T454 The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment and The Sutra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions

THE SUTRA THAT EXPOUNDS THE DESCENT OF MAITREYA BUDDHA AND HIS ENLIGHTENMENT and THE SUTRA OF MAÑJUŚRĪ’S QUESTIONS

THE SUTRA THAT EXPOUNDS THE DESCENT OF MAITREYA BUDDHA AND HIS ENLIGHTENMENT THE SUTRA OF MAÑJUŚRĪ'S QUESTIONS

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series THE SUTRA THAT EXPOUNDS THE DESCENT OF MAITREYA BUDDHA AND HIS ENLIGHTENMENT (Taishō Volume 14, Number 454) Translated by Shōtarō Iida and Jane Goldstone

THE SUTRA OF MAÑJUŚRĪ'S QUESTIONS

(Taishō Volume 14, Number 468) Translated by John R. McRae Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. 2016

Copyright © 2016 by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and BDK America, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means —electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher. First Printing, 2016

ISBN: 978-1-886439-60-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016900374 Published by

BDK America, Inc.

1675 School Street

Moraga, California 94556

Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the

English Tripiṭaka

The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha's basic approach was to prescribe a different treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the suffering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha's Great Demise over twenty-five hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha's teachings. Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha's eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project. It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has finally gotten off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the CompassionateOne reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATAYehan

Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

v

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATAYehan, the founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was officially convened. The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌShōjun, ISHIGAMIZennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKAShūyū, MAYEDASengaku, NARAYasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRIRyōtatsu, TAMARUNoriyoshi, (late) TAMURAKwansei, URYŪZURyūshin, and YUYAMAAkira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWAAtsushi, WATA NABEShōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.

Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATAwished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.

Dr. NUMATApassed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATAToshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson, vii

Publisher’s Foreword

Editorial Foreword

Professor HANAYAMAShōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, then Vice President of Musashino Women's College, to be the Chair in October 1995. The Committee has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. NUMATA, under the leadership of Mr. NUMATAToshihide. The present members of the Committee are MAYEDASengaku (Chairperson), ICHISHIMAShōshin, ISHIGAMIZennō, KATSURAShōryū, NAMAIChishō, NARA Yasuaki, SAITŌAkira, SHIMODAMasahiro, Kenneth K. Tanaka, WATANABEShōgo, and YONEZAWAYoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the BDK English Tripiṭaka First Series. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. Since then the publication of all the volumes has been and will continue to be conducted under the supervision of this Committee in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo. MAYEDASengaku

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripiṭaka

viii

Publisher's Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are dedicated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to disseminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world. The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.

As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.

In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Senior Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK America English Tripiṭaka Project.

A. Charles Muller

Chairperson

Publication Committee

ix

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka NUMATAYehan v

Editorial Foreword MAYEDASengaku vii Publisher's Foreword A. Charles Muller ix The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment Contents 3

Translator's Introduction 5 The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment 13 Notes 25

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions Contents 29

Translator's Introduction 31 The Sutra of Mañjuśrī' s Questions 35

Notes 141

Glossary 145

Bibliography 151 Index 153

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 165 xi xi

THE SUTRA THAT EXPOUNDS THE DESCENT OF MAITREYA BUDDHA AND HIS ENLIGHTENMENT

Contents

Translator's Introduction 5 The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment 13 Notes 25

3

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

Sutras on Maitreya

Maitreya Bodhisattva appears for the first time not during the period of early Buddhism but in the Āgama sutras compiled during the later period of sectarian Buddhism (after the first century C.E.). These Āgama sutras are as follows: 1. The Lengthy Āgama Sutras no. 6, Sutra on the Practices of the Wheelturning King(T.1:39a-42b). 2. The Middle-length Āgama Sutras no. 66, Sutra of Allegories(T.26:508c-511c). 3 The Gradual Āgama Sutras (T.125:645a-645b).

4 The Gradual Āgama Sutras (T.125:756c-758c).

5. The Gradual Āgama Sutras (T.125:787c-789c).

Maitreya is also found in sutras other than the Āgamas: the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya(T.453:421a:421a-423c), translated by Dharmarakṣa (230?-316); the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya(T.454:423c-425c), translated by Kumārajīva (344-413); the Sutra on Maitreya '

s Descending

Birth and Becoming Buddha(T.455:426a-428b), translated by Yijing (635-713); the Sutra on Maitreya Becoming Buddha(T.456:428b-434b), translated by Kumārajīva; the Sutra on the Time of Maitreya

'

s Arrival (T.457:434b-435a),

translator unknown; and the Sutra on the Visualization of Maitreya Bodhisattva '

s

Ascending Birth in Tuṣita Heaven(T.452:418b-420c), translated by Juqu Jingsheng (?-464). In the Pāli canon, the Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-suttanta(Dīgha-nikāya26) corresponds to the Sutra on the Practices of the Wheel-turning King,while the Saṃkhitta(Aṅguttara-nikāyaVIII.41) corresponds to the Sutra of Allegoriesin the list above. In the Tibetan canon, the Ḥphags-pa byams-pa luṅ-bstan-pa (Peking edition, No. 1011) corresponds to the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya,though there are substantial differences between the two versions. 5

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha

The six non-Āgama sutras listed above are collectively referred to as the Six Maitreya Sutras, while the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya,the Sutra on Maitreya Becoming Buddha,and the Sutra on the Visualization of Maitreya Bodhisattva

'

s Ascending Birth in Tuṣita Heavenconstitute the Maitreya Triple Sutra. The Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreyais nearly identical to the Gradual Āgama Sutras (T.125:787c-789c) and is thought to be taken from an independent sutra. The text translated in this volume is the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya,translated by Kumārajīva. The Development of

Maitreya Thought

Based on the sutras listed above, we can examine how Maitreya emerged and came to occupy an important place in Buddhism. In the Sutra on the Practices of the Wheel-turning KingŚākyamuni explains to the monks how they are to carry out their practices. In the past the world was prosperous under the reign of good kings, but it later deteriorated under kings who ruled poorly. The world soon came to almost a complete end due to war. From this point on in the sutra, Śākyamuni's words turn prophecy: because of the efforts of meritorious survivors, the world will likely prosper again and human life span will increase. When human life span increases to eighty thousand years, a buddha named Metteya (Skt. Maitreya) and a wheel-turning king (cakravartin) named Śaṅkha will appear and the world will realize peace and prosperity. It seems that the aim in compiling this sutra was to teach monks how to conduct themselves properly, like the wheel-turning king. In this text Maitreya serves only as an assistant and there is no reference to his ascent to or descent from Tuṣita Heaven. The Sutra of Allegoriesopens with Śākyamuni and his disciples residing in the Deer Park in Vārāṇasī. Aniruddha speaks to the monks about the buddhas of the past. The Buddha then instructs him to also talk about the buddhas of the future. As Aniruddha relates how a wheel-turning king named Śaṅkha and Maitreya Buddha will appear in the world when the human life span has increased to eighty thousand years, the monk Ajita says that he wishes to be reborn in the next life as the wheel-turning king Śaṅkha, and the monk Maitreya wishes to be reborn as Maitreya Buddha. Śākyamuni then reprimands Ajita but praises Maitreya; he bestows upon Maitreya a golden robe and prophesies that he will 6

Translator's Introduction

become a buddha. The demon king Māra appears and says that the monk Maitreya should become Śaṅkha, the king of Ketumatī Castle, but Śākyamuni insists that he will become Maitreya Buddha. An argument ensues, but in the end Māra is defeated and disappears from the scene. There is no reference to Tuṣita Heaven. The motivation for the compilation of this sutra seems to have been to teach the superiority of the Buddhist path over worldly success.

According to the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya,Śāriputra entreats Śākyamuni to explain how one can meet Maitreya. There is a beautiful capital city called Ketumatī, where a wheel-turning king named Śaṅkha will appear. At that time Maitreya will be born to a brahman couple, Brahmavatī and Subrah man, who are living in Ketumatī. Upon seeing and deploring the suffering of sentient beings, Maitreya leaves secular life and eventually realizes awakening under a dragonflower (nāgapuṣpa) tree. Seeing this, King Śaṅkha and many of his people enter the Buddhist path.

At that time, Sudatta will become a rich merchant called Sudhāna and Viśākhā will become Princess Śyāmāvatī. Maitreya declares to them: You have come to me having practiced and accumulated spiritual benefits under Śākyamuni Buddha. O wonderful Śākyamuni Buddha, it is excellent that he has trained so many people and has sent them to me. The world back then was corrupt, but you (Sudhāna, Vaiśakhā, etc.) have accomplished a very difficult task (i.e., living a pure life). Śākyamuni Buddha generated great compassion and even sacrificed his body out of his concern for all of you, and he even preached about my future appearance. It is rare to encounter such a teacher.

Maitreya preaches the Dharma at three gatherings at the Flower Forest Park, where, as a result, 9.6 billion arhats, 9.4 billion arhats, and 9.2 billion arhats appear, respectively. He further liberates the gods, and then enters the city of Ketumatī, leading all sentient beings. At that time miracles occur as gods play musical instruments and scatter flower petals, and Brahmā and Śakra sing praises of the Buddha. Māra submits himself to the Buddha. Maitreya leads a large group of beings to Vulture Peak and comes face to face with the Buddha's great disciple, Mahākāśyapa, who was in deep meditation (actually dead) in a cave. Maitreya Buddha then praises the "relic body" of Mahākāśyapa and his efforts to save sentient beings. Seeing this, sentient beings are moved by the realization 7

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha

of the difficulties faced by Śākyamuni Buddha and others during the corrupt period. As he speaks, Śākyamuni Buddha encourages his disciples to make great effort so that they may be able to meet Maitreya.

The motivation for the compilation of this sutra seems to have been to use the marvelous opportunity of meeting the future buddha as a pretext for encouraging people to exert themselves in the present. There is no reference to Tuṣita Heaven in this sutra, but it is referenced in the Sutra on the Descending Birth of Maitreya(Gradual Āgama Sutras, T.453:421c6), the contents of which are virtually the same as this text.

Many people have a greater interest in meeting Maitreya sooner rather than waiting for a meeting in the distant future, because Maitreya will appear only after a very long time. People do not want to wait that long and so they begin to wonder where Maitreya might be residing. The result is thought to be the Sutra of Ascending Birth, which was compiled after the Sutra of Descending Birth. This is confirmed by a passage in the former text: "Maitreya Bodhisattva will descend to Jambudvīpa 5.6 billion years later, as is explained in the Sutra of Descending Birth" (T.452:420c7-8).

According to the Sutra of Ascending Birth,Upāli asks the Buddha when he was in Śrāvastī,

"O World-honored One, you once prophesied that Ajita would become a buddha, but this Ajita (five lines earlier he is referred to as "Maitreya") is still only an ordinary being. Where will he be born after death?" The Buddha replies,

"He will die in twelve years and be reborn in Tuṣita Heaven. "

The Buddha then goes on to explain the marvelous qualities of Tuṣita Heaven at great length. He further explains that Ajita was born to a brahman named Bāvari in the village of Kappārī (?) in Vārāṇasī, and that in twelve years he would return to that place on the fifteenth day of the second month (the discourse is taking place in Śrāvastī). Maitreya will then die and ascend to Tuṣita Heaven. In this world below (i.e., Jambudvīpa) his relics are enshrined in a stupa, but Maitreya himself is miraculously reborn instantly in Tuṣita Heaven. He sits on a lotus flower seat and continuously turns the Dharma wheel of nonretrogression. Maitreya will then descend to Jambudvīpa 5.6 billion years later. The Buddha then teaches that after Maitreya's death, if someone contemplates him, recites his name, receives the eight pure precepts, and cultivates the pure actions, he or she will also ascend to Tuṣita Heaven when they die. When one is approaching death in this world, Maitreya Buddha will come to welcome that 8

Translator's Introduction

person with an assembly of heavenly beings. The Buddha further admonishes the audience to think about this carefully and generate the wish to be reborn in Tuṣita Heaven. Those in the audience stand and prostrate at the feet of Śākyamuni Buddha and Maitreya Bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas who have come from other buddha lands to listen to Śākyamuni's preaching vow to descend to this world at the time of Maitreya's descent.

This sutra preaches the benefits of contemplating the Buddha and reciting his name, suggesting an influence of Amitābha thought.

The Gradual Āgama Sutras (T.125:645a-645b and 756c-758c) and the Sutra on Maitreya Becoming Buddhawere probably compiled at a later period. Sutra (3) contains the word ṣaṭ-pāramitā, while the Gradual Āgama Sutras (756c-758c) include a reference to a prophecy by Dīpaṃkara ("Lamplight") Buddha and the word "vow.

" There is a reference to the term prajñāpāramitā(perfection of wisdom) in the Sutra on Maitreya Becoming Buddha.We also find references to Maitreya in the Sutra of the Age of the Wiseand in the Sutra of the Questions and Vow of Bodhisattva Maitreya,but these texts reveal features of later development. The Cultural Background for the

Emergence of Maitreya Thought

The origin of Maitreya in Buddhism may have been influenced by Iranian religious thought. From around the second century B.C.E.Mithraism, based on a deified personification of the sun, gained a following in the areas influenced by Iranian culture. For example, in Parthia a king named Mithridates (meaning "child received from Mithra"), and Antigonos I (first century B.C.E.) built a statue of Mithra (= Apollo) in Kommagene (located in present-day Turkey). This Mithra cult probably also influenced the Mithraism that became popular within the Roman Empire.

In India, the kings of the Kushan Empire (second century C.E.) carved sun gods on their coins and inscribed the word "Miiro" on the side. It seems quite evident that "Mihira" or "Miiro" evolved from "Mithra.

" "Mithra" is also found

in the name Mitirakula, a sixth-century king who persecuted Buddhism. (In the case of the name Agnimitra, a king of the Śuṅga dynasty in central India, mitra means "friend"; Agnimitra thus means "friend of the god Agni. ")

Within this environment, the Buddhists could not remain indifferent to Mithra and incorporated him into their fold, as they did with the Hindu deities Brahmā 9

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha

and Indra. During this process, some Buddhists came to realize that "Mithra" was equivalent to "Mitra" in the Indic language and that it was related to "Metteya, "

the name of a monk who appears in one of the earliest sutras, the Suttanipāta. In order to situate the origins of new deities within the Buddhist tradition, Mithra thus came to be identified with Metteya.

According to verse no. 1006 of the Suttanipāta, Metteya studied in a country in the south with a brahman named Bāvari, who (according to verse no. 976) had come from Kośala. Bāvari sent sixteen of his disciples, including Ajita and Tissa Metteya, to Śrāvastī in Kośala, where Śākyamuni was said to reside. Śākyamuni had since moved on to Rājagṛha in Magadha, but Bāvari's disciples were able to catch up with him there.

The Sutra on the Visualization of Maitreya Bodhisattva

'

s Ascending Birth in

Tuṣita Heavenmentions that Maitreya was born into the family of a great brahman named Bāvari in Kappārī (?), in Vārāṇasī. This reference must be related to the story cited above from Suttanipāta(Vārāṇasī had once been annexed by Kośala). Further, Ajita and Tissa Metteya are separate individuals in the Sutra of Allegories cited above, but Ajita is treated as another name for Metteya in the other sutras. Since "Ajita" carries the meaning of "invincible,

" the French scholar Jean

Filliozat compares Ajita Metteya with the concept of "the invincible sun (god)" (Sol Invictus) in the teachings of Mithra.

1

According to an Avesta scripture, Yašts XIX, vii, Hvarna (a kind of halo) served King Yima when he ran the country properly, but left the king when he engaged in telling lies. This is reminiscent of a story in a Buddhist text, The Lion

'

s Roar of the Dharma-turning King,where Wheel Treasure leaves the evil king.

2There are teachings of end-of-time (eschatology) as well as of a messiah (saośyant) in Zoroastrianism, which are believed to have influenced Judaism. A strong possibility exists that a similar process of influence took place with regard to Buddhism.

The Name "Maitreya" and

Rebirth in Tuṣita

I once thought that the Chinese term for Maitreya, Mi-le (ancient pronunciation: Mier-lek) was a transliteration of Miiro. Buddhist dictionaries explain Mi-le as a transliteration of Maitreya, although there is no "t" sound in Mi-le. However, according to Asao Iwamatsu, the Chinese character miwas once pronounced miet. 3

10

Translator's Introduction

So Mi-le could have been a transliteration of a word like "Metrago, " which

appears in the Metrago Boddo legend of certain Kaniṣka coins. It bears mention here that a bodhisattva statue (from the second century) with "Maitreya" inscribed in Brāhmī script was discovered in Ahicchattra.

The Maitreya cult became popular from around the fourth century C.E. The Chinese monk Faxian (320?-420?), during his travels through Darada in Northern India, came upon a huge wooden statue of Maitreya (T.2085:858a2). Dao'an and his disciples sought rebirth in Tuṣita Heaven (T.2059:353b28), and Jidaolin wrote the Praise of Maitreya(T.2103:197a13). Furthermore, Emperor Ming of the Song (465-472) compiled the Dragon Flower Vow Passage,and numerous statues and images of Maitreya were produced and placed in the caves of Longmen and Yongang. 4 In India, the famous scholar-monk Asaṅga (fifth century) is said to have ascended to Tuṣita Heaven to receive teachings directly from Maitreya.

In China, the Maitreya cult and the Amitābha cult flourished around the same time, leading to debates about which was superior. Maitreya followers stressed the proximity of Tuṣita Heaven, which is part of the triple realm (i.e., part of the samsaric three realms of existence in which beings reside). On the other hand, Amitābha followers used the same argument to assert the inferiority of Tuṣita Heaven, emphasizing the transcendence of Amitābha's Pure Land from the triple realm, which demonstrates its superiority. The Maitreya cult eventually lost ground to the ascendant Amitābha cult.

The Image of the Contemplative

Maitreya

At Kōryūji in Kyoto there is a very well-known image of Maitreya (Miroku Bosatsu), in which he is depicted touching his finger to his chin, that has been designated a National Treasure of Japan. The Hōryū Temple Museum in Tokyo has numerous images that are believed to have been created on the Korean peninsula. Maitreya's contemplative pose has long been thought of as a bodhisattva contemplating how best to save beings. However, Gregory Schopen recently put forth a view that this is not an image of a bodhisattva but of a suffering prince who is disillusioned with himself. 5Consequently, Schopen contends

that the East Asian understanding of the figure as an image of Maitreya Bodhisattva is erroneous. 11

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha I have argued that Schopen's interpretation of the pose in question does not apply to all the sculptures, and never applies to images of Maitreya. 6 Noriaki

Hakamaya agrees with Schopen's basic view but objects to the notion that the contemplative image is not that of a bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas are not necessarily all great beings, such as Maitreya or Avalokiteśvara, who are always meditating on how best to aid suffering sentient beings; there are lay bodhisattvas, too. This image may thus represent a lay bodhisattva.

7

12

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment Translated by Kumārajīva, Tripiṭaka Master of Kucha Country, in the time of the Late Qin

Śāriputra, endowed with great wisdom, able to turn the wheel of the Dharma, according to the Buddha's instruction, is the great general of the doctrine. Out of compassion for all sentient beings, he addressed the Buddha: O Honorable One! According to what is written in the various sutras, Maitreya will descend to the world and become Buddha. Respectfully, I ask that I may hear in detail of the merits, the miraculous powers, and the land of glory of Maitreya. What manner of giving (dāna), precepts (śīla), and wisdom (prajñā) will enable sentient beings to meet Maitreya? Whereupon the Buddha declared to Śāriputra:

I shall now explain this matter in detail for your sake. Listen well, O Śāriputra! The level of the four oceans will gradually fall by three thousand yojanas. At that time Jambūdvīpa, measuring ten thousand yojanas in length and eight thousand in width, will be as flat as a mirror and covered in beautiful flowers and soft grasses. A multitudinous variety of trees, flowers, and fruits will grow in profusion and all the trees will be thirty leagues high. Cities and towns will be followed by more cities and towns with only the distance of a fowl's flight between them. Human beings will live to be eighty-four thousand years old and will be endowed with wisdom, dignity, and physical power. Life will be free from danger and full of joy. Only three afflictions will remain—the necessity of relieving one's bowels, of eating and drinking, and of getting old. Women will not marry until they are five hundred years old.

At that time there will be a great city called Ketumatī. Twelve yojanas long and seven yojanas wide, this city will be of perfect arrangement, exquisite beauty, lavish adornment, and immaculate cleanliness. Blessed and meritorious people will dwell therein, and because of their blessings and virtue there will be joy and peace. The city will be made of seven treasures and crowned by towers. Doors and windows will be bejeweled and covered by a net of pearls. Streets, swept clean, will be twelve leagues wide. A great nāgarāja(dragon king), Tagaraśikhin by name, will dwell in his place in the lake near the city, and from this will appear a fine rain 423c

15

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha 424a

that will fall through the night, subduing the dust. The earth will glisten as though oiled and people may walk to and fro without a trace of dust. Human beings will attain blessings and morality. The streets will be replete with pillars of brilliant jewels ten leagues tall, with no need of candles; brilliant light will shine throughout the days and nights. The cities, towns, and dwellings will not have a speck of dirt and the ground will be covered with gold dust. Here and there will be heaps of gold and silver. There will be a great yakṣa devaby the name of Bhadrapraśāsaka who will keep vigilant guard over the city and maintain its cleanliness. Human waste will not have to be disposed of—the ground will simply open up to receive it and return to its former appearance upon closing up again. When the time of death comes, human beings will walk quietly to their burial mounds and then pass away.

In those peaceful and happy times, no one in the cities will need to lock their door, for there will be neither enemies nor thieves. Nor will there be worldly cares, floods or fires, wars, any type of famine, and no harmful poisons. Human beings will always be compassionate, respectful of one another, tranquil, in control of their senses, and gentle in speech. O Śāriputra! I will now tell you briefly of the prosperity and joyfulness of the cities and towns of that land. There will be numerous parks with naturally flowing lakes and springs, their waters endowed with the eight fine qualities. Everywhere the water will be covered with lotuses of myriad hues: blue, pink, crimson, and white. On four sides the lakes will be surrounded by pathways made of four jewels. All the birds will gather peacefully here: geese, ducks, mandarin ducks, peacocks, kingfishers, parrots, mynahs, doves, partridges, and others. Among them will nest many sweetly singing birds, including countless rare songbirds. Trees bearing fruit and fragrant trees will be plentiful throughout the land. At that time Jambudvīpa will always be as fragrant as the Fragrant Mountain. Its running waters will be beauteous, sweet-tasting, and healing. All vegetation will flourish through the timeliness of bounteous rains, weeds will not grow, and every seed will bear fruit seven times. With little labor, the harvest will be rich. When eaten, the food will not only taste and smell admirable but will also be nutritious and give strength. 16

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha At that time there will be a wheel-turning king (cakravartin) named Śaṅkha in that land. He will command four kinds of fighting forces but he will have no need of martial power to conquer his foes. He will also father a thousand sons of great valor and strength who can dispel all enemies. This king will possess seven great treasures: the treasured golden wheel, the treasured elephant, the treasured horse, the treasured jewel, the treasured woman, the treasured minister of finance, and the treasured general.

In this land there will also be a seven-jeweled pillar, soaring to the height of one thousand fathoms. This pillar will have a thousand heads8 and a thousand wheels, each one hundred and sixty meters wide. Four great treasure houses will also be found there, each of which is surrounded by four billion smaller ones. The great treasure house of Elapatra will be located in Gandhāra, the treasure house of Pāṇḍukaḥ will be in Mithila, that of Piṅgala in Surāṣṭra, and that of Śaṅkha in Vārāṇasī. The four great treasure houses occupy an area of a thousand square yojanas, filled with rare riches. The four billion small treasure houses are attached to them. Four great nāgarājas guard each treasure house. The four great treasure houses with their attached houses unfold naturally in the shape of lotuses. Indeed, an incalculable number of people will go to behold them.

At that time all the treasure houses will be unguarded, as the people will, on seeing them, feel no attachment. They would discard such treasures as they would stones, grasses, trees, or lumps of earth. As they look upon the treasures the people will reflect with disgust how sentient beings in past ages not only harmed one another to acquire such riches, but stole, cheated, and lied in order to obtain them. Thus was the painful cycle of samsara ever increased.

A gossamer of diverse precious stones envelope the city of Ketumatī. When there is a breeze, splendid jeweled bells will ring in harmony like the bells and chimes of temples.

In this city a great brahman, Subrahman, and his wife, Brahmavatī, will reside. They are Maitreya's father and mother. Maitreya's body will be purple-gold in color and will bear the thirty-two marks of a great 17

424b

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha 424c

person (mahāpuruṣa). All sentient beings will never tire of looking upon him. His immeasurable strength will be incomprehensible. Light that cannot be rivaled by that of the sun, moon, fire, or jewels will stream unhindered to all regions. He will be one thousand feet tall; his chest [will be] thirty fathoms wide, and his head twelve fathoms and four feet long. His body will be flawless and incomparably perfectly arranged. Possessing the thirty-two major marks and the eighty minor marks, he will resemble a golden statue. His physical eyes can see as far as ten yojanas. A light will emanate from him for a distance of a hundred yojanas. The light of the sun, moon, fire, or jewels cannot be seen, only this transcendent buddha light will shine.

Seeing the multitudes of sentient beings afflicted by the five desires and sinking in the sea of samsara, Maitreya Buddha greatly pities them. With the correct view attained through his efforts, he is not content with the life of a householder. Thereupon, King Śaṅkha, together with his great ministers, will offer Maitreya Buddha the jeweled pillar, and, having received it, Maitreya offers it to the brahmans. The brahmans, after receiving it, will dismantle it and divide the pieces among themselves. Upon seeing the immediate disintegration of the marvelous pillar, Maitreya Bodhisattva will realize that all things are impermanent and pass away.

Contemplating the thought of impermanence, he will leave his home and pursue the path. Sitting under the dragonflower bodhitree, whose trunk, branches, and leaves rise up to a height of fifty leagues, Maitreya, on the very day that he set out [on the path], will attain supreme enlightenment. At that time the devas, nāgas, and gods, without manifesting themselves, will cause fragrant flowers to rain down in homage to the Buddha. The whole universe will quake. The Buddha will emanate light illuminating countless lands, and those who are worthy of salvation will see the Buddha.

At that time human beings will consider the following: Even if I were to enjoy the pleasure of the five desires for countless eons, I cannot avoid reaping the suffering of the three evil worlds. Neither family nor fortune can save me. The world is transient and 18

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha difficult to sustain. Now I must follow the Buddha Dharma and lead the ascetic life.

Reflecting like this, they will set out from their homes and follow the path.

Then King Śaṅkha, accompanied by eighty-four thousand great ministers, reverently circumambulating Maitreya Buddha, will set out from their homes and follow the path. The eighty-four thousand wise and learned brahmans will also set out from their homes in the Buddha Dharma. Sudatta, who is here now, will be reborn as a householder named Sudhāna, and with eighty-four thousand people he will set out on the renunciant path. The brothers Ṛṣidatta and Purāṇa will also set out with a company of eighty-four thousand people. In addition, two great ministers named Candana and Sumana, held in high regard by the king, will together with eighty-four thousand people set out on the renunciant path in the Buddha Dharma. Viśākhā, who is present here, will be reborn as the treasured woman of King Śaṅkha. She will be named Śyāmavatī and will set out on the renunciant life together with a retinue of eighty-four thousand ladiesin-waiting. Devasena, who is here now, will be reborn as Deva[su]varṇa, the son of King Śaṅkha, and along with a company of eighty-four thousand people he will too set out on the renunciant life. Uttara, who is here now, will be reborn as Sumati, the wise and intelligent son of a brahman in the family of Maitreya, and he too will set out on the renunciant life in the Buddha Dharma in the company of eighty-four thousand people. These countless myriads of people, on perceiving the suffering of the world, will set out for the renunciant life in the Dharma of Maitreya Buddha.

At that time, Maitreya Buddha, on seeing the great assembly, will make this reflection:

Not for the sake of being born into pleasures of the heavens, not for the sake of the pleasures of the world, have they come to me, but only for the sake of the perpetual joy of nirvana. They have all planted various good seeds within the Buddha Dharma. Śākyamuni sent them to me, so they have all come to me today. I now receive 19

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha 425a

them. Some of them, through the recitation and analysis of the Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma (i.e., Tripiṭaka) and the practice of these merits, have come to me. Others, having given food and clothing in alms, held to the precepts, and gained wisdom through practicing these meritorious acts, have come to me. Others, having offered flags, flowers, and incense, paid homage to buddhas, and practicing these meritorious acts, have come to me. Others have given alms, observed the lay precepts, and cultivated compassion, and with these merits they have come to me. Others, having made afflicted people happy, through practicing this meritorious act have come to me. Others who held the precepts, practiced patience, and demonstrated taintless compassion, with these merits have come to me. Others gave alms to the monks for their daily sustenance and sponsored religious observances where food offerings are made to the sangha, and with these meritorious acts have come to me. Others held the precepts, studied extensively, and attained untainted wisdom by means of meditation, and through these merits have come to me. Still others built stupas and performed rituals to the sacred relics (śarīras), and with these merits have come to me. Praise to Śākyamuni Buddha! In all these ways you have guided these countless sentient beings to me today.

Maitreya Buddha will praise Śākyamuni Buddha in this way three times. After that he will preach:

You have done what is difficult to be done. In the evil world where people are confused by lust, anger, and ignorance and had only brief life spans, you held precepts and practiced various meritorious acts. This is wonderful. At that time people no longer respected their parents, wandering mendicants, or brahmans. They were unprincipled and injured one another with frequent warring and looting. They were deeply attached to the five desires, jealous, sly, deceptive, evil, and lacked compassion. Moreover, they killed one another, ate meat, and drank blood. That you were still able to attain good deeds in the midst of all this is truly rare.

20

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha Homage to Śākyamuni Buddha! Through his great compassion he spoke the truth among suffering sentient beings, saying that I must come and speak to you. A teacher of this kind is extremely difficult to meet. Śākyamuni Buddha, for your sake, took pity on the sentient beings in the evil world and drew out their suffering so that they might attain peace. He offered his head and cut up his ears, nose, hands, feet, and torso, and thus taking on himself all suffering, benefited you.

In this way Maitreya Buddha will guide and console countless sentient beings. Letting them thus rejoice, he will then teach the Dharma to them. The assembly will be filled with the blessed and meritorious ones. They will revere, believe in, and be in awe of the Great Teacher. Each one, wishing to hear the Dharma, will have the following thoughts: The five desires are impure and are the source of suffering. In order to cast off the torments and agony of life one must realize the impermanence of pain and pleasure. Observing that the hearts of those in the great assembly are pure, disciplined, and receptive, Maitreya Buddha will teach them the Four Noble Truths. All those listening will simultaneously attain the path of nirvana. On another occasion Maitreya Buddha will be in the Garden of Flowers and Woods, which is one hundred square yojanas in size. It will be filled with great assemblies. At the first gathering where he teaches the Dharma, ninety-six billion people attain arhatship. At the second great assembly, ninety-four billion people will attain arhatship. At the third great assembly, ninety-two billion people will attain arhatship. Having turned the Dharma wheel and saved the devas and the human beings, he will enter the city, followed by numerous disciples, and beg for almsfood. Purely dwelling devas will follow Maitreya Buddha and enter the city of Ketumatī. At that time he will manifest various supernatural powers with their infinite variations. Śakradevānām Indra, together with the devas of the realm of desire (kāmadhātu) and Brahmā, together with the devas of the realm of form (rūpadhātu) will sing praises of the Buddha's virtue accompanied by a 21

425b

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha thousand instruments and voices, and will rain down heavenly flowers and sandalwood incense in praise of the Buddha. The cities and towns, streets and byways, will be flanked by banners and canopies. Everyone will burn the finest incense and the perfumed smoke will rise like clouds. As the Bhagavat enters the city, the Brahmā king Śakradevānām Indra, hands joined in veneration, will give praise in verse: O You Perfectly Enlightened Being, the noblest of humans. None can be your equal in the world nor among the devas. So rare is a World Honored One possessing the Ten Powers. The Insurpassable, the Excellent, the Blessed Field. Those who worship you will be reborn in heaven.

I bow reverently before you, the Incomparable, the Mighty. At that time, devas, human beings, rākṣasas, and others will see the Buddha subdue the powerful Māra. Countless sentient beings will rejoice. They will join their hands in veneration and chant: An event of exceeding rarity! An event of exceeding rarity! The supernatural powers of the Tathāgata are beyond comprehension! At that time the devas will scatter various multicolored lotuses and māndāravaflowers on the earth before the Buddha, heaping them up to his knees. The heavens will be filled with a thousand songs of praise to the Buddha's virtue. Then Māra, from the beginning to the end of the night, will awaken people with these words:

Now that you have attained a human form and come at this opportune time, you must not sleep through the night, turning away your mind. Whether standing or sitting, always strive vigorously for right mindfulness. Realize the five skandhas, impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and the lack of a self for what they are. Do not be heedless and neglect to follow the Buddha's teachings. Initiating bad karma will inevitably bring remorse.

At that time men and women in the streets will repeat these words: Do not be heedless and neglect to follow the Buddha's teachings. Initiating bad karma will inevitably bring remorse. With the right 22

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha methods and vigor you must pursue the path. Don't lose the benefits of the Dharma, don't live and die in vain. A great teacher such as he who can draw out suffering is difficult to meet. With firm resolve attain the perpetual joy of nirvana.

Thereupon, without exception, all of Maitreya Buddha's disciples with rectitude and dignity, wearying of old age, sickness, and death, will listen to many discourses, study widely, protect the Dharma piṭaka,and practice meditation. They will be able to leave desire behind them just as a fledgling leaves behind its shell. At that time Maitreya Buddha will wish to visit Elder Mahākāśyapa and with the four types of disciples will ascend Gṛdhrakūṭa (Vulture Peak). On the mountaintop they will see Mahākāśyapa. Maitreya Buddha will speak in praise to the astonished multitude of men and women: Mahākāśyapa Bhikṣu was a great disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, who constantly praised him as the foremost practitioner of the path of poverty. He has mastered the meditation of deliverance and emancipation. He was one who had no conceit even though he possessed great supernatural powers. He enabled sentient beings to experience great joy. He always took pity on the lowly, the vulgar, the poor, and suffering sentient beings. He drew away their suffering and enabled them to attain peace.

In reverence to Mahākāśyapa's relics Maitreya Buddha will say: Praise to Mahākāśyapa, the great disciple of the Lion of the Śākya clan, the possessor of sublime virtue. While in that evil world he cultivated his mind.

At that time, having seen Maitreya Buddha praise Mahākāśyapa, countless people from the great multitude will renounce the world and attain the path. Many human beings will contemplate how Śākyamuni Buddha taught countless sentient beings in the evil world, enabling them to become arhats through the attainment of the six superknowledges. At that time, the place where Maitreya Buddha expounds the Dharma will be eighty yojanas wide and a hundred yojanas long. There, whether sitting or standing, near or far, each person will see the Buddha directly 425c

23

Notes

The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha before him, teaching the Dharma solely for his or her sake. Maitreya Buddha will live for sixty thousand years, taking pity on people and causing them to attain the Dharma eye. After Maitreya Buddha enters nirvana his teachings will remain in the world for another sixty thousand years. Entertain no doubts! You must vigorously arouse the desire for enlightenment (bodhicitta) and initiate meritorious deeds so that you may see the buddha body of Maitreya, which is the illumination of the world. Thus did the Buddha preach this sutra, and Śāriputra and the others received it joyfully.

24

Notes

1 Jean Filliozat,

"Maitreya l'Invaincu,

" Journal Asiatique(1950): 123-127. 2 Akira Sadakata,

"Dharmacakra and Hvarna,

" Proceedings of the Faculty of Letters of Tokai University78 (2002): 130-106. 3 Asao Iwamatsu,

123/2 (1994): 215.

"Gandhāra chōkoku to Amidabutsu, " Toyo bunka kenkyūjo kiyō

4 Jiyu Ren, ed., Chugoku Bukkyōshi III,Hajime Okayama, et al., trans. (Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo, 1994), pp. 634-641.

5 Gregory Schopen,

"Brooding Bodhisattvas and Despondent Laymen: The 'Pensive Pose' in Early Buddhist Art and Literature, " paper presented at the symposium "The Ambiguity of Avalokitesvara and Questions of Bodhisattvas in Buddhist Traditions, "

University of Texas, Austin, October 25-27, 1996. 6 Akira Sadakata, Indo uchūron taizen (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 2011). 7 Noriaki Hakamaya,

"Miroku bosatsu hanka shi'yuizo ko" ("Thoughts on the Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva in Contemplation, Sitting on a Chair with One Leg Placed on the Thigh of the Other Leg"), in Kimura Kiyotaka, ed., Kimura Kiyotaka hakushi kanreki kinen ronbunshu: Higashi ajia bukkyo—sono seiritsu to hatten(Festschrift in Honor of Dr. Kiyotaka Kimura: East Asia Buddhism—Its Emergence and Development) (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 2002), pp. 449-462. 8 The meaning of "head" here is not clear. According to the Sutra on the Practices of the Wheel-turning King(see Introduction), this pillar is sixteen fathoms in circumference and one thousand fathoms in height, with ten "crater-type cups, " each of

which has one hundred branches. "Crater-type cup" refers to a container that resembles a vase shaped like an upside-down bell (wider at the top than the bottom). It is possible that this pillar emulates an āmalaka,or bell-shaped piece (capital), on King Aśoka's stone pillars or parasols (chatrāvalī) on the Gandhāra stupas. 25 25

THE SUTRA OF MAÑJUŚRĪ’S QUESTIONS

THE SUTRA OF MAÑJUŚRĪ'S QUESTIONS

Contents

Translator's Introduction 31 The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions Fascicle One Chapter I. Introduction 37 Chapter II. The Bodhisattva Precepts Chapter III. The Inconceivable 45 Chapter IV. Selflessness 51 Chapter V. Nirvana 53 Chapter VI. The Perfection of Wisdom Chapter VII. The Existence of Residual Energies Chapter VIII. Coming and Going Chapter IX. The Middle Path Chapter X. The Mundane Precepts Chapter XI. The Supramundane Precepts Chapter XII. The Higher Supramundane Precepts Chapter XIII. Taking the Bodhisattva Precepts 39 57

59

63

65

67

71

75

77

Chapter XIV. Letters 79 Fascicle Two Chapter XV. Clarifying the Schools Chapter XVI. Miscellaneous Questions 101 Chapter XVII. The Entrustment of the Teachings 97 117

Notes 141 29

Translator’s Introduction

Translator's Introduction

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī'

s Questions(Skt.

*Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā;Ch. Wenshushili

wen jing;Taishō vol. 14, no. 468) is a precious trove of arcane wisdom. The text was composed sometime after the most well-known Mahayana scriptures and its somewhat heterogeneous but profound contents reflect the vibrant state of Indian Buddhism during what was perhaps its most creative period. The range of topics addressed in the Sutra of Mañjuśrī'

s Questionsimparts a lasting impression of the concerns of the Indian Mahayana community. At the same time, the obvious dependence of this sutra on earlier translations, the discussion in the text of topics that were to become popular in China, and the absence of any Sanskrit or Tibetan versions make one wonder whether this text might actually have been compiled in China based on Indian materials.

The reader's first impression on glancing through this text may be a reaction to its extensive repetition of standard formulae from the canons of Buddhist monastic discipline. The proper length of a monk's hair and fingernails, the collection and holding of donations to the sangha, eating meat, and making unwarranted sounds—these are the kinds of details within the monastic regimen, apparently trivial but rife with significant implications, that divided the Buddhist community.

In this context it is interesting that the text cites a mantra or incantation to be used before eating meat and includes descriptions and refutations of heterodox teachings. The treatment of the heterodox teachings may of course be a later accretion to the text, but it may have been placed here to make an indirect polemical statement about the opposition to eating meat in other Mahayana circles, i.e., an unstated attempt to impute guilt by association. In any case, eating meat was an issue that created tension even among its advocates, requiring the use of an expiatory incantation.

Ultimately, of course, the Sutra of Mañjuśrī'

s Questionsarrives at very moderate conclusions regarding the disciplinary issues it discusses—moderation, of course, is a hallowed tradition in Buddhism. Similarly, the progression from 31

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions

worldly precepts to transcendental precepts, to supreme transcendental precepts, and finally to the bodhisattva precepts described in Chapters X to XIII is one instantiation of an archetypal Mahayana Buddhist theoretical progression. It is also intriguing to see even the simplified forms of Indian Buddhist liturgy given here.

Chapter III of the sutra, entitled "The Inconceivable,

" an obvious reference

to the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra,is devoted to subjects that came to be extremely interesting to the Chinese during the early eighth century. The Buddha is likened to space, which is said to lack color, grasping, intention, and location but which makes possible the appearance of the colors of physical form, the recollections of memory, and the locations of sentient beings. The metaphor of the maṇipearl in the sutra is actually an allusion to the sun, which shines down impartially on all the plants and animals on earth, just as the Buddha extends his wisdom impartially to all sentient beings. Both pearl and Buddha are described as being "without mind" (wuxin;Jp. mushin), a crucial term in early Chinese Chan Buddhism.

The next three chapters go on to clarify numerous important aspects of this vision: first to refute any postulation of an omnipresent self, and then to define the abstruse nature of nirvana and the perfection of wisdom. I particularly enjoy the analogy of the senile old man with his hands on his knees, which he thought were two little boys (see Chapter IV.) The sutra argues that if the old man had a self within his body, how would that self "be unable to recognize his own knees and call them little boys?" Because of this, the text asserts that "there is therefore no self.

" Precisely the same logic, although not the same metaphor, is used in early eighth-century Chan literature.

Somewhat later in the text are other usages reminiscent of early Chan. For example, Chapter VIII treats the terms given in its title, "Coming and Going,

"

in ways that seem to antedate the practice of "contemplative analysis, " in which

conventional Buddhist jargon is radically redefined to fit the doctrine of the "contemplation of the mind.

" Here the target interpretation is identified as the

"location of the sagely practice.

"

The most fascinating passages in the Sutra of Mañjuśrī' s Questionsare those

dealing with the Sanskrit alphabet and the schools of Indian Buddhism. The description of the Sanskrit alphabet accurately produces the order of the sounds as laid down by orthodox grammarians, although it is unclear what relationship 32

Translator's Introduction

there is between the forty sounds of the alphabet and the eight letters that follow. While the sutra's ultimate source seems to have been the eighth fascicle of the Daban niepan jing(Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra), its reference to the use of these letters in dhāraṇī indicates influence from the esoteric tradition. It is therefore relevant to note that another translation of this chapter, done by the great esoteric Buddhist master Amoghavajra, occurs just after the Sutra of Mañjuśrī' s Questions

in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyōedition of the canon (Taishō no. 469). I do not comment on the specific interpretations of the individual letters and the further definitions of the different types of sound listed in those interpretations; the reader may wish to consult Edward Conze's translation of the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines,

1 which contains a similar treatment based on the

older Arapacana alphabet, which is apparently Saka or pre-Kushan in origin. Similarly, the description of the schools of Indian Buddhism should be compared to the various texts of the Samayabhedoparacanacakra. 2 The Sutra of

Mañjuśrī'

s Questionsdraws upon the earliest Chinese version, which may have been compiled by Kumārajīva. At least one of the interpretations found in the sutra (its explanation for why the founder of the Mahīśāsaka school was called "indisposable") is explicitly refuted in Xuanzang's translation of the Sanskrit text just mentioned, the Yibu zong lun lun.

Chapter XVII is extremely long and contains an intriguing blend of material. The beginning of the chapter may have been the original conclusion to the sutra, with its variant titles and exhortations to revere, practice, and disseminate the text. Rather than coming to a close here, however, the sutra moves into an explanation of the ten titles of the Buddha, some of which involves the same imputation of meaning to individual sounds discussed above. After a long encomium on the merits of the homeless (i.e., renunciant) life, the text moves smoothly into a discussion of the merits of practicing the meditation of mindfulness of the Buddha, a section abbreviated from the Banzhou sanmei jing,an early visualization text usually associated with the Pure Land tradition. The Sutra of Mañjuśrī'

s Questionsis attested to from the end of the sixth

century, but no Sanskrit or Tibetan versions are known. Edward Conze's The Prajñā Pāramitā Literature3 identifies this as a translation of the Saptaśatikā, Perfection of Wisdom in Seven Hundred Lines,but there is no apparent relationship between the two. The Chinese text is supposed to be based on a Sanskritic original brought to the Liang dynasty court of the famous Emperor Wu by the 33

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions

Cambodian monk Mandra in the year 503 and translated fifteen years later by Mandra's compatriot, Saṃghabhadra. Ignoring this romantic affiliation, some sources list the text as translator unknown.

The English translation was prepared solely on the basis of the Taishō text. I know of no translation into any modern language, or even any extended scholarly work on this text in Japanese. The reconstructions of dhāraṇīs given here must be considered tentative, especially since I have concluded that in several cases the Chinese transcription contains errors and omissions. There is, however, a substantial degree of patternization to these dhāraṇīs that gives the reconstructions a relatively high degree of reliability. 34

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī'

s Questions

Translated by the Cambodian Tripiṭaka Master Saṃghabhadra during the Liang Dynasty

Fascicle One

Chapter I

Introduction

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was at Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa near Rājagṛha, with an assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty4 great bhikṣus in attendance. They were all arhats who had extinguished all the contaminations and would never again suffer from the afflictions (kleśa). With autonomous mastery of body and mind, their minds well liberated and their wisdoms well liberated, they were "great dragons" who had tamed the sense faculties. They had accomplished what was to be done and done what could be accomplished; they had dispensed with the heavy load of ignorance and had arrived at an understanding of what was in their own interests. The afflictions associated with existence had been extinguished, and with correct wisdom well liberated they had arrived at the state of autonomous mastery in every moment of thought.

The names of these elders were Ājñātakauṇḍinya (who in Chinese is called Already Knowing, Kauṇḍinya being his surname), Śāriputra, Mahāmaudgal yāyana (who in Chinese is called Turnip Root, the source of this name being his father's penchant for eating these), Mahākāśyapa, Revata (who in Chinese is called Constantly Making Sound), Subāhu (who in Chinese is called Excellent Strength), 5 and Ānanda (who in Chinese is called Great Bliss). There were one thousand three hundred and fifty arhats such as these, as well as a congregation of one thousand three hundred bhikṣus who were ordinary unenlightened persons. Also in attendance were Vajra Bodhisattva, Mahāsthāmaprāpta Bodhisattva, Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Mahāpuṇyavīra Bodhisattva, Akṣayamati Bodhisattva, Mahāmati Bodhisattva, Mañjuśrī Kumārabhūta Bodhisattva, and innumerable bodhisattva mahāsattvas such as these. 37

492c