T360 The Three Pure Land Sutras

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Notes

1 "And also"; this reading follows the Sanskrit text; tathāis rendered ru zhi(such), but here its other meaning "and also" applies. 2 The ordinary reading of this stanza, which is not appropriate to the context, is: Suppose there are buddhas,

A thousand million koṭis in number, And great sages in multitudes

Countless as the sands of the Ganges River. Rather than making offerings

To all those buddhas,

I shall seek the Way

Resolutely and unflinchingly.

My reading is attested to by the Tang and Song versions and the Sanskrit text. Fu ru ("nothing is better than. . .

") may correspond to atulya (incomparable), which describes bodhi(Way). From the Mahayana viewpoint, to make offerings to buddhas is the essential part of the bodhisattva path, far from being contradictory to the practice of "seeking the Way resolutely and unflinchingly. "

3 "A pint measure": I have followed the popular edition which says sheng (pint); the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition has dou (peck), which is too large a measure to be applied here. 4 "How long was. . . ?": The Taishō Tripiṭaka and other editions read, "How long was

the duration of the land of that buddha?"; amended according to the Tang and Song versions and the Sanskrit text.

5 "Not knowing": The Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads zhi (knowing); I have followed the popular editions which read fu zhi(not knowing). 6 Nei zhi shi nian,

"think of me even ten times": The traditional reading in the Pure Land schools in China and Japan is "call my Name even ten times. " The corresponding

Sanskrit phrase antaśo daśabhiś cittotpāda-parivartaiḥmeans "even with ten arisings of thought"; cf. Max Müller's translation, "even those who have only ten times repeated the thought (of that buddha country). " According to Tanluan, shi nian,which appears in the Contemplation Sutra, means ten concentrated and uninterrupted thoughts on Amitābha and also means ten continuous sayings of his Name. 7 Fu ke si-yi(inconceivable), acintyain Sanskrit; often used, as in this and other cases, to describe a large number; cf. Mahāvyutpatti,7814. 97

Notes

8 "Silken canopies": This reading follows the Ming and popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "various canopies. "

9 "Their senses of hearing. . . ": The Taishō Tripiṭaka edition omits "their senses of hearing will remain clear and sharp"; supplied by other editions. 10 "Silken canopies": Seenote 8. 11 "Sincerely transfer the merit. . . ": According to Shinran, it is Amitāyus who sincerely transfers the merit, so his reading of this sentence is: "through the Buddha's sincere transference of the merit (to the aspirants), they aspire to be born there. . . . "

12 "Amitāyus": As for this and four more occurrences of "Amitāyus, " all editions read

"Wu liang jiao" (Immeasurable Enlightened One) except the Tang and the Sanskrit texts, which read "Amitāyus. "

13 "Supernal aspiration": This reading follows the popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "immeasurable mind. "

14 "The nature of all dharmas": I have followed the popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "various teaching gates. "

15 The bracketed interpolation is based on the Sanskrit text, in which "innumerable" or "immeasurable" describes "merits, " not "insight.

"

16 "Merit and wisdom": This reading follows the popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "merit.

"

17 "The power of good karma. . . ": This and the following few words have been explained contextually rather than translated literally. 18 "Kinsmen,

" lit.,

the mother's side.

"inner and outer relatives, " i.e., relatives on the father's side and on 19 "The Name of Amitāyus, " lit.,

"voice of Amitāyus.

"

20 "Their transient selves..., " hun shen jing shi, is translated here as "transient selves, vital energy, and consciousness. " Although this section is missing in the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts, we find in the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra a similar phrase, shi hun shen(Taishō Vol. 13, No. 418, 899b, 905b; see alsothe English translation by Paul Harrison, Numata Center, 1998). From its Tibetan version, we can confirm that this phrase corresponds to rnam par śes pa(vijñāna,consciousness). 21 "Wealth": I have followed the popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "retain.

"

22 "Buddha lands": This phrase is missing in the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition and so is supplied according to other editions. 23 "Fourteen buddha lands": These include this world, which is Śākyamuni Buddha's land called "Sahā.

"

98

Notes

24 "Kālayaśas": The popular editions read "Kālayaśas during the Yuan-jia era"; the duration of this era is 424-453.

25 "A certain Vedic scripture": Source unknown.

26 "The World-honored One . . . was staying on Vulture Peak": Śākyamuni Buddha was then preaching the Lotus Sutra.

27 "

. . . the pure acts,

" guan bi guo jing ye cheng zhe,admits of different interpretations: (1) According to Shandao, this passage reads,

"Fix your thoughts upon and visualize

that buddha land; this is called 'accomplishing the pure acts. '" (2) Huiyuan of Jingying Temple and Yuanzhao,

"Fix your thoughts upon and visualize that buddha land and the person of pure karmic perfection.

" (3) Shinran's reading is: "Fix your thoughts

upon and visualize the person of pure karmic perfection in that buddha land. " In his

Kyōgyō shinshō,Chapter VI,

"Revealing the Transformed Buddhas and Lands" (see Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment,translated by Hisao Inagaki, Numata Center, 2003), Shinran interprets jing ye cheng jiaas "the Tathāgata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Directions, " namely, Amitābha.

28 "Except when sleeping": This reading follows the popular editions; the Taishō Tripi ṭaka edition reads "except when eating. "

29 "Evil karma that would bind one to birth and death for eighty koṭis of kalpas": This and similar phrases in the passages below have also been construed as "evil karma that one has committed during eighty koṭis of kalpas"; a fragment of the Uigur translation supports the other reading, which is adopted here. 30 "Ponds,

" lit.,

"water.

"

31 "Like those on the heavenly jeweled banners": Some scholars take bao-chuang as referring to the god of music, Ratnaketu. According to the Sutra on Maitreya '

s Ascent

to the Tuṣita Heaven, there are in the palace of the Tuṣita Heaven five great gods, headed by Jewel Banner (Ratnaketu). He showers from his body seven kinds of jewels; each jewel transforms itself into a musical instrument, which hovers in midair and produces music spontaneously without a player. The music contains immeasurable tones that are pleasing to people's minds (Taishō Vol. 14, 49b). 32 "Cosmic bodies": This is a provisional translation of fa jie shen(dharma dhātu kāya, Dharma-realm body). This term was interpreted in different ways by Chinese masters: (1) Non-Pure Land masters, such as Huiyuan of Jingying Temple, Zhiyi, and Jizang, took this as meaning "formless dharmakāya"; in this case, dharma dhātuor Dharma realm is synonymous with zhen ru, true suchness (bhūta-tathatā). (2) According to Tanluan, this phrase means the Buddha's image produced by the meditating mind; here fa jiai means the sphere of mental perception. (3) Shandao interprets fa jiai as the realm of sentient beings—as the Buddha's compassion reaches sentient beings, so does his bodily manifestation without hindrance; Shandao thus construes the whole phrase as "the body accommodated to the realm of sentient beings. "

99

Notes

33 "Your mind produces the Buddha's image, and is itself the Buddha": The phrase shi xin zuo fa shi xin shi fo was differently interpreted: (1) Masters of non-Pure Land schools took this as meaning that when the meditation on one's pure nature (symbolically expressed as Amitābha or Amitāyus) is accomplished, one becomes a buddha and that there is no buddha apart from one's true nature. (2) Tanluan's interpretation is this: Just as the image of an object is seen reflected in the clear water, so the Buddha's image is perceived by the meditating mind; thus the Buddha's glorious body is inseparable from one's meditating mind, and so the Buddha does not exist apart from one's mind. (3) According to Shandao, the phrase implies that through devotion one perceives the Buddha's image as if one produced it and that the Buddha manifests his body in response to one's contemplation, and so no buddha exists apart from this meditating mind. (4) According to Shinran, the meditating mind implicitly refers to the entrusting mind given by the Buddha; since this mind is the bodhi-mind and the cause of buddhahood, it becomes a buddha. Similar terms xin zuo faand xin shi faoccur in the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra,which shares much common ground with the Contemplation Sutra.

34 "The uppermost, invisible part,

" wu jian ding xiang(anavalokita-mūrdhatā), is one

of the thirty-two physical characteristics of the Buddha. It is the highest point of the protuberance on the Buddha's head (uṣṇīṣa-śīrṣa), which no one, not even a bodhisattva of the tenth stage, is able to see.

35 "Joins his palms,

" lit.,

"joins his palms and crosses his hands.

"

36 "Evil karma": This reading follows the popular editions; the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition reads "evil teaching,

" e fa.

37 "

. . . attained insight. . .

": In Shandao's view, Vaidehī attained insight into the nonarising of all dharmas when she saw Amitāyus and the two attendant bodhisattvas, prior to Śākyamuni's exposition of the lotus throne in section 15 of the Contemplation Sutra,pp. 72-73.

38 "Amitāyus": Throughout this sutra the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition has a mi tuo(Amida); in my rendition, either "Amitāyus" or "Amitābha" is used, depending on the context. 39 "Akṣobhya Buddha": The names of the buddhas in the six directions are given in Sanskrit; when no names are available in the Sanskrit text, they have been reconstructed from their Chinese translations. For English meanings of the Sanskrit names, see the Appendix, List of the Buddhas in the Smaller Sutra,pp. 101-102. 40 "All good people . . . those buddhas": The popular editions read "all good men and women who hear the Name of Amida Buddha expounded by all the buddhas and the name of this sutra.

"

100

Appendix

List of the Buddhas in the Smaller Sutra with English Equivalents East

Akṣobhya (Immovable) Merudhvaja (Sumeru Banner) Mahāmeru (Great Sumeru) Meruprabhāsa (Sumeru Light) Mañjusvara (Beautiful Voice) South

Candrasūryapradīpa (Lamp of the Sun and Moon) Yaśasprabha (Light of Fame) Mahārciskandha (Shoulders of Great Flame) Merupradīpa (Sumeru Lamp) Anantavīrya (Limitless Effort) West

Amitāyus (Immeasurable Life) Amitaketu (Immeasurable Ensign) Amitadhvaja (Immeasurable Banner) Mahāprabha (Great Light) Mahāprabhāsa (Great Brilliance) Ratnaketu (Jewel Banner) Śuddharaśmiprabha (Brilliance of Pure Light) North

Arciskandha (Flaming Shoulder) Vaiśvānaranirghoṣa (Universal Sound) Duṣpradharṣa (Not to Be Assailed) Ādityasaṃbhava (Sunrise) Jālinīprabha (Net Light) Nadir

Siṃha (Lion)

Yaśas (Fame)

Yaśasprabhāsa (Brilliance of Fame) Dharma

101

Appendix

Dharmadhvaja (Banner of the Dharma) Dharmadhara (Holding the Dharma) Zenith

Brahmaghoṣa (Brahma's Voice) Nakṣatrarāja (King of Stars) Gandhottama (Best Fragrance) Gandhaprabhāsa (Fragrant Light) Mahārciskandha (Shoulders of Great Flame) Ratnakusumasaṃpuṣpitagātra (Having a Body Adorned with a Jewel Flower) Śālendrarāja (Lord King of the Śāla Tree) Ratnotpalaśrī (Glory of Blue Lotus Flower Jewels) Sarvārthadarśa (Seeing All Benefits) Sumerukalpa (Sumeru-like)

Buddhist Cosmology

I. Nirvana/Buddha lands

II. World of Non-form (ārūpyadhātu) A. Abode of Boundless Space (ākāśa-ānantya-āyatana) B. Abode of Boundless Consciousness (vijñāna-ānantya-āyatana) C. Abode of Nothingness (ākiñcanya-āyatana) D. Abode of Neither Thought nor Non-thought (naiva-saṃjñā-na-asaṃjñā-āyatana) III. World of Form (rūpadhātu) A. The First Dhyāna

1. Brahmāpāriṣadya (Heaven of the Councilors of Brahmā) 2. Brahmapurohita (Heaven of the High Priests of Brahmā) 3. Mahābrahman (Heaven of Great Brahmā) B. The Second Dhyāna

1. Parītta-ābha (Heaven of Lesser Light) 2. Apramāṇa-ābha (Heaven of Infinite Light) 3. Ābhāsvara (Heaven of Supreme Light) C. The Third Dhyāna

1. Parīttaśubha (Heaven of Lesser Purity) 2. Apramāṇaśubha (Heaven of Infinite Purity) 3. Śubhakṛtsna (Heaven of Universal Purity) D. The Fourth Dhyāna

1. Anabhraka (Cloudless Heaven) 2. Puṇyaprasava (Merit-producing Heaven) 3. Bṛhatphala (Heaven of Greater Fruits) 4. Abṛha (Heaven Free of Trouble) 5. Atapa (Heaven without Affliction) 6. Sudṛśa (Heaven of Excellent Viewing) 102

Appendix

7. Sudarśana (Heaven of Excellent Observation) 8. Akaniṣṭha (Highest Heaven) IV. World of Desire (kāmadhātu) A. Realm of the Gods (devas): The Six Heavens 1. Cāturmahārāja (Heaven of the Four Kings) a. East: Dhṛtarāṣṭra (Protector of the State) b. South: Virūḍhaka (Growing) c. West: Virūpākṣa (Deformed-eyed One) d. North: Vaiśravaṇa (Extensively Heard) 2. Trāyastriṃśa (Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods) 3. Yāma or Suyāma (Heaven of Good Time) 4. Tuṣita (Heaven of Contentment) 5. Nirmāṇarati (Heaven of Enjoyment of Pleasures Provided by Themselves) 6. Paranirmitavaśavartin (Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others) B. Realm of Human Beings (manuṣya): The Four Great Continents 1. East: Pūrvavideha (the eastern country of the Videhas) 2. South: Jambudvīpa (the mango-growing island) 3. West: Avaragodānīya (the western country where cows are used for transactions) 4. North: Uttarakuru (the country of the northern Kuru) C. Realm of Fighting Spirits (asuras) D. Realm of Animals (tiryañc) E. Realm of Hungry Ghosts (pretas) F. Hells (narakas), from top to bottom 1. Saṃjīva (Revival)

2. Kālasūtra (Black Rope)

3. Saṃghāta (Crushing)

4. Raurava (Shrieks)

5. Mahāraurava (Great Shrieks) 6. Tāpana (Burning)

7. Pratāpana (Great Burning) 8. Avīci (Interminable)

103

Glossary

abusing the Right Dharma: Disparaging the true Buddhist teachings, particularly the Mahayana teachings. See also Mahayana; Right Dharma.

Ādityasaṃbhava ("Sunrise"): The name of a buddha in the north. affliction (kleśa): A mental function that disturbs and pollutes the mind and body. See also three defilements.

Ajātaśatru: The son of King Bimbisāra and Queen Vaidehī; he imprisoned his father and left him to die in jail, imprisoned his mother, and usurped the throne of Maga dha. Along with the monk Devadatta, under whose influence he committed these evil acts, he appears in some sutras as the archetypal evil person who becomes the object of the Buddha's compassion. He later repented and became a disciple of the Buddha. SeealsoBimbisāra; Devadatta; Magadha; Vaidehī.

Ajita ("Unconquerable"): The name of a bodhisattva identified with Maitreya. Ājñāta kauṇḍinya: One of the five earliest disciples of the Buddha. Akṣobhya ("Immovable"): The name of a buddha in the east.

Amida. SeeAmitābha.

Amitābha ("Infinite Light"; Jpn: Amida): The name of a transcendent buddha who dwells in the Pure Land, from the Sanskrit amita("infinite"); "Infinite Light" symbolizes infinite wisdom. Also known as Amitāyus ("Infinite Life"), which symbolizes infinite compassion. Amitābha/Amida is one of the most popular buddhas and is mentioned in more than two hundred sutras, of which the Larger Sutrais the most important, as one of the canonical texts of Pure Land Buddhism in China and Japan. Amitābha began his spiritual career as a mendicant called Dharmākara, who made Forty-eight Vows and performed various bodhisattva practices to fulfill them. After many eons his vows were fulfilled and he became the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life. His land is called Sukhāvatī,

"Land of Utmost Bliss,

" also known as the Pure Land and

the Western Paradise. For purposes of meditative practice, the Pure Land sutras describe Amitābha's land as being in the west. As promised in the Eighteenth Vow, those who have joyful faith and recite his Name, a practice called the nembutsu, are assured of rebirth in the Pure Land. The tradition of Buddhism centering around worship of Amitābha arose in India and further developed in China and Japan. He is thus the principal buddha in the Jōdo, Shin, and other Pure Land schools. See alsoDharmākara; Forty-eight Vows; Name; Pure Land; Pure Land school. 105

Glossary

Amitadhvaja ("Immeasurable Banner"): The name of a buddha in the west. Amitaketu ("Immeasurable Ensign"): The name of a buddha in the west. Amitāyus. SeeAmitābha.

Ānanda ("Happiness" or "Joy"): Śākyamuni's cousin, close disciple, and personal attendant, renowned for his ability to recite all the Buddha's sermons from memory. See also Śākyamuni.

Anantavīrya ("Limitless Effort"): The name of a buddha in the south. Anāthapiṇḍada ("Giver of Food to the Poor"): Another name of Sudatta, a wealthy merchant of Śrāvastī who purchased the Jeta Grove and built a monastery there for the Buddha and his sangha. See alsoŚrāvastī.

Aniruddha ("Unobstructed"): One of the ten great disciples of the Buddha, renowned for his divine sight.

Arciskandha ("Flaming Shoulder"): The name of a buddha in the north. arhat ("worthy one"): A saint, one who has completely eradicated the evil passions and attained liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara); the highest of the four stages of spiritual attainment in the Hinayana. When capitalized, the term is one of the ten epithets for a buddha. See also evil passions; Hinayana;ten epithets for a buddha.

aspiration for enlightenment: The mind of enlightenment (bodhicitta), the altruistic aspiration of the bodhisattva to attain enlightenment (bodhi) and realize liberation in order to help other sentient beings toward liberation. See also bodhisattva; enlightenment. asura:A class of demigods; a fighting spirit; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings. Aśvajit ("Gaining Horses"): One of the five earliest disciples of the Buddha. Auspicious Kalpa: The present cosmic period, in which a thousand buddhas are believed to appear.

Avalokiteśvara: ("Lord of Beholding"): The name of a great bodhisattva who represents Amitābha's great compassion. One of the two attendant bodhisattvas of Amitābha, who frequently appears in a triad with Avalo kiteśvara on his left and Mahāsthāma prāpta on his right. See alsoAmitābha; bodhisattva; great compassion; Mahāsthāmaprāpta. Bhadrajit ("Gaining Happiness"): One of the five earliest disciples of the Buddha. Bhadrapāla ("Gracious Protector"): The foremost of the sixteen lay bodhisattvas. bhikṣu:A fully ordained Buddhist monk.

106

Glossary

Bimbisāra: The fifth king of the Śaiśnāga dynasty in Magadha and a follower of the Buddha. In his later years he was imprisoned by his son Ajātaśatru and died in confinement. SeealsoAjātaśatru; Magadha.

birth and death. Seesamsara.

birth by transformation: A form of birth in the Pure Land attained by aspirants who sincerely entrust themselves to Amitābha; they are instantaneously born there and attain full physical maturity. See alsobirth in the embryonic state.

birth in the embryonic state: A form of birth in the Pure Land attained by devotees who cultivate merit by good acts but who do not entirely entrust themselves to Amitābha; at death they are reborn in lotus buds in the Pure Land and remain there for five hundred years without being able to see or hear the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. See alsobirth by transformation.

bodhi.Seeenlightenment.

bodhicitta. Seeaspiration for enlightenment.

bodhisattva ("enlightenment being"): The spiritual ideal of the Mahayana, one who cultivates wisdom, accumulates merit by performing the practice of six pāramitās, and attains enlightenment for the sake of all beings. Upon completion of all the bodhisattva practices and stages, the bodhisattva achieves buddha hood but vows to refrain from entering nirvana until all beings are liberated. Capitalized, the term refers to Śākyamuni before his enlightenment. See also bodhisattva stages; buddhahood; enlightenment; Mahayana; six pāramitās.

bodhisattva stages (bhūmis): A series of spiritual stages that must be accomplished by a bodhisattva who has awakened aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta) and made vows, culminating in the attainment of buddhahood. In these stages, one is expected to perform various practices for innumerable eons over many lifetimes. Ten stages were established in Indian Buddhism; Chinese Buddhists later developed a system of fifty-two stages. See alsobodhisattva; stage of becoming a buddha after one more life; stage of joy; stage of non-retrogression.

bodhitree: The tree beneath which Śākyamuni sat in contemplation and attained enlightenment. See also contemplation; enlightenment; Śākyamuni. Boundless Light: (1) One of the twelve kinds of light of Amitābha; (2) another name for Mahāsthāmaprāpta. See also Amitābha; Mahāsthāmaprāpta.

Brahmā: Originally, the creator god in Hinduism, incorporated into Buddhism as a tutelary god.

Brahmaghoṣa ("Brahmā's Voice"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. Brahmā Heaven: The heaven of the world of form. See also three worlds. 107

Glossary

Buddha ("Awakened One"): As a proper noun this refers to Śākyamuni; in general use it refers to any fully enlightened person or any of a number of transcendent beings who embody and represent ultimate truth. See also Śākyamuni; ultimate truth. Buddha-Dharma. SeeRight Dharma.

buddhahood: The state of becoming a buddha, the goal of the bodhisattva. See also bodhisattva. buddha-garland samādhi:The samādhientered into by Samantabhadra before teaching the Dharma. See also samādhi;Samantabhadra.

buddha-nature: The potentiality for buddhahood; the essential nature of a buddha that all beings possess.

buddha-recollection samādhi:A state of meditative concentration (samādhi) in which the practitioner visualizes Amitābha; also, an intensive practice of recitation of the Name of Amitābha through which one attains union with him. See also Amitābha; Name; samādhi.

Candraprabha ("Moonlight"): The name of one of King Bimbisāra's ministers. Candrasūryapradīpa ("Lamp of the Sun and Moon"): The name of a buddha in the south. Cao-Wei dynasty: The Chinese kingdom of Wei founded by Cao Cao in 216. clear understanding of the one hundred dharmas: (1) Clear understanding of the one hundred principles of truth in the stage of joy; (2) in the Consciousness Only school, a type of wisdom in which one clearly discerns the one hundred constituent elements (dharmas) of all that exists. See also stage of joy.

compassion: Empathy with those who suffer and the desire to end the suffering of others. Compassion and wisdom are the two most important virtues in the Mahayana. See alsogreat compassion.

complete precepts of a monk or nun: The two hundred and fifty precepts for a fully ordained monk (bhikṣu) or three hundred and forty-eight for a fully ordained nun (bhikṣuṇī). See alsoprecepts.

Confucianism: An ethical, religious system of China originating in the teaching of Confucius (c. 551-479 B.C.E.); it centers around filial duty and emphasizes the virtues of benevolence and propriety. More specifically, Confucianism teaches the five constant virtues to be followed by all people: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. The original individualistic ethical ideal developed into a political one; Confucius sought to establish the norm of ethics for the king. His influence was so great that the number of his disciples is said to have been three thousand. After his death, Confucian sanctuaries were built throughout China and its teachings spread far and wide in China and beyond— Confucianism formed the basic ethical norm of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. See alsofive virtues. 108

Glossary

contemplation: A state of meditative concentration in which the meditator and the object of meditation become one; serene contemplation. See also samādhi. definitely assured stage: The stage attained by those who have absolute faith in Amitābha and are thus assured of birth in the Pure Land and attainment of buddhahood; same as the stage of non-retrogression. SeealsoAmitābha; buddhahood; Pure Land; stage of non-retrogression.

deva:A god, a divine being; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings.

Devadatta ("God-given"): A cousin of the Buddha who became his disciple but later tried to murder him and assume leadership of the sangha. Devadatta incited Prince Ajātaśatru to kill his father, King Bimbisāra, and usurp the throne. SeealsoAjātaśatru; Bimbisāra; sangha.

dhāraṇī:A mystic phrase, spell, or incantation.

dharma:Any phenomenon, thing, element, or attribute; the elements that make up the perceived phenomenal world.

Dharma: The truth, law; the teachings of the Buddha. See also Right Dharma. Dharmadhara ("Holder of the Dharma"): The name of a buddha in the nadir. Dharmadhvaja ("Banner of the Dharma"): The name of a buddha in the nadir. Dharmākara ("Store of the Dharma"): The name of the bodhisattva who made the Fortyeight Vows and upon fulfillment of those vows became Amitābha Buddha. Seealso Amitābha; Forty-eight Vows.

Dharma Prince: An epithet for a bodhisattva; especially used as a title for Mañjuśrī. See alsoMañjuśrī.

Dharma realm (dharmadhātu): The sphere of ultimate truth or reality; objects of mental conception in general; the entire universe. See alsoultimate truth. dhyāna heaven: The four types of heavens of the world of form, in which those who practice meditation (dhyāna) are reborn. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, pp. 102-103; three worlds.

Dīpaṅkara ("Making Light"): The name of a past buddha. divine ear. Seesix supernatural powers.

divine eye. Seesix supernatural powers.

Duṣpradharṣa ("Not to Be Assailed"): The name of a buddha in the north. effortless spontaneity: The ultimate state of enlightenment in which one thinks and acts in accord with the Dharma effortlessly; the nirvanic state attained by those who are reborn in the Pure Land.

109

Glossary

eight abstinences. Seeeight precepts.

eight kinds of superhuman beings: Eight classes of mythical beings from Indian folklore that were incorporated into Buddhism as protectors: devas (gods), nāgas (dragons), yakṣas (flesh-eating demons), gandharvas (heavenly musicians), asuras (fighting spirits), garuḍas (giant birds), kiṃnaras (heavenly singers), and mahoragas (snake demons).

eight precepts: Undertaken by lay Buddhists for certain periods of time, they include abstaining from killing, stealing, engaging in sexual activity, using false speech, and ingesting intoxicants; and refraining from indulging in such idle pleasures as using perfumes, singing and dancing, wearing bodily decoration, going to dances or plays, sleeping on a raised bed, and eating after noon. The first five of these constitute the five precepts. See also five precepts; precepts.

eight qualities of voice: The voice of a buddha possesses these eight qualities—it is pleasant, soft, harmonious, dignified and wise, masculine, unerring, deep and far-reaching, and inexhaustible.

eight samādhis of liberation: States of meditative concentration (samādhi) on (1) the impurity of the body, to extinguish physical passions; (2) the impurity of external objects, to extinguish desire; (3) pure aspects of external objects, to extinguish passions; (4) boundless space, to remove attachment to material objects; (5) boundless consciousness, to remove attachment to space; (6) nonexistence, to remove attachment to consciousness; (7) the stage of neither thought nor non-thought, to extinguish attachment to nonexistence; and (8) the final samādhithat extinguishes all thoughts and perceptions and enables the practitioner to dwell in the stage of complete nirvana. See also samādhi;nirvana.

emptiness: A central Mahayana doctrine that all phenomena (dharmas) come into existence only in dependence on causes and conditions (pratītya samutpāda), and thus are empty of independent, inherent, and eternal selfhood. See also law of causality; Mahayana; no-self.

Encircling Adamantine Mountains: The outermost mountain range encircling this world system, made of iron. See alsoMount Sumeru.

enlightenment (bodhi): The state of the highest perfection of wisdom; the state of undefiled purity and eternal bliss. Śākyamuni's awakening under the bodhitree, when he realized the Dharma of suchness and the innate buddha-nature of all beings and became a buddha, represents the Buddhist ideal of enlightenment. See also buddha-nature; suchness.

evil passions: (kleśas): Mental functions that disturb and defile the mind and body. They are considered the cause of transmigration in samsara; by extinguishing them, one becomes an arhat. In the Mahayana, through recognizing the nonsubstantiality of the evil passions, a bodhisattva attains liberation and realizes enlightenment.See alsoarhat; bodhisattva; enlightenment; Mahayana; samsara.

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evil paths. Seefive evil realms; three evil realms.

Exalted Being: A synonym for "bodhisattva.

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faith: Generally in Buddhism, this means acceptance of the Buddha's teachings; in Pure Land Buddhism, it is singlehearted concentration of Amitābha accompanied by recitation of his Name. This practice of concentration and dedication ultimately leads to complete entrusting in Amitābha's salvific power and, through it, acceptance of his merits of wisdom and compassion.

five burnings: The suffering caused by committing the five kinds of evils. See five evils. five evil realms: The five lower states of samsaric existence through which sentient beings transmigrate due to the results of their past karma—(1) the realm of heavenly beings (devas and asuras), (2) the realm of humans, and the three evil realms of (3) animals, (4) hungry ghosts (pretas), and (5) hell. See alsokarma; samsara; three evil realms. five evils: There are two interpretations—(1) the five acts prohibited by the five precepts— killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, using false speech, and ingesting intoxicants; and (2) the five acts contrary to the five constant virtues taught in Confucianism—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. See also Confucianism; five precepts.

five good deeds: (1) The five precepts, and (2) the five acts which accord with the constant virtues of Confucianism. See also Confucianism; five precepts; five virtues. five grave offenses: The most serious offenses of Buddhist followers, commission of which consigns one to the hell realm. They are: (1) killing one's father, (2) killing one's mother, (3) killing an arhat, (4) causing a buddha's body to bleed, and (5) causing disunity in the Buddhist order (sangha). See also arhat; sangha; three evil realms. five sufferings: Birth, sickness, old age, death, and being parted from loved ones. five powers: Powers obtained by the practice of the five roots of good—(1) the power of faith in the Three Treasures, (2) the power of effort to practice the good, (3) the power of mindfulness of the true Dharma, (4) the power of concentration, and (5) the power of investigation into the true nature of things. See alsofive roots of good; Three Treasures.

five precepts: The five basic precepts undertaken by all lay Buddhists: not to kill, steal, commit adultery, use false speech, or ingest intoxicants.

five roots of good: The good spiritual elements that lead one to enlightenment: (1) faith in the Three Treasures and the Four Noble Truths, (2) making efforts to do good, (3) being mindful of the true Dharma, (4) concentration, and (5) insight into the true nature of reality. SeealsoFour Noble Truths; Three Treasures. five virtues: The virtues gained by doing the five good deeds; they are commonly interpreted as the five constant virtues of Confucianism. See also Confucianism; five good deeds.

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Forty-eight Vows: The vows made by Dharmākara Bodhisattva; upon their fulfillment he became Amitābha Buddha and established his Pure Land for all sentient beings. The Forty-eight Vows are fully explicated in the Larger Sutra. SeealsoAmitābha; Dharmākara; Original Vow; Pure Land.

four great oceans: The oceans surrounding Mount Sumeru. See also Mount Sumeru. four groups of followers: Monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. four kinds of jewels: Gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. See also seven kinds of jewels. four kinds of offerings: The four requisites of a monk—clothing, food, bedding or a sleeping place, and medicine or herbs.

Four Noble Truths: The fundamental Buddhist doctrine: (1) the truth of suffering, i.e., that life entails suffering; (2) the truth regarding the cause of suffering, i.e., that the cause of suffering is the evil passions; (3) the truth regarding the extinction of suffering, i.e., nirvana, the state of release from all suffering; and (4) the truth regarding the path to nirvana, i.e., the Noble Eightfold Path. See also nirvana; Noble Eightfold Path. Gandhaprabhāsa ("Fragrant Light"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. gandharva:A heavenly musician; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings. Gandhottama ("Best Fragrance"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. garuḍa:A mythological giant bird said to devour dragons; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings. Gavāṃpati ("Lord of Cows"): A disciple of the Buddha.

Gayākāśyapa ("Kāśyapa of Gayā"): A younger brother of Uruvilvākāśyapa who converted to Buddhism with his two hundred disciples.

Golden Light: The name of a buddha in the nadir.

Golden River: The Nairañjanā River, which flows near the village of Bodh Gayā, where the Buddha attained enlightenment.

gong:The first tone of the Chinese pentatonic scale.

good teacher (kalyāṇamitra): A good friend in the Dharma, who leads seekers to the Buddhist Way.

great compassion: The mind of a buddha or bodhisattva, which embraces all sentient beings without discrimination. See alsocompassion.

Great Sage: An epithet for a buddha.

Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others (Paranirmita vaśa vartin): The sixth and highest heaven of the world of desire, where demons are said to dwell. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; six heavens; three worlds. 112

Glossary

Heaven of Pure Abode: The fourth dhyāna heaven of the world of form; it is divided into five levels. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, pp. 103; three worlds. Heaven of the Four Kings (Cāturmahārāja): The first of the six heavens of the world of desire, presided over by the four guardian gods of the world—1) Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east, 2) Virūḍhaka in the south, 3) Virūpākṣa in the west, and 4) Vaiśravaṇa in the north. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, pp. 103; six heavens; three worlds. Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods (Trāyastriṃśa): The second of the six heavens of the world of desire, located on top of Mount Sumeru. Each of the four peaks in the four cardinal directions is inhabited by eight gods, with Indra, the lord of the gods, dwelling in a palace in the center. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; Mount Sumeru; six heavens; three worlds.

hell. SeeAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; five evil realms; three evil realms. highest heaven of the world of form: Fourth and highest of the four heavens of the world of form, popularly known as Akaniṣṭha Heaven. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; three worlds. Hinayana ("Lesser Vehicle"): A derogatory term applied by Mahayanists to various schools of early Buddhism whose highest spiritual goal was the attainment of individual liberation, in contrast to the bodhisattva ideal of the Mahayana. Twenty Hinayana schools based on various points of doctrine formed in the early centuries of the development of Buddhism. Today the term Theravāda ("Way of the Elders") is used to describe this school of Buddhism, which is practiced primarily in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and southern Vietnam. See also arhat; Mahayana; śrāvaka.

ignorance (avidyā): The basic cause of suffering, which hinders one's ability to attain insight into the Dharma. It takes two forms, wrong beliefs and absence of wisdom. impermanence (anitya): One of the basic principles of Buddhism; the truth that all phenomena (dharmas) are subject to change and are impermanent. See alsodharma. insight into the non-arising of all dharmas: A higher spiritual awakening in which one recognizes that no phenomenon (dharma) really arises or perishes; insight into emptiness. See alsodharma; emptiness; non-arising of all dharmas. Jālinīprabha ("Net Light"): The name of a buddha in the north. Jambudvīpa: In Buddhist cosmology, the triangular continent situated to the south of Mount Sumeru, corresponding to the Indian subcontinent; the name derives from the word jambu(mango) because this continent is said to produce a good deal of this fruit. SeealsoMount Sumeru.

Jambu River: A mythological river that runs through the mango forest in the northern part of Jambudvīpa, famous for producing purple-gold. See alsoJambudvīpa; purple-gold. Jeta Grove. SeeAnāthapiṇḍada.

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Jīvaka: A nephew of King Bimbisāra who served as a royal minister; also a famous and skilled physician who once cured the Buddha of a serious illness. See alsoBimbi sāra. jīvaṃjīvaka:A mythological two-headed bird.

kalaviṅka:A mythological bird with a woman's head said to possess a wonderful voice. Kālayaśas (d. 442): A monk from Central Asia who went to China and translated several important sutras into Chinese, including the Contemplation Sutra. Kālodayin ("Black Udayin"): A disciple of the Buddha.

kalpa:An eon, an immensely long period of time. There are three types of kalpas: small, medium, and large; a smaller kalpa is a period in which the average human life span increases by one year every hundred years until it reaches eighty-four thousand years.

Kapphiṇa: A disciple of the Buddha.

karma (lit.,

"action"): Any action of body, speech, or mind (thought), which may be either morally good, bad, or neutral. The concept of karma is connected with the Buddhist theory of transmigration, since most actions create either a positive or negative formation in one's consciousness that lead to rebirth in samsara. See also law of causality; samsara.

kiṃnara:A heavenly singer; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings.

Kimpila: A disciple of the Buddha.

kiṃśuka:A kind of tree that bears beautiful red blossoms. King of Light: The name of a buddha in the nadir.

koṭi:A large unit of measurement, said to equal ten million. kṣatriya:The Indian caste (social class) of warriors and nobles. Kumārajīva (344-413): A monk-scholar from Central Asia who went to China in 401 and translated many Buddhist texts into Chinese, including the Smaller Sutra on Amitāyus.

Land of Peace and Bliss: Another name for Amitābha's Pure Land. See Pure Land. Land of Peace and Provision: Another name for Amitābha's Pure Land. SeePure Land. Land of Utmost Bliss: Another name for Amitābha's Pure Land. SeePure Land. law of causality: The fundamental Buddhist doctrine which teaches that one's good and bad acts (karma) will result in happiness or suffering, respectively. The state of one's present life is based on one's acts in past lives, and one's acts in the present 114

Glossary

life determine the state of one's next life. Based on this principle, the unique ethical and religious system of practice and discipline developed in Buddhism. In the Mahayana, the law of causality is conceived of in a wider sense; the individualistic view of karma has been expanded to the view of universal interrelatedness, so that bodhisattvas and buddhas take all sentient beings' karma as their own. See also bodhisattva; karma; Mahayana.

li:A Chinese unit of measurement, approximately one-fourth to one-third of a mile. Liu-Song dynasty (442-479): A Chinese kingdom that existed south of the Yangze River. Lokeśvararāja ("World-sovereign King"): The name of a buddha; the teacher of the bodhisattva Dharmākara. SeealsoDharmākara.

Magadha: A kingdom in northern India at the time of Śākyamuni Buddha. Mahācunda: A brother of Śāriputra who became a disciple of the Buddha. Mahākapphiṇa: A disciple of the Buddha.

Mahākāśyapa: The disciple designated by the Buddha as his successor, renowned for his strict observance of the precepts.

Mahākātyāyana: One of the ten great disciples of the Buddha, renowned for his skill in debate.

Mahākauṣṭhila: A disciple of the Buddha.

Mahāmaudgalyāyana: One of the Buddha's foremost disciples, noted for his supernatural powers.

Mahāmeru ("Great Sumeru"): The name of a buddha in the east. Mahānāma ("Great Name"): One of the five earliest disciples of the Buddha. Mahāprabha ("Great Light"): The name of a buddha in the west. Mahāprabhāsa ("Great Brilliance"): The name of a buddha in the west. Mahārciskandha ("Shoulders of Great Flame"): (1) The name of a buddha in the south; (2) the name of a buddha in the zenith.

mahāsattva ("great being"): A bodhisattva of great compassion and energy who has reached an advanced stage of enlightenment. See alsobodhisattva. Mahāsthāmaprāpta ("Possessed of Great Power"): One of the two bodhisattvas attending Amitābha; he represents Amitābha's wisdom. SeealsoAmitābha; Avalokiteśvara; wisdom.

Mahayana ("Great Vehicle"): Along with the Hinayana, one of the two major schools of Buddhism. The Mahayana aims at bringing all sentient beings to buddhahood. Followers of the Mahayana are called bodhisattvas, who at the outset of their careers 115

Glossary

make vows to save all beings, and cultivate merit and wisdom in order to fulfill these vows. When their vows are fulfilled, bodhisattvas become buddhas. Although historical evidence shows that the Mahayana arose a few centuries after the Buddha's lifetime, Mahayanists believe that the essential part of the Mahayana teaching was revealed by the Buddha. The development of the Mahayana resulted in a great outpouring of Buddhist literature, including the Garland Sutra, the Prajñāpāramitā ("Perfection of Wisdom") sutras, and others, including the three Pure Land sutras. Mahayana is the primary form of Buddhism practiced in northern Vietnam, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, China, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan. Seealsobodhisattva; Hinayana. mahogara:A type of supernatural being said to have the body of a human and the head of a snake; a god of music; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings.

Maitreya ("Friendly"): A bodhisattva currently dwelling in the Tuṣita Heaven, who will appear in this world as the next buddha. See alsoTuṣita Heaven. māndārava:A beautiful and fragrant flower; its name translates as "heavenly wonderful flower.

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maṇi-gem: A legendary precious gem of a globular shape with a short pointed top, called the "wish-fulfilling gem" because it is supposedly able to produce treasure or perform supernatural feats at the wish of its owner.

Mañjuśrī ("Beauty and Glory"): The name of a bodhisattva who represents the wisdom and enlightenment of all buddhas; often portrayed mounted on a lion, attending Śākyamuni.

Mañjusvara ("Beautiful Voice"): The name of a buddha in the east. Māra: King of the devils, the personification of evil in the Buddhist sutras. meditation. Seecontemplation; samādhi.

meditation of vast and universal tranquility: The samādhientered into by bodhisattvas of the ninth stage before teaching the Dharma. Seealso samādhi;bodhisattva stages. Merudhvaja ("Sumeru Banner"): The name of a buddha in the east. Meruprabhāsa ("Sumeru Light"): The name of a buddha in the east. Merupradīpa ("Sumeru Lamp"): The name of a buddha in the south. middle and lower stages: The two stages of advanced Hinayana practice, those of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. See also Hinayana; pratyekabuddha; śrāvaka. Mount Sumeru: In Buddhist cosmology, the highest mountain rising from the center of the world; it has four sides, is narrowest in the center, and is surrounded by eight mountain ranges; in the ocean between the seventh and eighth of these ranges are the four great continents inhabited by human beings.

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Nadīkāśyapa ("Kāśyapa of Nadī"): The younger brother of Gayākāśyapa who converted to Buddhism with his three hundred disciples.

nāga:A dragon deity; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings.

Nakṣatrarāja ("King of Stars"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. Name: Refers to the Name of Amitābha. Recitation of the Name, called the nembutsu, is an important Pure Land practice. The Name is believed to perform Amitābha's salvific activity; hence, the term does not refer to the figure of this buddha but to the phrase Namu amida butsu(Chinese: Namo omituo fo), which signifies the devotee's taking of refuge in Amitābha Buddha. SeealsoAmitābha; Pure Land school. Nanda ("Joy"): A disciple of the Buddha.

Nārāyaṇa ("Son of the Original Man"): A Vajra-god possessing enormous physical power. See also Vajra-god.

naturalness: The state of things as they really are, suchness; ultimate truth or ultimate reality. See alsosuchness; ultimate truth.

nayuta:A large numerical measurement, said to be equal to ten million or one hundred billion.

nembutsu. SeeName.

nirvana: Liberation from samsara, a state in which all evil passions are extinguished and the highest wisdom attained; enlightenment. See alsoenlightenment; evil passions; samsara.

Noble Eightfold Path: The eight aspects of practice for attaining nirvana, as taught by the Buddha in the fourth of the Four Noble Truths: (1) right view, (2) right thought, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right meditation. See alsoFour Noble Truths.

non-arising of all dharmas: Corresponds to the first part of the phrase "neither arising nor perishing,

" often used by Mahayanists to describe the ultimate truth or nature of reality. Although phenomena (dharmas) appear to arise and fall away, when seen from the viewpoint of ultimate truth they do not. See alsoinsight into the non-arising of all dharmas; ultimate truth.

non-returner (anāgāmin): The third of the four stages of spiritual attainment in the Hinayana; one who has attained this stage is no longer subject to rebirth in the world of desire. SeealsoHinayana; three worlds.

no-self: The teaching that all phenomena (dharmas), including one's self, do not possess inherent, independent, and eternal selfhood. See alsodharmas; emptiness. nyagrodhatree: A banyan or Indian fig tree.

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Glossary

once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin): The second of the four stages of spiritual attainment in the Hinayana; one who has attained this state is subject to rebirth only once in each of the human and the heavenly realms of the three worlds before attaining nirvana. See alsoHinayana; nirvana; three worlds.

Original Vow: Specifically, the Forty-eight Vows made by the bodhisattva Dharmākara to save all sentient beings and establish a Pure Land for them. See alsoDharmākara; Forty-eight Vows; Pure Land.

original vows (pūrva-praṇidhāna): The vows to save all sentient beings made by bodhisattvas at the outset of their religious careers. See alsoOriginal Vow. other shore: Refers to liberation from samsara, when one reaches the other shore of the river of birth and death. See alsosamsara.

Pārāyaṇika: A disciple of the Buddha.

Perfected One: An epithet for the Buddha.

Perfectly Enlightened One: One of the ten epithets for a buddha. Seeten epithets for a buddha.

period of cosmic change: The four periods in the endlessly recurring cycle of (2) duration, (3) destruction, and (4) nonexistence of universes. (1) creation,

period of the five defilements: A period of general degeneration characterized by five signs, consisting of degradation of the (1) kalpa, or eon, (2) views, (3) passions, (4) human condition, and (5) human life span.

physical characteristics and marks: Buddhas and bodhisattvas are said to possess thirtytwo physical characteristics, such as golden skin, blue eyes, a long and broad tongue, etc.; and eighty secondary marks, such as soft hands, large ears, blue-black hair, etc. Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja ("Piṇḍola of the Skylark"): A disciple of the Buddha. pratyekabuddha("solitary enlightened one"): One of the two kinds of Hinayana sages, along with śrāvakas, who seek to reach the stage of arhat and attain nirvana. A pratyekabuddhaattains liberation by observing the principle of the twelve causations without the guidance of teacher, and does not teach others. Seealsoarhat; Hinayana; nirvana; śrāvaka.

precepts (śīla): Vows regarding moral conduct undertaken by lay Buddhists and monastics. There are five basic precepts for lay Buddhists, a set of eight precepts undertaken by lay Buddhists for certain periods of time, and the complete precepts of a monk or nun. See alsocomplete precepts of a monk or nun; five precepts; eight precepts; six pāramitās.

pure Dharma eye: Insight into the Four Noble Truths attained in the Hinayana stage of stream-winner. See alsoFour Noble Truths; Hinayana; stream-winner. 118

Glossary

Pure Land: Generally, any buddha land; specifically, refers to Sukhāvatī ("Land of Utmost Bliss"), the buddha land in the West created by the bodhisattva Dharmākara on fulfillment of his vows and attainment of buddha hood as Amitābha. Those who are born in Amitābha's Pure Land are free from afflictions and enjoy the supreme bliss of nirvana. See also Amitābha; Dharmākara; Forty-eight Vows; nirvana. Pure Land school: A school of Mahayana Buddhism that developed in fifth- century China and which remains one of the most popular schools of Buddhism in China and Japan. The salvific goal of this school centers on attaining rebirth in Amitābha's Pure Land, and the Three Pure Land Sutrasserve as its doctrinal basis. See alsoAmitābha; Mahayana; Pure Land.

Pūrṇaka ("Abundant"): A disciple of the Buddha.

Pūrṇamaitrāyaṇīputra ("Son of Pūrṇamaitrāyaṇī" ["abundant friendliness"]): One of the ten great disciples of the Buddha, renowned for his skill in teaching the Dharma. purple-gold: A type of gold produced by the Jambu River. See alsoJambu River. Rāhula ("Fetter"): The son of Prince Siddhārtha who later became the Buddha's disciple, renowned for his strict observance of the monastic rules (Vinaya). Rājagṛha: The capital of Magadha at the time of the Buddha; the present-day city of Rajgir, India. SeealsoMagadha.

Ratnaketu ("Jewel Ensign"): The name of a buddha in the west. Ratnakusumasaṃpuṣpitagātra ("Having a Body Adorned with Jewel Flowers"): The name of a buddha in the zenith.

Ratnotpalaśrī ("Glory of Blue Lotus Flower Jewels"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. Revata: A disciple of the Buddha.

Right Dharma: The Buddha-Dharma; the teaching of the true Dharma expounded by the Buddha.

Sahā ("Endurance") world: The world system that consists of Mount Sumeru at the center and the four great continents surrounding it; the world of human existence, in which beings must endure suffering, synonymous with samsara. See alsoMount Sumeru; samsara.

Śakra: Another name for Indra, the lord of the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods; originally a Hindu god, later incorporated into Buddhism as a protector deity. See alsoHeaven of the Thirty-three Gods.

śakra-abhilagna-maṇi-gem: The gem on the top of Śakra's head, said to be the most precious gem in the world. See also maṇi-gem; Śakra. Śakra's vase: A divine vase that produces anything its owner desires. See also Śakra. 119

Glossary

Śākyamuni ("the sage [muni] of the Śākya clan"): The historical Buddha, who lived in India in the fifth century B.C.E. and whose life and teachings form the basis for Buddhism. Born Prince Siddhārtha Gautama in the kingdom of Kapilavastu in central India, he left home at the age of twenty-nine to seek the Way of liberation. After six years of arduous practice and seeking, he attained enlightenment and became the Buddha, and taught the Dharma to others. He passed into nirvana at the age of eighty in Kuśinagara. See also enlightenment; Dharma; nirvana; Way. Śālendrarāja ("Lord King of the Śāla Tree"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. samādhi:A state of meditative concentration or absorption, focusing the mind on one point; also a transcendent mental state attained by the repeated practice of contemplation, such as visualizing a buddha or buddha land and realizing emptiness. See alsocontemplation; emptiness.

samādhiof being in the presence of all the buddhas: A state of meditative concentration (samādhi) in which the practitioner visualizes standing face to face with all buddhas, in particular Amitābha. See also samādhi.

samādhis of emptiness, non-form, and non-desire: States of meditative concentration (samādhi) in which the practitioner realizes that all dharmas are empty of inherent existence and thus are not to be grasped as objects of perception and desire. See also dharma; emptiness; samādhi.

samādhiof extinction: A state of meditative concentration (samādhi) in which the practitioner enjoys the pleasures of non-thought. See also samādhi. samādhiof "universal equality": A state of meditative concentration (samādhi) in which the practitioner can see innumerable buddhas. See also samādhi. Samantabhadra ("Universally Gracious"): The name of a great bodhisattva who represents the ultimate principle, meditation, and practice of all buddhas, the embodiment of adherence to vows of great compassion; also the right-hand attendant of Śākyamuni; often portrayed mounted on a white elephant.

Saṃghavarman (ca.third century): A monk from India or Samarkand who went to China in 245 and translated several sutras into Chinese, including the Larger Sutra. samsara: The cycle of birth and death through which beings transmigrate due to karmic causes; the world of suffering, contrasted with the liberation of nirvana that can be attained through following the Buddha's teachings. See alsofive evil realms; karma; nirvana; three evil realms; three worlds.

sangha: The Buddhist monastic order; in a more general sense, the larger community of Buddhist followers. Capitalized, the term is one of the Three Treasures. See also four groups of followers; Three Treasures.

śāri:A talking bird; possibly a mynah.

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Śāriputra: One of the leading disciples of the Buddha, especially renowned for his wisdom. Sarvārthadarśa ("Seeing All Benefits"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. seven kinds of jewels: Gold, silver, beryl, coral, amber, agate, and ruby. seven practices leading to enlightenment: (1) Distinguishing the true Dharma from wrong views, (2) making efforts to practice the true Dharma, (3) rejoicing in the true Dharma, (4) eliminating torpor and attaining ease and relaxation, (5) practicing mindfulness to maintain the equilibrium of concentration and insight, (6) concentration, and (7) mental detachment from external objects, thereby establishing a serene mind.

shang:The second tone of the Chinese pentatonic scale.

Siṃha ("Lion"): The name of a buddha in the nadir.

single path: The single path leading to buddhahood.

six acts of accord and respect: The six compassionate acts of a bodhisattva toward the sangha in order to save people—(1) performing the same bodily practices as others, such as worshiping the Buddha; (2) doing the same verbal acts, such as chanting sutras; (3) doing the same mental acts, such as faith; (4) observing the same precepts; (5) sharing the same view, such as the view of emptiness; (6) sharing the same provisions, such as food. See alsobodhisattva; precepts; sangha. six domestic animals: Horses, cows, sheep, dogs, pigs, and chickens. six forms of mindfulness: The six objects of mindfulness or contemplation—Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha (the Three Treasures); precepts (śīla); giving (dāna); and heaven with the desire to be reborn there. See alsocontemplation. six heavens of the world of desire: In ascending order, they are—1) Heaven of the Four Kings, 2) Heaven of Thirty-three Gods, 3) Yāma Heaven, 4) Tuṣita Heaven, 5) Heaven of Enjoyment of Pleasures Provided by Themselves (Nirmāṇarati), and 6) Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others. See also Buddhist Cosmology in Appendix, p. 103; Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others; Heaven of the Four Kings; Heaven of Thirty-three Gods; three worlds; Tuṣita Heaven; Yāma Heaven.

six pāramitās: The six types of practices to be perfected by bodhisattvas on the path to buddhahood—1) giving (dāna), 2) precepts (śīla), 3) patience (kṣānti), 4) effort (vīrya), 5) meditation (samādhi), and 6) wisdom (prajñā). See also bodhisattva; precepts; samādhi;wisdom.

six sense organs: The eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind. six supernatural powers: Six transcendent faculties attributed to buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats—(1) the ability to go anywhere at will and to transform oneself or objects 121

Glossary

at will, (2) divine eyes capable of seeing anything at any distance, (3) divine ears capable of hearing any sound at any distance, (4) the ability to know others' thoughts, (5) the ability to know one's former lives and those of others, and (6) the ability to destroy all evil passions. See alsoevil passions; three kinds of transcendent knowledge. sixth heaven: The sixth heaven of the world of desire, i.e., the Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others. See alsoAppendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; Heaven of Free Enjoyment of Manifestations by Others; three worlds. skillful means (upāya): The various expedient methods by which buddhas or bodhisattvas, out of their compassion, teach sentient beings according to their spiritual capacity and intelligence and guide them to enlightenment. See alsobodhisattva; enlightenment. special qualities: The eighteen special qualities of a buddha—(1) absence of bodily imperfection, (2) unmistakable speech that guides human beings to enlightenment, (3) perfect concentration, (4) nondiscriminative thought, (5) a perfectly settled mind, (6) knowing and accepting all dharmas, (7) limitless desire to save all sentient beings, (8) unceasing effort to save sentient beings, (9) spiritual communication with other buddhas, (10) omniscience, (11) complete liberation from all bondage, (12) complete knowledge of all aspects of liberation, (13) manifestation of excellent physical forms to guide sentient beings to salvation, (14) employment of subtle words to teach sentient beings, (15) pure mental acts to teach sentient beings, (16) complete knowledge of the past lives of all beings, (17) complete knowledge of future events, and (18) complete knowledge of all events in the present. sprinkling the nectar: The Buddha sprinkles nectar on the heads of bodhisattvas upon their attainment of the tenth stage. See alsobodhisattva stages. śrāvaka("word-hearer"): Originally, a disciple of the Buddha, one who heard him expound the teachings directly; later, the term came to refer to one of the two kinds of Hinayana sages, along with pratyekabuddhas; generally, a Hinayana practitioner. See also Hinayana; pratyekabuddha.

Śrāvastī: A kingdom in central India where the Jeta Grove donated by Anāthapiṇḍada to the Buddha and his sangha was located, the present-day site of Sāhetmāhet in Gonda Province. At this place many Mahayana sutras were delivered by the Buddha, including the Smaller Sutra on Amitāyus.See alsoAnāthapiṇḍada; Mahayana. stage of becoming a buddha after one more life (eka-jāti-pratibaddha): The stage of spiritual development in which the practitioner has reached the highest bodhisattva stage and is destined to become a buddha in the next life. See alsobodhisattva stages. stage of joy (pramuditā): The first of the ten bodhisattva stages, attained by awakening undefiled wisdom. See alsobodhisattva stages.

stage of non-retrogression (avinivartanīya): The stage in which a bodhisattva proceeds to highest enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi) and will advance to buddhahood 122

Glossary

without regressing to lower stages. See also bodhisattva stages; definitely assured stage.

stages of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas: The stages of advanced Hinayana practice. See alsoHinayana; pratyekabuddha; śrāvaka.

stream-winner (śrota-āpanna): The first of the four stages of spirtual attainment in the Hinayana; one who has entered the stream of the Dharma by abandoning various wrong views. SeealsoHinayana.

stupa: A tomb mound or a shrine, sometimes containing relics of the Buddha. Subāhu ("Having Well-developed Arms"): A disciple of the Buddha. suchness (tathatā): The state of things as they really are, thusness; ultimate truth. See also naturalness; ultimate truth.

Śuddharaśmiprabha ("Brilliance of Pure Light"): The name of a buddha in the west. Śuddhipanthaka: A disciple of the Buddha.

Sumerukalpa ("Sumeru-like"): The name of a buddha in the zenith. sutra: Buddhist scriptures that contain the discourses of the Buddha. Capitalized, it refers to one of the three categories of the Buddhist canon, the Tripiṭaka. See alsoTripiṭaka. Svāgata ("Well-come"): A disciple of the Buddha.

Tathāgata ("Thus Come One"): One of the ten epithets for a buddha, popularly construed as meaning "one who has come from thusness (suchness).

" See alsosuchness; ten

epithets for a buddha.

ten directions: The four cardinal directions (north, east, south, west), the four intermediate directions (northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest), plus the zenith and nadir. As a general term, it refers to the entire sphere of reality; everywhere. ten epithets for a buddha: (1) Tathāgata, (2) Arhat, (3) Fully Enlightened One, (4) Possessor of Wisdom and Practice, (5) Well-gone One, (6) Knower of the World, (7) Unsurpassed One, (8) Tamer of Beings, (9) Teacher of Gods and Humans, and (10) Enlightened and World-honored One. ten evil deeds: The acts of killing, stealing, committing adultery, lying, uttering harsh words, uttering words that cause division among people, engaging in idle talk, greed, anger, and holding wrong views.

ten good deeds: Not killing, not stealing, not committing adultery, not lying, not uttering harsh words, not uttering words that cause division among people, not engaging in idle talk, not being greedy, not being angry, and not holding wrong views. ten supernal powers: The powers attributed to a buddha, which confer perfect knowledge of (1) distinguishing right and wrong; (2) the karma of all sentient beings of the 123

Glossary

past, present, and future and its outcome; (3) all forms of meditation; (4) the superior and inferior capacities of sentient beings; (5) the desires and thoughts of sentient beings; (6) the different levels of existence of sentient beings; (7) the results of various methods of practice; (8) the transmigratory states of all sentient beings and the courses of karma they follow; (9) the past lives of all sentient beings and the nirvanic state of nondefilement; and (10) how to destroy the evil passions. three acts of merit: (1) Worldly meritorious acts, such as filial devotion, respectfully serving one's teachers, and performing the ten good deeds; (2) meritorious acts performed in observing precepts, such as the five precepts; and (3) meritorious acts performed in practicing the Buddhist Way, such as believing in the law of causality and chanting the Mahayana sutras. See also five precepts; law of causality; Mahayana; ten good deeds; Way.

three defilements: Greed or craving, anger or hatred, and ignorance or delusion, often referred to as the "three poisons.

" See alsoaffliction.

three distinct teachings: The teachings for bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, and śrāvakas, respectively. Seealso bodhisattva; pratyekabuddha;śrāvaka.

three evil realms: The three lowest of the five evil realms of samsaric existence—1) the realm of animals, 2) the realm of hungry ghosts, and 3) the realm of hell. See also five evil realms; samsara.

three grades of aspirants: The higher, middle, and lower grades of aspirants for birth in the Pure Land, as distinguished in the Larger Sutra. The higher grade are those who become monastics, perform meritorious deeds, and awaken aspiration for enlightenment by contemplating Amitābha; the middle grade are those who do only the first two of these acts; and the lower grade are those who do only the last. SeealsoAmitābha; aspiration for enlightenment; Pure Land.

three insights: Insights into the nature of dharmas: (1) insight into reality through hearing the sacred sound, (2) insight into reality by coming into accord with it, and (3) insight into the non-arising of all dharmas. Seealsoinsight into the non-arising of all dharmas.

three kinds of faith: The three aspects of faith mentioned in the Contemplation Sutra that are necessary for birth in Amitābha's Pure Land—1) sincere faith, 2) deep faith, and 3) faith that seeks birth in the Pure Land through transference of one's merit. See also Pure Land; transference of merit.

three kinds of transcendent knowledge: Three kinds of knowledge attained by buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats—1) knowledge of one's former lives and those of others, 2) knowledge of one's future and that of others, and 3) knowledge of the suffering of the present and the ability to remove its root cause, i.e., the evil passions. See also evil passions; six supernatural powers.

three pains: The three kinds of pain experienced by human beings—1) physical and mental 124

Glossary

pain caused by illness, hunger, thirst, etc.; (2) the pain of being separated from the objects of one's attachment; and (3) pain caused by various worldly vicissitudes. three periods: Past, present, and future.

three realms of suffering. Seethree evil realms.

three refuges: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha (i.e., the Three Treasures), in which Buddhists vow to take refuge. See also Three Treasures.

three supernatural faculties: The three special faculties attained by a buddha, bodhisattva, or arhat: (1) the faculty of knowing one's former lives and those of others, (2) the faculty of knowing one's future destiny and that of others, and (3) the faculty of knowing all the suffering of the present life and of removing its root cause, i.e., the evil passions. See alsoarhat; bodhisattva; evil passions.

Three Treasures: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. See alsothree refuges. three worlds: The three categories of samsaric states of existence. They are: the world of desire (kāmadhātu), this world of suffering in which beings are given to desire and attachment. There are six realms: the realm of devas, which has six heavens; the realm of asuras; the realm of human beings; the realm of animals; the realm of hungry ghosts; and the realm of hell, of which there are eight levels (see Appendix, Buddhist Cosmology, pp. 102-103). The world of form (rūpa dhātu) is inhabited by those who have severed all desires but still experience the world as form; this world has four dhyānaheavens (see Appendix, Buddhist Cosmology, pp. 102-103). The world of non-form (ārūpya dhātu) is inhabited by those who have severed all desires and attachment to form but have not yet attained enlightenment; this world has four levels (see Appendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 102). transference of merit: Transferring one's merit toward the attainment of buddhahood; transferring one's merit to other beings for their benefit. In Pure Land Buddhism, Amitābha Buddha transfers his merit to sentient beings to enable them to attain birth in his Pure Land. See also Amitābha; Pure Land.

transmigration. Seesamsara.

Tripiṭaka (lit.,

"three baskets"): The three divisions of the Buddhist canon, Sutra (the Buddha's teachings), Vinaya (the monastic code), and Abhi dharma (discourses on Buddhist teachings).

Tripiṭaka Master: A monk who is well versed in the Buddhist scriptures. Tuṣita ("Contentment") Heaven: The fourth of the six heavens of the world of desire, in which the future buddha Maitreya now dwells preaching the Dharma to devas. See also Appendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; deva; Maitreya; three worlds. twelve divisions of the scriptures: The classical categorization of the twelve forms of Buddhist teachings—(1) the Buddha's exposition of the Dharma in prose (sūtra), 125

Glossary

(2) verses that repeat ideas expressed in prose (geya), (3) verses containing ideas not expressed in prose (gāthā), (4) narratives of the past that explain a person's present state (nidāna), (5) narratives of the past lives of the Buddha's disciples (itivṛttaka), (6) narratives of the Buddha's past lives (jātaka), (7) accounts of miracles performed by a buddha or deva(adbhuta-dharma), (8) expositions of the Dharma through allegories (avadāna), (9) discussions of doctrine (upadeśa), (10) expositions of the Dharma by the Buddha without awaiting questions or requests from his disciples (udāna), (11) extensive and detailed expositions of principles of truth (vai pulya), and (12) prophecies by the Buddha regarding his disciples' future attainment of buddhahood (vyākaraṇa).

uḍumbara:A kind of fig tree that is said to bloom only once in three thousand years; used metaphorically to describe the rare appearance of a buddha. ultimate truth: The perception of the ultimate reality of things as they really are, true suchness, the state of enlightenment in which ultimate truth is apprehended; as opposed to relative or conventional truth, which is unenlightened perception of reality. See alsoenlightenment; naturalness; suchness.

unconditioned nirvana: Ultimate truth or reality; the ultimate sphere of non-action; perfect nirvana. See alsonirvana; ultimate truth.

universe of a thousand million worlds: One thousand worlds comprise a small one-thousand world, a thousand of these make a medium one-thousand world, and a thousand of these make a great one-thousand world. The universe of a great one-thousand world, i.e., of a thousand million worlds, comes under the care of one buddha. Uruvilvākāśyapa ("Kāśyapa of Uruvilvā"): The eldest of the three Kāśyapa brothers, who first engaged in Brahmanical fire worship but later converted to Buddhism with his five hundred disciples.

Vaidehī: The wife of King Bimbisāra and mother of Ajātaśatru. In her later years she and the king were imprisoned by their son. This tragedy in the royal family of Magadha is recounted in the Contemplation Sutra,in which Vaidehī appeals to the Buddha to teach her the practices that will lead to birth in the Pure Land. See alsoAjātaśatru; Bimbisāra.

Vaiśvānaranirghoṣa ("Universal Sound"): The name of a buddha in the north. Vajra-god: A kind of devapossessing enormous physical power. Images of a pair of such gods often flank the entrances to temples.

Vakkula: A disciple of the Buddha.

Vāṣpa ("Tears, Vapor"): Sometimes mentioned as one of the ten earliest disciples of the Buddha.

Vedic scriptures: Refers to the four Vedas, the oldest Hindu scriptures. Vimala ("Free of Defilement"): A disciple of the Buddha.

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Glossary

virtues of Samantabhadra: The meritorious practices, represented by Samantabhadra, that are performed by all bodhisattvas. See also Samantabhadra. visualization: A meditative practice involving an elaborate, extensive mental visualization of a specific object of devotion, such as a buddha, bodhisattva, or buddha land. Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa): A mountain near Rājagṛha, the capital of Ma ga dha in the Buddha's time, where the Buddha delivered many important sutras, including the Larger Sutra. See alsoMagadha; Rājagṛha.

water possessing the eight excellent qualities: The water of the ponds in the Pure Land has these eight qualities—it is pure, cool, smooth, sweet, moistening, comforting, thirst-quenching, and nourishing. See alsoPure Land.

Way: The ultimate state of enlightenment; bodhi;also refers to the Buddhist path. See alsoenlightenment.

Well-gone One: One of the ten epithets for a buddha. See ten epithets for a buddha. Western Land: Amitābha's Pure Land. See alsoAmitābha; Pure Land. wheel of the Dharma: The Buddha-Dharma is compared to a wheel having eight spokes, which correspond to the Noble Eightfold Path, because (1) like the wheel of a wheelturning monarch it crushes all evil, and (2) like a wheel in motion, it travels endlessly to bring the Dharma to all sentient beings. See alsoDharma; Noble Eightfold Path; wheel-turning monarch.

wheel-turning monarch (cakravartin): The ideal king, as conceived of in India, who rules the world with a special wheel (cakra) that flies through the air and destroys his enemies; said to possess seven treasures: the wheel, elephants, horses, gems, ladies, attendants, and generals.

wisdom (prajñā): Transcendental wisdom, enlightened insight. See alsosix pāramitās. World-honored One (Bhagavān): One of the ten epithets for a buddha. See ten epithets for a buddha.

world of desire. Seethree worlds.

world of form. Seethree worlds.

yakṣa:A flesh-eating demon; one of the eight kinds of superhuman beings that protect Buddhism. See alsoeight kinds of superhuman beings.

Yāma ("Well Regulated") Heaven: The third of the six heavens of the world of desire. See also Appendix, Buddhist Cosmology, p. 103; six heavens; three worlds. Yao-Qin dynasty (384-417): The Later Qin dynasty, ruled by the Yao family. Yaśas ("Fame"): The name of a buddha in the nadir.

Yaśasprabha ("Light of Fame"): The name of a buddha in the south. 127

Glossary

Yaśasprabhāsa ("Brilliance of Fame"): The name of a buddha in the nadir. Yaśodeva ("God of Fame"): A disciple of the Buddha. yojana:An Indian unit of distance, roughly equivalent to seven to nine miles, based on the distance the royal army could march in one day; one yojana is equivalent to forty li.Seealsoli.

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