evil destinies. In this present state, they will confirm the result of śramaṇahood, but in this present state they will not attain parinirvāṇa. If they dwell for a while in the higherlevel maturation, at this time they will have higher-level desires and higherlevel application of practice, and they will not tend toward evil destinies. In this present state they will confirm the result of śramaṇahood, and in this present state they will attain parinirvāṇa. It is taught like this of the śrāvakas, and for the pratyekabuddhas it is also so. Why? Because this path is the same as that of beings with śrāvaka seed-nature. And so on, as extensively taught. In order to make the bodhisattva rank appear similar to the two vehicles, three kinds of accomplishment are established within it like this. So the treatise states: If bodhisattvas dwell in the stage of superior understanding and practice, that is called lower-level accomplishment. If they dwell in the stage of pure, superior aspiration, that is called middle-level accomplishment. If they dwell in the decisively ultimate stage, it is called the higher-level accomplishment. If bodhisattvas dwell in the lower-level maturation, they will tend toward evil destinies. This exhausts [their rebirths in] the first incalculable great kalpa.

And so on, as extensively explained. The other two great kalpas are paired with the other two levels of accomplishment. There are numerous other textual examples like this. The rest can be understood according to the standard of the above.

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Second is the characteristics of nonreturning. According to the Treatise on Buddha-nature, when śrāvakas reach the stage of tolerance of suffering, when pratyekabuddhas reach the world's highest Dharma, and when bodhisattvas reach the ten conversions of merit, then they all are nonreturners. You should understand within this that these śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are not those ignorant of Dharma. For this reason, they are all people of the three vehicles' Early Teaching. Moreover, all those before the bodhisattva stages can be explained as returners, because they still may fall into evil destinies. As the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages states, "If the bodhisattvas dwell in the stage of superior understanding and practice, they will still tend toward evil destinies. This exhausts [their rebirths in] the first incalculable great kalpa," and so on.

Third is the clarification of the differences between the practices of the ranks. As the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages states:

When the bodhisattvas, dwelling in superior understanding and practices, evolve spiritually, what are their practices and what are their characteristics? Sometimes, they are replete with wise intelligence, and are able to accept and uphold all dharmas, and are able to fully awaken into the doctrinal principles. But sometimes they cannot do this at one time. Sometimes for a time they are replete with remembrance [of their vows], sometimes for a time they become forgetful. With regard to the various living beings, these bodhisattvas have not yet been able to completely understand the skillful means of disciplining them; with regard to their own cultivation of Buddha-Dharma, they have likewise not yet completely understood how to capably apply skillful means in accordance with true reality. To explain the Dharma for others, they instruct and admonish, diligent in transmitting the teachings. But although they are diligent in transmitting the teachings, they have not been able to understand them in accordance with true reality. Sometimes their efforts are wasted, like shooting arrows in the dark, sometimes hitting the target and sometimes not, because their actions are formed from their desires. Sometimes for a time great bodhi has awakened in their minds, but later they turn back and abandon it. Due to their inner inclination for enjoyment they desire to enjoy themselves; due to their analytical thoughts, they desire to make others joyful. Sometimes, 100

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] when for a time they hear the teaching of the profound and vast Dharma, they become afraid and doubtful. Those who are like this dwell in what is named superior understanding and practice.

Interpretation: These are the characteristics of practice in the second abode of the twelve abodes. The characteristics of the practices of the first, the abode of seed-nature, are even more deficient. The characteristics of the practices of the bodhisattva stages are all as taught [in the Yogācāra treatise]. 3. Final Teaching

According to the Final Teaching, the differences of the ten bodhisattva stages are also taught, but not by such names as the path of insight and the path of cultivation. Furthermore, prior to the bodhisattva stages there are only the three worthy sets of practices, because the stages of faith are only considered to be practices and not ranks; they are not yet said to be the attainment of nonreturning. The Sutra on Basic Activities states, "Prior to ascending to the abodes there are the ten kinds of mind." They are not called ranks. It also states: Beginning from the stage of ordinary being to the time of encountering buddhas and bodhisattvas, to give rise to a single thought of faith in any of the correct teachings of the Dharma is to aspire to bodhi-mind. This person at that time is called a bodhisattva with the characteristic of faith prior to the abodes. This person is also called a provisionally named bodhisattva and a bodhisattva in name only. This person, in summary, cultivates the practices of the ten minds, which are faith, endeavor. And so on, as extensively taught in that text. The Sutra for Benevolent Kings also states, "Before the habituation of the five kinds of tolerance, the bodhisattvas practicing the ten good abstentions advance and retreat, like delicate hairs following the wind to the east or west." In these practices they pass through tens of thousands of kalpas and enter the rank of the ten abodes, where they attain nonreturning. At the beginning of the ten abodes there is no returning or falling down into the stages of the two vehicles, much less evil destinies or the stages of ordinary beings. Although the Sutra on Basic Activities teaches that some beings regress from the sixth mind of the ten abodes, The Awakening of Faith explains this passage 101

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle as showing regression for the sake of urging on the minds of the lazy and lax, while in reality bodhisattvas who have entered the abodes of awakened mind have already attained nonreturning.

As to the characteristics of practices, The Awakening of Faith teaches that at the beginning rank of the three worthy sets of practices, one will partially attain a view of the Dharma body and be able to benefit the living beings of the worlds of the ten directions with manifestations of the eight aspects of a buddha's life. Moreover, by the power of vow one will freely accept rebirth into a delimited body, but will not be bound by karmic ties. On the basis of samādhi, one will attain a partial view of the Buddha's reward body, and one's practices will all comply with true nature. This means "understanding that the essence of dharmas is without stinginess or greed, and therefore, in compliance with it, cultivating dāna-pāramitā (perfection of generosity)" and so on, as extensively taught in that text. Also, in the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle, the ten stages of faith are named the stages of "ordinary bodhisattvas," while the ten understandings are called the stages of "sage bodhisattvas." By this standard you can understand that the characteristics of the practices of the bodhisattva stages are even more superior. For these reasons, you should understand that the characteristics of practices and ranks within this Final Teaching and those of the Early Teaching discussed above are obviously different in terms of shallowness and depth. Question: Why does this teaching not similarly draw in the followers of the two vehicles? Why are the practices and ranks of the Final Teaching not similar to those of the Lesser Vehicle?

Reply: From this point on, the various teachings are all profoundly superior. Those beings drawn in from the two vehicles are pure, mature, and of highly superior capacity, so it does not need to imitate those Lesser teachings. 4. Sudden Teaching

According to the Sudden Teaching, all practices and ranks are inexpressible because they are beyond characteristics. Not one thought is produced: this is buddhahood. If one sees distinctions in the characteristics of practices and ranks, this is inverted thinking. If one were to show it by putting it in words, it is as the Laṅkāvatāra states: "The first stage is in fact the eighth stage." It 102

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] even states that "none of them exist at all, so how could there be a sequence among them?" Also, the Sutra on the Questions of Viśeṣacinti Brahmā states: If people learn the true nature of these dharmas, studiously practicing and endeavoring as they are taught, they do not go from one stage to another stage. If they do not go from one stage to another stage, these people do not dwell in samsara or in nirvana.

And so on.

5. Perfect Teaching

According to the Perfect Teaching, there are two significances to the distinctions in practices and ranks. One, it encompasses all the previous practices and ranks as illuminated by the various teachings, because they are all the skillful means of this [Common Teaching]. Two, according to the Distinct Teaching, there are the three significances (i.e., ranks, nonreturning, and practices). First [the Perfect Teaching] is shown from the perspective of ranks attained. That is, beginning from the ten stages of faith and going on up to the stage of buddhahood, there are six ranks, which is not the same as in the other vehicles. Upon attaining one rank, one attains all ranks. How so? Because [all the ranks] include the six characteristics; because of the interdependent arising of principal and attendants; because of mutual intersection; because of mutual identification; because of perfect interfusion. The [Flower Garland] Sutra states, "Within one stage, the merits of all the various stages are universally encompassed." Thus, in the sutra, "Upon the fulfilled mind of the ten stages of faith, when one is advancing to the next stage, one attains all ranks up to the stage of buddhahood" is in reference to this. Moreover, all the various ranks up to the stage of buddhahood are mutually identified, and so on. This is the nonduality of cause and result, the nonobstruction of beginning and end. At each and every rank one is a bodhisattva, and one is a buddha. This is its significance.

Second, the characteristics of the ranks are clarified from the perspective of karmic recompense. In this there are only three kinds of rebirths. One is to be born at the rank of seeing and hearing, which means seeing and hearing this inexhaustible Dharma gate and forming indestructible diamond seeds, as taught in the "Arising from Original Nature" chapter [of the Flower Garland 103

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle Sutra]. Two is to be born at the rank of understanding and practice, which refers to those who have already departed from evil ways, such as the Prince of Tuṣita Heaven. In a single lifetime they attain the tolerance of the understanding of the unproduced nature of dharmas upon the ten bodhisattva stages, and the realms of the ten kinds of vision and the ten kinds of hearing and so on, before attaining the samādhi beyond defilements. This is extensively taught in the "Lesser Characteristics" chapter [of the Flower Garland Sutra]. It is also like Sudhana, who went from the ten stages of faith and on through the ten bodhisattva stages, completely fulfilling all these practices and ranks of Samantabhadra in one birth and one body with the support of the good friends in the Dharma that he found; this is its significance. Three is the rank of verification of the ocean of result (i.e., buddhahood). That is, for example, when Maitreya said to Sudhana, "When I accomplish correct awakening in the time to come, you shall see me." You should understand that this is divided from the perspective of the cause and result into two ranks: before and after [awakening]. Thus, at the rank of "before," there is only the cause, while the perfected result exists in the rank of "after." So he says, "You shall see me." Third, the ranks are clarified from the perspective of practice. There are only two parts: the initial part of the stage and the part of advancing to the next stage. This Dharma gate is taught on the basis of the understandings and practices of all the various ranks above, and the distinctions in the dharmas thereby attained. It is like those such as the prince Universal Adornment, whose body dwells above the tenfold worlds, such as the original nature worlds. This must be the rank of the wheel-turning king of the pure white jewel net. Attaining the universally seeing eyes of flesh, he sees the oceans of worlds of the ten buddha lands, as innumerable as motes of dust. But the eyes of flesh of the three vehicles are not like this. The Treatise on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra states, "Eyes of flesh only see things within the three thousand worlds. If they could see outside the three thousand worlds, why make use of the heavenly eyes?" This is so you know they are not the same. Also, within a single thought, they can transform inexpressibly inexpressible multitudes of living beings, causing them all to come up to the samādhi beyond defilements at once. Within all of their other thoughts it is also like this. They perfectly reflect the good fortune reaped from this, like Dīpaṃkara's crystal mirror, illuminating the oceans of worlds of the ten buddha lands as innumerable 104

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] as motes of dust. You should understand that these are the characteristics of practice within the rank of understanding and practice, among the previously described three kinds of rebirth. This is shown from the perspective of the Dharma gate of causation. From the perspective of the ranks attained by the fulfillment of faith and beyond, however, all practices and functions arise everywhere throughout the Dharma realm. As the [Flower Garland] Sutra states: [Bodhisattvas] can cover the great thousandfold worlds with one hand, from that hand producing offerings equal to the Dharma realm that is as vast as empty space, at one time offering nourishment to the infinite numbers of various buddhas, doing great Buddhist works for the enrichment of living beings. These practices and functions are inexpressible. This as is extensively taught in the scripture passages on the ranks of faith. It also states:

Without leaving one world, without rising from one seat, [bodhisattvas] can yet manifest all the practices of innumerable bodies, and within a single thought can become the buddhas turning the Dharma wheels in the worlds of the ten directions at once.

And so on, as extensively taught. For these reasons you should understand that it is completely different from those teachings of the three vehicles. Why? Because the practices and ranks of the three vehicles are created from the perspective of trusting and understanding the teachings of the Āgamas, so they are explained like this.

Question: Previously in the section on the Final Teaching you said that at the time of nonreturning one also attains these eight characteristic actions of a buddha and other such functions. How is that different from this? Reply: That Final Teaching shows that when buddhahood is realized in this given rank, it is not freely realized in all the latter ranks, because they have not yet been attained. Only the transformations appropriate to the present rank arise for the short time one is in it. This Perfect Teaching is not so. When these functions arise within the initial rank, they also arise together at the same time within later ranks; they have all already been attained, because this is true practice, which includes all six ranks.

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle Question: Then the significances are not the same. Why are they nevertheless taught to be the same in terms of arising these functions upon the superior advancement portion of the rank in the fulfillment of faith? Reply: The desire to expediently manifest this One Vehicle teaching of the fulfillment of faith and the achievement of buddhahood makes it easy to believe and receive; so, this teaching was made first in that Final Teaching. Question: So all the ranks are within the first rank, and with the mind of fulfilled faith one already attains buddhahood. Why must the Distinct Teaching also teach the various ranks that come after?

Reply: It teaches that the various latter ranks are indeed, all of them, within the initial rank. As it is with the initial rank, so it is with the latter ranks. Question: If it is the case that the initial rank includes the latter ranks, and upon attaining the initial rank one attains the latter ranks, then can it also be that the latter ranks likewise include the initial rank? Shouldn't it be that if one does not attain the latter ranks then one doesn't attain the initial rank? Reply: It is in fact so. Just by attaining the initial rank, all of the latter ranks are attained; thus, there is no one who would attain the latter rank and yet not attain the initial rank.

Question: If it is as you say, how can it teach that there is advancing and descending in sequence among the various ranks?

Reply: There are two skillful reasons within this scripture by which the various ranks are securely established. One, from the perspective of characteristics and with regard to the doctrinal gates, the ranks are divided in sequential order to be similar to the three vehicles, to draw those practitioners into this Common Teaching by skillful means. Two, from the perspective of essential substance and with regard to Dharma, the ranks that come before and after are mutually intersecting. This [state of] perfect interfusion and autonomy is different from the teaching of those three vehicles; this is the Distinct Teaching. However, because as doctrinal gates they are unmoving, their eternal characteristics are not destroyed, and so they are eternal in their sequence. For this reason, the two significances interfuse and do not contradict each other. 106

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Question: If it is so that the initial gate [of the stage of faith] is identical with all ranks, then why does the Distinct Teaching not teach that all ranks are attained in the initial mind of the ranks of faith, rather than teach that all are attained in the fulfilled mind of faith?

Reply: If this were considered from the standpoint of the Distinct Teaching, then indeed, accomplishment does not depend on ranks. But our discussion here is according to the explanation of the ranks in the Final Teaching of the three vehicles. Within that teaching, upon reaching nonreturning, in the fulfillment of faith, one attains entry into the ranks. Now, in the case of this Distinct Teaching, those who have attained entry into the ranks attain all the characteristics of the practices of the various early and later ranks at once. It does not teach that they all are attained in the initial mind of faith, because one who has not yet attained nonreturning has not yet achieved the characteristics of the ranks; it is only a matter of practice. Question: If it is so, then shouldn't we say that buddhahood is accomplished in the rank of the abodes? Why is it called "fulfillment of faith"? Reply: By the very reason that faith is formed, this is the buddhahood of practice, not the buddhahood of rank. The rest of the significance you should understand accordingly.

D. Duration of Cultivation

Fourth is the explanation of the duration of cultivation. 1. Lesser Vehicle

According to the Lesser Vehicle, there are three kinds of people. "Lowerlevel spiritual roots" refers to the many śrāvakas, those who are most swift in attaining the result of arhatship within three lifetimes. That is, in their first lifetime they plant the causes of liberation; in the second lifetime they pursue decisive insight; in the third lifetime contamination by goal-orientation is eliminated and the result is attained. The latest arrive in sixty kalpas. "Middling spiritual roots" refers to pratyekabuddhas; those who are most swift attain the result in four lifetimes, while the slowest take a hundred kalpas. "Higherlevel spiritual roots" refers to buddhas, who are certain to fulfill buddhahood in three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, within which there are numerous kalpas. Taking 107

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle the kalpa that ends in fire, the kalpa that ends in water, and the kalpa that ends in wind each as one kalpa makes one count. Ten of these combined as one makes the second count. Multiplying like this until the sixtieth makes one asaṃkhyeya kalpa. This is the way to count three asaṃkhyeya kalpas. Question: Why is it that those of lower-level spiritual roots take less time, but those of higher-level spiritual roots take more time? Reply: To be able to cultivate the practices of training the spiritual roots over a long period of time is considered the more difficult, so more time is taken. Moreover, according to the Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, in a bodhisattva's achievement of buddhahood there are two bodies. One is the Dharma body, two is the living body. As to the Dharma body, this refers to the five parts of morality, concentration, wisdom, and so on (i.e., morality body, concentration body, wisdom body, liberation body, and awareness of liberation body). The cultivation of this Dharma body includes four time periods. One is the time of cultivating the four pāramitās with contamination by residual goal-orientation for three asaṃkhyeya kalpas. Second is cultivating the activities that produce the primary and secondary characteristics of buddhahood for a hundred kalpas. Third is the time of leaving home to become a mendicant, ascetic practices, and cultivating dhyāna concentration. Fourth is the time of achieving correct awakening under the bodhi tree. As to the living body, in only one hundred kalpas of cultivating the activities that produce the primary and secondary characteristics of buddhahood, with the final bodily lifetime in the royal family of King Śuddhodana of Gaya, he was reborn in the reward body and ascended to the way of awakening in the kingdom of Magadha. The rest is as taught in the Lesser Vehicle.

2. Early Teaching

According to the Early Teaching, the cultivation and attainment of buddhahood definitely takes three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, but these kalpas are not the same as those of the Lesser Vehicle. How so? The Early Teaching takes the kalpa that ends in fire, the kalpa that ends in water, and so on to be great kalpas; counting these up to a hundred thousand, they then count these units a hundred thousand times to make a complete koṭī: this they call the first count. Counting in this way to complete a koṭī, and then counting a koṭī of 108

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] these units makes the second count. In this way they multiply them by the number counted until they reach one hundred, and call it an asaṃkhyeya kalpa. This is the first of the ten great kalpas. One fulfills three asaṃkhyeya kalpas in this way of counting.

Even the life of Śākyamuni fits into this doctrine, within this Early Teaching. As the Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts states: I, long ago, at the place of Ratnaśikhin Buddha fulfilled the first asaṃ khyeya kalpa; at the place of Dīpaṃkara Buddha I fulfilled the second asaṃ khyeya kalpa; at the place of Kāśyapa Buddha I fulfilled the third asaṃ khyeya kalpa. I, long ago, at the place of Śākya[muni] Buddha, first gave rise to the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Also, according to the Sutra on Basic Activities, although there may be a hundred kalpas of cultivating the activities that produce the primary and secondary characteristics of buddhahood, this is only for the sake of transformation, and not the true cultivation. Moreover, by means of a single verse in praise of Puṣya Buddha, [a bodhisattva] skipped over nine kalpas, becoming a buddha in only ninety-one kalpas.

Question: If after three innumerable kalpas of cultivating the myriad true practices one should achieve the reward body, why does the Early Teaching still teach it to be the transformation body?

Reply: This is because this Early Teaching is taught for those of lower spiritual capacity; it is for the two vehicles. It is because the transformation body is what they can see and understand. This teaching was made as a provisional teaching.

3. Final Teaching

According to the Final Teaching, there are two significances. One, the duration of practices is fixed as three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, because it is from the perspective of a single transformative method of teaching (i.e., appropriate only to this present world). Within this teaching, cultivation of true practice results in achievement of the true reward body. This is not taught from the perspective of the transformation body. Thus, the Lotus Sutra states, "Since I truly became a buddha, immeasurable and boundless hundreds of thousands 109

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle of millions of asaṃkhyeya kalpas have passed." Also, the [Diamond] Sutra states, "In the place of Dīpaṃkara Buddha I received assurances of future buddhahood," and so on. These are to be discerned as skillful means. The Final Teaching also maintains that there are no hundred kalpas of cultivating the activities that produce the primary and secondary characteristics of buddhahood. How so? Because within the Lesser Vehicle only the part of the path to enlightenment that is based on wisdom is cultivated, while the part of the path that is based on cultivation of good fortune is not cultivated; so, at the time when one is about to achieve buddhahood, there is yet another hundred kalpas of separately cultivating activities that generate good fortune. The Early Vehicle draws in those Lesser Vehicle practitioners, so it teaches the same doctrine as theirs in this regard, which is still the teaching of the transformation body. Within this Final Teaching, when it discusses true practice, the parts of the path based on merit and wisdom are both cultivated from the first intention for enlightenment; thus, at the time of becoming a buddha there is no other cultivation.

The other [significance] is that the duration of cultivation is not fixed as three asaṃkhyeya kalpas. This has two significances: practice extends through other various kinds of temporal worlds, as taught in the Sutra of King Pravara deva; and practice is based on the infinitude of the Buddha's virtues. As the Jewel Cloud Sutra states:

My good sons, the bodhisattvas cannot conceive of the realm of the Tathāgata. The realm of the Tathāgata cannot be comprehended. It is only for the sake of the shallow minds of the myriad beings that I teach of bodhi attained by practicing for three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, but for you I teach the truth that the duration of practice since truly aspiring for enlightenment cannot be calculated.

Interpretation: As to that which "cannot be calculated" in this passage, it is incalculable asaṃkhyeya kalpas; there are not only three. Question: Why does the preceding teaching fix the duration of practices as three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, while this teaching has fixed and nonfixed durations of practices?

Reply: The preceding Early Teaching is immature. This Final Teaching is 110

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] mature. The teaching is made like this as a skillful means to gradually turn those practitioners of the three vehicles toward the One Vehicle. 4. Sudden Teaching

According to the Sudden Teaching, all times and divisions of durations of practice are inexpressible. Not one thought is produced—just that is buddhahood. That one thought is the absence of thought. As to time, it is the absence of time. The rest can be understood accordingly. 5. Perfect Teaching

According to the Perfect Teaching, all times and divisions of durations of practice are entirely unfixed. How so? Because all kalpas mutually intersect; because they are mutually identified. They thoroughly pervade all the myriad worlds, such as Indra's world and so on. Thus, in accordance with each situation, the duration of practices may be one thought or it may be infinite kalpas, but it does not contradict the teachings of times. Use this standard to reflect upon the rest.

E. Embodied Basis of Cultivation

Fifth is the embodied basis of cultivation.

1. Lesser Vehicle

According to the Lesser Vehicle, there is only the delimited body up to ultimate rank, and the Buddha is also the same. The buddha body is a real body, not the transformation body.

2. Early Teaching

According to the Early Teaching, in order to bring about the conversion of mind of the śrāvakas, the teaching is that there is the delimited body up to the ultimate rank, and that the buddha body is likewise, but this buddha body is the transformation body, not a real body.

As to the bodhisattvas who advance directly into the Great Vehicle, there are two explanations within this Early Teaching. One: According to the rank of the practitioner, it shows the different characteristics of the two ranks— coarse and fine, effort and effortlessness—within the ten bodhisattva stages. It teaches that in the seventh stage and below one has a delimited body while in the eighth stage and above one has a mutable body. Two: With regard to 111

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle the true reward body, it explains that the delimited body exists at all stages up to the diamond stage (i.e., completion of the bodhisattva stages). Because the seeds of the afflictive hindrances have not yet been eternally severed within the ten bodhisattva stages, they remain even up to the diamond stage. As there are delusive hindrances, how could it be that such a one would not receive a delimited body?19 Thus, the Ten Stages Sutra states, "There are beings in the state of intermediate existence [between life and death] up to the tenth stage." This is what it means.

Question: At the eighth stage and above, all bodhisattvas have long since subdued the afflictive hindrances and do not act them out. Since the result of uncontaminated wisdom continues forever, they are like arhats, without any occurrence of delusion. Why should they receive delimited bodies? Reply: If we were referring to ordinary beings, those beings would receive rebirth by the occurrence of delusions fertilizing their karmic seeds. Sages are not like this. Only the [unfertilized] seeds of delusion remain to be used in receiving rebirth. As stated in the Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma, "All the sages are bound to continuous rebirth by the latent power [of unfertilized karmic seeds]." Also, the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states: Because they differ from ordinary beings, they are able to eternally subdue the delusions of advanced states of mind. Because they differ from the practitioners of the two vehicles, they retain their seeds. Interpretation: The rebirth of sages is not based on the occurrence of delusion fertilizing seeds, but they do retain seeds.

[Question:] So why don't they receive delimited bodies? If you say that at the eighth stage and above cognitive hindrance is the condition of receiving a mutable body, then the seeds of delusion that remain would have no function. Why wouldn't it be that the seeds of affliction are destroyed forever starting in this eighth stage?

[Reply:] It isn't like that. So, what does this mean? If we consider it from the perspective of those śrāvakas who turn toward bodhi and have already cut off afflictions, then they can receive mutable bodies by means of those cognitive hindrances, and pass through the various ranks. 112

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Question: If this is so, why do the sacred teachings explain that at the eighth stage and above it is solely one's cognitive hindrances that serve as the basis for receiving the mutable body?

Reply: These teachings are meant to be compared with the teachings of the two vehicles, to show the respective superiority and inferiority of the teachings. The scripture explains it thus, but this comparison depends on the differences between the perspectives on the ranks in all the various sacred teachings. I will summarize them in ten gates, as follows.

One: It is taught that arhats are identical to buddhas, so the ranks are not divided. For example, in the Vinaya it is taught that when the Buddha delivered five people, he said, "With the Buddha included, there are six arhats who have gone out of the mundane world" and "they sat together," and so on. You should understand that this is from the perspective of the Lesser Vehicle teaching. Two: Arhats are separated out from the buddha stage. For example, the Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma teaches that at the time of attaining bodhi the afflictive hindrances and any cognitive hindrances are suddenly cut off, so practitioners suddenly become arhats and tathāgatas. Although in this teaching the perspective is that "arhat" is the name for one who has eliminated afflictions, it is for the sake of producing superior aspirations within the minds of the śrāvakas. It accordingly divides buddhahood into greater and lesser. Three: The tenth stage is called arhat; as the buddha stage is transcendent, it is not that arhat stage. For example, in explaining the four kinds of reliable supports, the Nirvana Sutra states, "As to arhats, they dwell in the tenth stage." This matches the causes to the different results to divide them into greater and lesser. The two gates above are taught from the perspective of the Early Teaching converting the adherents of the two vehicles. Four: The seventh stage and below are ascribed together to the arhats, while eighth stage and above are ascribed to the bodhisattva ranks. As the Sutra for Benevolent Kings states:

Bodhisattvas at the seventh bodhisattva stage, which is called "distant traveling," subdue the habituated causes of the triple world. Having extinguished the karmic results, in their last [delimited] body, they reside in the seventh stage at the rank of arhat.

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle This places the ranks of autonomy and the ranks of not-yet-autonomous within the causal state to divide them into greater and lesser. This is from the perspective of the Early Teaching taught for the directly advancing bodhisattvas. Within this, since it ascribes the stages up to the seventh to the śrāvakas, the afflictive hindrances and delimited body are present up to that rank. The eighth stage and onward are ascribed to these bodhisattvas; their practices and ranks are superior to those before. Thus, they have only the cognitive afflictions and the mutable body.

Five: The first, second, and third stages are attributed to the mundane world, because in them one attains the four kinds of meditation of the mundane world. The fourth stage is ascribed to the śrotaāpannas, because they attain the factors conducive to the path of enlightenment, and because it is the first attainment of the supramundane. The fifth stage is ascribed to the śrāvaka arhats, because they have attained the Dharma of the four noble truths. The sixth stage is ascribed to the pratyekabuddhas, because they attain the Dharma of twelvefold dependent origination. The seventh stage and onward are ascribed to the bodhisattvas, because they attain the tolerance of the understanding of the unproduced nature of dharmas. This is as taught in the Sutra on Basic Activities. The foregoing is taught solely from the perspective of the three vehicles, since the One Vehicle Dharma has not yet been separated out. Six: Worldly beings and practitioners of the two vehicles, as in the previous, reach the sixth stage. The seventh stage is ascribed to bodhisattvas of the three vehicles, because they have still not attained autonomy. The eighth stage and onward are ascribed to the One Vehicle practitioners because they attain autonomy. This is as taught in such texts as the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle. This is taught from the perspective of separating the characteristics of the One Vehicle from those of the three vehicles. Seven: Within the initial stage, practitioners have already surpassed the mundane world and the two vehicles. This is taught in such texts as the Treatise on the Bodhisattva Stages. It is taught from the perspective of the distinction between inferential and direct realization within the three vehicles. Eight: Before the bodhisattva stages, the rank of the three worthy sets of practices already surpasses the stages of the two vehicles, as taught in The Awakening of Faith. And the Sutra for Benevolent Kings teaches, "There are ten kinds of mind within the habitual seed-nature, which already surpass all 114

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] the beneficial stages of the two vehicles." This is taught from the perspective of nonreturning in the Final Teaching.

Nine: After the mind of fulfilled faith, one surpasses all the ranks of the Lesser Vehicle and the three vehicles, as taught in the "Bhadraśrī" chapter [of the Flower Garland Sutra]. This is taught from the perspective of the One Vehicle.

Ten: When the mind of a practitioner first aspires to enlightenment, in the initial stage of ordinary beings, this already surpasses the two vehicles. As taught in the Treatise on the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra, "The arhat bhikṣu knew that the śrāmaṇera had aspired to enlightenment, and put the śrāmaṇera ahead of himself." This is taught in both the One Vehicle and the three vehicles.

You should understand the order of the various teachings by this standard, through the comparison of dharmas in such gates as these. 3. Final Teaching

According to the Final Teaching, practitioners retain delusions and receive the delimited body prior to the bodhisattva stages. Within the first bodhisattva stage all the seeds of afflictions are forever severed, and they are not divided into discriminatory and inborn seeds. Moreover, within cognitive hindrances, one part of the coarse afflictions proper are cut off. For this reason, those in the bodhisattva stages receive the mutable body up to the diamond stage. The rest of this doctrine is as explained below in the section on severing delusions. Question: If those in the bodhisattva stages do not retain afflictions, how could they embrace the suffering of living beings with great compassion and cooperation?

Reply: Because prior to entering the bodhisattva stages and within the Early Teaching, the power of their wisdom and vows is weak, so they retain afflictions and receive the rebirth that helps them fulfill their vows. But now this is not the case. Because their vow-wisdom is superior they can freely commune with living beings. Question: It is taught that above the eighth stage there are, in summary, two kinds of bodhisattvas: those of higher compassion and those of higher wisdom. Those of higher compassion retain delusions and receive the delimited body. 115

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle Those of higher wisdom subdue delusions and receive the mutable body. What does this doctrine mean?

Reply: I'm afraid that explaining it like this is not quite right. Why? If their compassion is higher, their wisdom must be inferior; if inferior wisdom guides their compassion, their compassion must be clouded by false views. How could compassion clouded by false views be called "higher"? Even if compassion and wisdom are equally balanced, then it can't be called "higher compassion." As it is with inferior wisdom guiding compassion yet calling it higher, so it is with those of higher wisdom. Their compassion must be inferior; inferior compassion guides their wisdom, and their wisdom must be clouded by quiescence. How could the wisdom clouded by quiescence be called "higher"? All bodhisattvas differ from ordinary beings from the beginning, so their compassion and wisdom guide each other. With every thought they cultivate both—like the two wheels of a cart, like the two wings of a bird. How could we say that they are higher or lower? You should understand by this that the two teachings of Early and Final differ in their coarseness and fineness. There are two kinds of bodies in birth and death (i.e., the delimited and the mutable), but this is not due to either compassion or wisdom being higher. If you say that those bodhisattvas of higher wisdom have Lesser Vehicle habits and have forever subdued their afflictions out of fear of afflictions, or that prior to the bodhisattva stages they have not yet verified true thusness, then from the perspective of original habituation one could permit the existence of this kind of practitioner, because they are not yet pure and mature. According to this Final Teaching, however, from the initial stage on up their practices and understandings are pure and mature; they have the same realization, the same practice, the same cultivation, the same severing of afflictions. How could there be such distinctions? Thus, The Awakening of Faith states, "There are no differences among either the seed-nature, the aspiration to enlightenment, or the practices cultivated by bodhisattvas in the stages." Moreover, within this Final Teaching, the mutable body in the stages is not the same with regard to the ranks. There are four kinds, as indicated below.20

4. Sudden Teaching

According to the Sudden Teaching, all practices and ranks are inexpressible. 116

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] The allotted body on which the practices depend is likewise to be understood by this standard. This is as extensively taught in the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra in the part on the bodhisattva Nāgaśrī.

5. Perfect Teaching

In the Perfect Teaching, the mutable body is not taught, but the delimited body reaches up to the tenth stage prior to the concentration beyond defilements. Because upon reaching that rank one attains the universally seeing eyes of flesh, we understand that this is the delimited body. It is also like Sudhana, who exhausted the ranks of causation by means of his delimited body. Question: Why does this Perfect Teaching not teach the mutable body? Reply: Bodies such as those of the original nature worlds and above, being extremely subtle and transcending the many heavens, must be the same as the mutable body. But because this teaching does not separate the coarse and fine characteristics of birth and death—instead considering them together with regard to transgression and misfortune as being of one realm until the fulfillment of faith, after which practitioners suddenly overturn that realm— it doesn't teach it. The rest can be understood accordingly. F. Distinctions in the Severing of Delusions

Sixth are the distinctions in the explanations of severing delusions. 1. Lesser Vehicle

The teaching according to the Lesser Vehicle is as taught elsewhere. 2. Three Vehicles: Early and Final Teachings

According to the three vehicles, there are two kinds of significance. One, the characteristics of extinguishing delusions are clarified from the perspective of ranks. Two, the characteristics of ranks are shown according to the kinds of delusion that pertain to them.

i. Characteristics of Extinguishing Delusions

As to the former, in the Early Teaching the three vehicles' teachings of the differences among the means of severing delusions are fully complete, because it is the origin of the other three vehicles teachings. There are two kinds of hindrances, afflictive and cognitive. First I will discuss the two vehicles'21 explanations of severing afflictive hindrances, within which there are 117

Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle two parts. First are the names and numbers of the hindrances; second is the result attained upon severing the delusions.

a. Afflictive Hindrances

Within the first part, there are two general categories of afflictions: those produced from discrimination [in this life], and those that are born together with the body (i.e., inborn; retained from a previous life). In all, there are ten kinds:

1. Craving

2. Aversion

3. Ignorance

4. Pride

5. Doubt

6. False view of the existence of an independent self

7. Extreme views

8. Perverse views

9. Attachment to views

10. Attachment to precepts

Within these, four kinds arise only as afflictions produced from discrimination: doubt, perverse views, attachment to views, and attachment to precepts. The other six are of both of the two kinds, discriminated and inborn. The five consciousnesses give rise to the first three; they are both discriminated and inborn. Within mano consciousness (i.e., mental consciousness, the sixth consciousness), the afflictions produced from discrimination arise through the functioning of their three causes, which are false teachers, [false teachings, and false thinking]. The mano consciousness has all ten kinds of affliction; the four discriminated kinds and the six that are of both kinds. The manas (seventh consciousness) only includes four of the inborn afflictions. Of the six inborn afflictions, aversion and extreme views are excluded. Aversion is excluded by being unwholesome, because impeded moral indeterminacy is the quality of the manas consciousness. There are no extreme views because of the propensity of the manas to perpetuate similar characteristics in dependence on the eighth consciousness, and its continual attachment to self. Moreover, because the four discriminated afflictions are produced in connection with their three causes, manas consciousness does not have them and they 118

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] do not arise. Also, because of the condition of eternal continuity of characteristics, [the afflictions of the manas] are not drawn from the sixth consciousness and are not the same as those of the five consciousnesses. Thus, there are only four afflictions included. In the eighth consciousness (i.e., storehouse consciousness) none of them arise, because it consists only of the variable ripening of karmic seeds, and has the quality of unimpeded moral indeterminacy.

These discriminatory and inborn kinds of affliction are all found throughout the triple world. Aversion is only found in the desire world, because the afflictions of the upper two worlds all have the quality of impeded moral indeterminacy. As to those which arise because of discrimination, each of the four noble truths of the desire realm has the ten defilements, making forty kinds of afflictions. The upper two worlds exclude aversion, so their noble truths each have nine kinds, totaling seventy-two. Combining these with those of the desire world makes one hundred and twelve altogether. As to those which are inborn, the desire world includes six. The upper two worlds exclude aversion, so each has only five; combining them makes sixteen, and with the discriminatory afflictions above that makes altogether one hundred and twenty-eight. Question: How is it that within the previous Lesser Vehicle of the ignorant teaching, all ten defilements do not cause confusion about the four noble truths, but within this Early Teaching all of them do?

Reply: This has two significances: it is because within the three vehicles the power of afflictions has gradually expanded, obstructing everything; and it is also because confusion and such ideas pervade all objects of mind. As to the results attained upon severing delusions, first we will clarify the severing of discriminated delusions in terms of the three kinds of people who do so. The first kind of person goes from being fully bound by delusion into the path of direct insight; in an instant they suddenly sever the discriminatory afflictions of the four noble truths of the triple world and attain the result of stream-entry. The second kind of person abandons a double portion of the afflictions of the desire realm; they enter the path of true insight and at the same time abandon a double portion of the afflictions of the desire realm, attaining the result of once-returner. These who "abandon a double portion 119

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle of the afflictions of the desire realm" are those who cultivate the severing of the nine classes of delusion while they are ordinary beings in the desire world; since they have already suppressed the former six of the nine (i.e., two-thirds), they are called those who "abandon a double portion of the afflictions of the desire realm." When they enter the path of insight they sever the previously suppressed afflictions forever, and in this way attain the result of once-returner. The third kind of person has already gone beyond the realm of desire; they enter the path of true insight and simultaneously sever the nine classes of delusion, attaining the result of non-returner. As the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages explains, the results of entering the path of true insight are of three kinds; they will verify the three results according to what they deserve. Next are the results attained upon severing inborn afflictions. The inborn afflictions of the sixth consciousness have nine classes at each of the nine levels. Moreover, there are two kinds of people who advance into the path of cultivation. The first [kind] is those who gradually depart from the mundane and completely sever the afflictions of the first six classes of the nine classes of the desire world attain the result of once-returner. Those who completely sever the nine classes attain the result of non-returner. Those who completely sever the afflictions of the upper two worlds attain the result of arhatship. The second [kind] is those who suddenly depart from the mundane are those who attain the initial result (i.e., stream-enterer) and then suddenly sever the afflictions of the triple world. They gradually eliminate the afflictions of the nine classes, and attain the result of arhatship. Then there is no further result. Why is this so? Because in the cultivation of severing the afflictions of the nine classes of the desire world together with those of the upper two worlds, there are three kinds of the nine classes, each with its own first class. These practitioners suddenly sever them at once, so I say they suddenly sever the afflictions of the triple world. When this is discussed temporally, each one of the nine classes is separately severed, so I say they are gradually eliminated. If this is so, why are there some who sever afflictions gradually? This is because they cannot suddenly apprehend all the dharmas of the triple world. The Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma states:

Those who suddenly abandon afflictions are those who have already entered the clear observation of the four noble truths. With their basis in 120

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] incomplete concentration, they aspire to depart from the mundane way. Suddenly severing all the afflictions of the triple world, and separately severing afflictions class by class, they only establish the two kinds of result. This refers to the result of stream-enterer and the result of arhatship. And so on, as explained in the widely cited Fingertip Sutra.22 Regarding the extremely subtle characteristics of the activity of the afflictions of the manas, the aforementioned two kinds of people, the gradual and the sudden, all suddenly sever afflictions at once with the delusions of the nonideation level (the ninth of the nine levels). Thus, the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages states:

The manas is associated with the carried-over (i.e., inborn) afflictions, which are only severed together with the afflictions of the nonideation level. Being severed suddenly and all at once, they are not like the other delusions that are gradually severed in sequence.

Question: Why do the previous two vehicles of the ignorant teaching not have the teaching of sudden transcendence, while this Early Teaching does have it? Reply: In order to demonstrate the inferiority of the previous teachings, this teaching surpasses it. The two vehicles of the ignorant teaching do not have this superior wisdom. Demonstrating the inferiority of that teaching is a skillful means to gradually draw in two vehicles practitioners and inspire superior desires in them. This teaching was made to cause them to renounce the Lesser and follow the Great.

As to the absence in the Lesser Vehicle of the teaching of extinguishing the delusions of the manas, you can understand it accordingly. b. Cognitive Hindrances

Above was the two vehicles' explanation of severing afflictive hindrances. As to their teaching on cognitive hindrances, those who proceed into quiescence sever all the hindrances at once when they enter into nirvana of no remainder. This is the nonanalytical extinction. As to all the rest of the practitioners, some sever cognitive hindrances and some do not. The people who have been liberated by their wisdom do not sever them, while of those who have been liberated by both wisdom and concentration, some of them sever 121

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle some of the hindrances. That is, the hindrance to the eight liberations, which is undefiled ignorance, is counteracted by cultivating the eight superior liberating understandings. As the Treatise on Yogācāra Stages explains, the various liberations are what is manifested through the liberation from cognitive hindrances, because śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas attain liberation with the mind of cognitive hindrances. You must understand that this Early Teaching exists in order to gradually draw those ignorant of the Dharma toward the Great Vehicle; thus, this teaching was established as profoundly superior to that Lesser Vehicle. Thus, the cognitive hindrances are indeed severed in part, but the above severed delusions are not the same as those of the ignorant teaching, since those practitioners only sever the acquisition of the afflictions. These practitioners of the Great Vehicle are not so; they sever the seeds of the afflictions. So when those bodhisattvas who advance directly into the Great Vehicle sever delusions, they sever both kinds of hindrances, afflictive and cognitive. Moreover, within the afflictive hindrances, the perspective on dividing the classes among the realms is not the same as that of the two vehicles. Of the two kinds of hindrances, the occurrence of that kind of hindrance that arises from discrimination is subdued prior to the bodhisattva stages. At the time of entering the initial bodhisattva stage on the path of true insight, in one instant the seeds of the hindrances are suddenly severed. Those afflictive hindrances among the inborn hindrances can be freely severed from the initial bodhisattva stage and onward; yet in order to be retained, they are not severed. Why is that? It is because bodhisattvas nourish continued rebirth in order to embrace and transform all beings. In order to sever their cognitive hindrances, in order to attain great bodhi, they do not pursue the levels of the two vehicles. For this reason, the Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "Through retaining delusions up to the end of delusion, buddhas verify all wisdom." Interpretation: As to ending delusion, it is ending cognitive hindrances. Superior practice arises through retaining afflictive hindrances. Attaining ranks up to this, one verifies the result, which is buddhahood. Also, the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "They retain seeds." Thus, you should understand that the seeds of afflictive hindrances exist up to the diamond rank. The activity of the cognitive hindrances is subtle, evidently obstructing the bodhisattva way. Stage by stage, they are severed in part. One must reach the stage of buddhahood, at which point they are altogether ended. Because 122

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] of this, [the Early Teaching] teaches that the cultivation of severing the delusions of the two kinds of hindrances exists up to the stage of buddhahood. The Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma states:

The many bodhisattvas, while at the rank of cultivating the way on the ten stages, only cultivate the way of counteracting the cognitive hindrances but not the afflictive hindrances. When they attain bodhi, they suddenly sever the afflictive hindrances and the cognitive hindrances, suddenly becoming arhats and tathāgatas.

The activity of the inborn afflictions of the manas is subtle, and as in the above discussion, this activity exists up to the stage of buddhahood and then is ended.

Question: The cultivation of severing the delusions of these two kinds of hindrances corresponds to the various levels of consciousness. How is their occurrence in the bodhisattva stages similar or different? Reply: Within the afflictive hindrances, the delusions of the sixth consciousness are already ended upon entering the bodhisattva stages. Because these are ended, bodhisattvas retain the cognitive hindrances. Thus, whether in occurrence or as seeds, they are governed by wisdom. They are used to form superior practice and do not give rise to transgression or misfortune. It is like a poisonous snake that is governed by the power of an incantation, so that it does not cause death. Not giving rise to transgression or misfortune, but becoming otherwise useful: such is the skillfulness of the bodhisattvas in retaining their delusions. Thus, the Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "It is like making an incantation for controlling the damage done by poison." For this reason, you should understand that those afflictions, whether they are in the state of occurrence or of seed, may all be freely employed. The nature of afflictions in the seventh consciousness is not to fertilize rebirth, so they are not retained. Their activity is subtle. At the seventh bodhisattva stage and below they sometimes briefly appear and interrupt contemplative wisdom. All these cognitive hindrances may arise in later stages or may arise in previous stages. Sometimes occurring, sometimes as seeds, they are separately severed stage by stage.

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle Question: If this is so, why are there places that explain that the contaminated mind arises at the seventh bodhisattva stage and below?

Reply: According to the perspective that afflictive hindrances within the sixth consciousness are considered to be contaminating, because that consciousness has retained delusions, it appears to be contaminated [but isn't really]. According to the perspective that the cognitive hindrances are considered to be contaminating, it is truly contaminated. These two kinds of hindrances pervade the ten bodhisattva stages. If the afflictions of the manas are truly contaminated, then up to the seventh bodhisattva stage their existence or nonexistence is indeterminate, because bodhisattvas at that stage sometimes briefly give rise to the contaminated mind. You should understand the rest of this doctrine according to this standard.

Also, as to distinctions in the extinction of delusions and the arising of wisdom within this teaching, they are as follows. At the time when the seeds of delusion are extinguished, wisdom is then produced; they revert into each other at the same time. It is like the common idea that what goes up must come down, and what goes down must come up. This is as extensively explained in the Treatise on the Collected Abhidharma. Moreover, the dharma of these hindrances is empty, with nothing by which to be discriminated, because it depends on consciousness and lacks self-nature. This is the significance of these hindrances. As the Vimalakīrti-sūtra states, "The five aggregates, as objects of attachment, are thoroughly penetrated by emptiness, giving rise to nothing. This is the significance of suffering." The significance of these hindrances can also be understood by this standard. According to the Final Teaching, all śrāvakas are still unable to sever the afflictive hindrances; they can only suppress them. How, then, could they sever the cognitive hindrances? Thus, the Treatise on the Sutra of the Questions of Maitreya states, "None of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can truly cultivate the four immeasurable minds, nor can they finally sever all their afflictions; they can only suppress all their afflictions." A passage in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra also explains it as above.

Question: Why is this explanation different from the earlier teaching? Reply: The earlier teaching is made to draw in the practitioners of the two 124

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] vehicles; it is not yet a profound explanation. Thus, in making the higher teaching approximate the lower one, the afflictive hindrances are the same as those of the two vehicles up to the stage of buddhahood, at which point they are ended. In making the lower teaching the same as the higher, however, it also maintains that the practitioners of the two vehicles completely sever the delusive hindrances and partially sever the cognitive hindrances. Now, this Final Teaching approaches true reality. Because the practitioners of the two vehicles of the ignorant teaching do not have expansive minds, so it can also be maintained that they are not finally able to sever their afflictive hindrances. The previous explanation was from the perspective of śrāvakas within the three vehicles. This includes the perspective of the ignorant teaching, so it is not the same. The Final Teaching on bodhisattvas does not divide the two kinds of hindrances (afflictive and cognitive) into inborn and discriminatory; it only includes afflictions proper and habituated energies. Prior to the stages, bodhisattvas subdue the occurrence of afflictions. At the initial stage they sever the seeds of afflictions. Ascending through the stages, they remove habituated energies, and at the buddha stage they are finally pure. However, prior to the stages, they are in the ranks of the three worthy sets of practices, so from the beginning they do not sink into the stages of the two vehicles. They can freely sever or retain the afflictive hindrances; so, to retain them, they do not sever them, in order to remove cognitive hindrances. Thus, the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "After the ten understandings, one attains the pure mind of the supramundane." It also states, "Having reached the ten understandings, one is named a sage, and does not sink into the stages of the two vehicles." The Sutra for Benevolent Kings states, "Prior to the stages, one attains insight into the emptiness of one's person, but does not reach realization." Also, The Awakening of Faith expounds that upon attaining a partial glimpse of the Dharma body, a bodhisattva can perform the eight characteristic actions of a buddha, and so on. These passages all have this significance. Because of this [freedom to sever or retain afflictive hindrances], bodhisattvas only fear the cognitive hindrances, and so they cultivate the contemplations of consciousness only and true thusness, to suppress and sever those hindrances. However, they not only do not fear afflictive hindrances, they do not even cultivate the practice of counteracting them. They even retain [afflictive hindrances] to help them achieve superior practice. Once they have 125

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reached the initial bodhisattva stage, they sever the coarse part of the cognitive hindrances and do not further retain afflictive hindrances. Thus, the two kinds of hindrances are not divided between the paths of insight and cultivation. When bodhisattvas arrive at the initial stage, the afflictions proper are both eliminated. Thus, the Treatise on the Sutra of the Questions of Maitreya states: He asked, "If a śrāvaka first severs the afflictions that are severed on the path of insight, and later gradually severs the afflictions that are severed on the path of cultivation, why don't bodhisattvas do the same as śrāvakas?" The Buddha replied, "The people who are bodhisattvas have done beneficial deeds for the sake of living beings for immeasurable generations. Later, seeing the Dharma realm of the sweet dew of true thusness, they observe the lives of all those myriad living beings, and realize this world is truly not different from the place they sought. Thus, for bodhisattvas, all the afflictions within the paths of insight and cultivation can obstruct the activity of benefiting living beings, and so upon the path of insight they are all severed together."

These passages are confirmation.

The coarse parts of the afflictions of the manas consciousness are likewise severed at the initial stage, and later the remnant fine parts are removed. Thus, Asvabhāva's Commentary on the Summary of the Great Vehicle states: Transforming the defiled manas, one attains the wisdom of the equality of all things. At the time of the initial insight into reality, one has already attained realization. In the ranks of the path of cultivation, the manas evolves further toward purification.

Interpretation: Evolving toward purification means removing habituated energies, because the afflictions proper were severed before. As to what happens after, the text refers to evolving toward purity, and does not mention severing afflictions.

[Question:] According to this statement, at the time of entering the path of true insight these afflictions are briefly subdued and do not arise; they are not actually severed. But in this case the manas should not be said to evolve further toward purification. As the afflictions are not yet completely severed, why is this called "evolving toward purity"?

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IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] [Reply:] According to the Early Teaching, such an explanation may be permitted. But you should understand that in this Final Teaching, in the bodhisattva stages one only removes the habitual energies. The Treatise on the Jewel Nature states:

Impurity is the afflictive hindrances, which all ordinary beings have. Defile ment is the cognitive hindrances, which all the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have. Taint is the habitual energies of the two kinds of hindrances, upon which all bodhisattvas and mahāsattvas depend.

Interpretation: The treatise explains that those in the bodhisattva stages are named mahāsattvas; thus, we understand that they have only the hindrance of habitual energies. Within this, habitual energy follows from severing the seeds of the afflictions proper. Habitual energy may be present immediately. Why? When the seeds are not yet severed, there is no delicate residue (i.e., habitual energy). When the seeds are severed, then their delicate residue may immediately be present. The treatise explains it as "the immediate production of habitual energy."

Question: How is it that within the bodhisattva stages the afflictions proper are ended, and yet one does not sink into the stages of the two vehicles? Reply: The power of their wisdom is superior, and they have already eliminated the afflictions proper of the cognitive hindrance. For example, when altruistic people of the Early Teaching and Lesser Vehicle suddenly depart from the mundane, completely severing the delusions of the six classes of the desire realm, they must in the same way completely sever the delusions of the six classes of the upper two worlds, and yet they never attain the result of once-returner. How exceptionally superior, then, is the power of this bodhisattva way! It is even more the case because of the afflictions proper of cognitive hindrance that have already been severed. If we were referring to those beings prior to the stages or followers of the Early Teaching, we could permit that loss of progress. But it does not exist within this Final Teaching. Moreover, within this teaching, at the time of actually severing delusions, wisdom arises and delusion is extinguished. It is not at the beginning, at the middle, or after, because before, middle, and after are all taken [together]. You ask, how is it extinguished? Like the original purity of the empty sky: it is extinguished 127

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Treatise on Doctrinal Distinctions of the Huayan One Vehicle thus, as extensively explained in the Treatise on the Ten Stages. Moreover, within this teaching, dharmas such as afflictions are all created from true thusness according with conditions. Thus, they are no different from true thusness. This is the significance of affliction, as taught in The Awakening of Faith. Moreover, the [Vimalakīrti-]sūtra states, "All dharmas are thusness," and so on. Afflictions meet this standard. Thus, you should understand that this doctrine is not the same as that which the various teachings above have postulated; you should understand it appropriately.

ii. Delusions Pertaining to Various Ranks

Second, the characteristics of ranks are shown via the pertinent kinds of delusion. All the explanations of the sacred teachings are summarized in eighteen gates.

One: Two ranks are shown via the two kinds of hindrances. This refers to the division of the hindrances into two, delusive and cognitive, to show the two ranks, which are inferential and direct realization. The Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states, "Prior to the bodhisattva stages one gradually removes afflictive hindrances. In the stages one gradually removes the cognitive hindrances." It also states, "After the ten understandings one attains the pure mind of the supramundane." It also states, "Although one attains insight into one's own selflessness prior to the stages, because one has not yet realized the selflessness of dharmas, one is not yet pure; realizing one's own selflessness is therefore not purity." It also states, "Before, one is attached to one's sense of self; within the ten understandings it has been removed. Now there is only the attachment to the selfhood of dharmas to extinguish." Also, the Sutra for Benevolent Kings states, "After the stage of habitual seed-nature one enters the rank of realizing the emptiness of one's own birth, and attains the nature of sagehood." The Sutra on Basic Activities and The Awakening of Faith have these same explanations.

Two: The three asaṃkhyeya kalpas are shown via the three kinds of delusion; that is, of the flesh, and so on. The Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle states:

In the first of the three asaṃkhyeya kalpas one severs the afflictions of the outer skin; in the second asaṃkhyeya one severs the afflictions of the inner flesh; in the third asaṃkhyeya one severs the afflictions of the heart.23 128

IX. Differences in their Explanations [of Essential Concepts] Three: Three different minds of each of the stages are shown via these same three delusions. As in the explanation of the thirty-three asaṃkhyeya kalpas in the Liang Summary of the Great Vehicle, in each stage, with the entering mind one removes afflictions of the outer skin, with the abiding mind one removes afflictions of the inner flesh, and with the departing mind one removes afflictions of the heart.