Nagarjuna’s Treatise on the Ten Grounds Volume ll

Chapter 31: Guarding the Moral Precepts

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Guarding the

Moral Precepts

It is in this way that this bodhisattva practices the courses of good karmic action.

In both good and bad courses of karmic action, there are general characteristics as well as specific characteristics. Each of these are to be clearly distinguished and known as possessing two corresponding types of karmic results. As for the general characteristics of the resulting retributions of the ten courses of good karmic action, these may consist of either rebirth in the heavens or rebirth among humans.

As for the specific characteristics of the resulting retributions, they are as follows:

In the case of the good karmic action of abandoning the killing of beings, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, long life span. Second, having but little illness.

From the good karmic action of abandoning stealing, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one obtains great wealth. Second, one becomes independently wealthy.

From the good karmic action of abandoning sexual misconduct, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one's wife will be chaste and good. Second, she cannot be "ruined" by others.238 From the good karmic action of abandoning false speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will not be slandered by anyone. Second, one will not be cheated or deceived by others. From the good karmic action of abandoning divisive speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will gain a fine following. Second, one's [reputation] will not be ruined by others. 283

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II From the good karmic action of abandoning harsh speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will hear whichever sounds one delights in hearing. Second, one will not become embroiled in disputes.

From the good karmic action of abandoning scattered or inappropriate speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, people will trust and accept whatever one says. Second, whatever one says will be definitely decisive.

From the good karmic action of abandoning covetousness, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will be easily contented. Second, one will have but few wants.

From the good karmic action of abandoning ill will, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, wherever one is reborn, one will always seek to bring about fine circumstances for others. Second, one will not delight in tormenting or harming other beings. From the good karmic action of maintaining right views, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will abandon flattery and deviousness. Second, whatever one sees will be pure in character. The same principles apply in the matter of the ten courses of bad karmic action. As for the general characteristics of their resulting karmic retributions, if one has engaged in them to a high degree, one falls into the hell realms. If one has engaged in them to a middling degree, one will fall into the animal realms. If one has engaged in them to a lesser239 degree, then one will to fall into the realms of the hungry ghosts. As for the specific karmic retributions [associated with the ten courses of bad karmic action], they are as follows:

From the bad karmic action of killing beings, there are two resultant retributions: First, a short life span. Second, much illness. From the bad karmic action of stealing, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, poverty. Second, loss of wealth. From the bad karmic action of sexual misconduct, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will have an ugly and evil wife who is also unchaste. Second, one will be ruined by her. 284

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From the bad karmic action of false speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will be slandered by others. Second, one will be cheated and deceived by others.

From the bad karmic action of divisive speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will gain a bad following. Second, one will have a following vulnerable to destruction. From the bad karmic action of harsh speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will have to listen to sounds that one loathes. Second, one will be forever embroiled in disputes. From the bad karmic action of scattered or inappropriate speech, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one's words will not be trusted and accepted. Second, one's speech will have neither beginning nor end.

From the bad karmic action of covetousness, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one's mind will never know contentment. Second, one will have an abundance of insatiable desires. From the bad karmic action of ill will, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one will be bad-natured. Second, one will delight in tormenting other beings.

From the bad karmic action of maintaining wrong views, there are two resultant karmic retributions: First, one's mind will tend toward flattery and deviousness. Second, one will tend to fall into wrong views. Having known the Dharma, one cherishes and delights in it and one's mind becomes unshakable in the Dharma.

When in the midst of beings,

one's mind of kindness and compassion becomes ever greater. As for "cherishing the Dharma," one cherishes only the Dharma and sees nothing superior to the Dharma. In this context, "Dharma" refers to the ten courses of good karmic action discussed earlier.

As for "delighting in the Dharma," one delights only in the Dharma and in nothing else.

As for "one's mind remains unshakable in the Dharma," the bodhisattva never abandons the Dharma even when threatened with the loss of his life. 285

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As the bodhisattva practices dharmas such as these, when he is in the midst of other beings, his kindness and compassion toward them become ever greater. Although kindness and compassion do exist on the first ground, their quality therein cannot match their quality as they exist on this ground. This is because he now has a penetrating comprehension of the causes and conditions for karmic offenses and karmic merit.

Beings are pitiable, for they are all under the influence of their own karma and are unable to gain independence from it. This being the case, one's mind then remains free of any thoughts affected by hatred or anger. For one who practices in this way, kindness and compassion do indeed become ever greater. He reflects in this manner:

Alas! These beings!

They have fallen so very deeply into wrong views.

I must explain right views for them

and thus cause them to gain entry into the path of what is right. Having gained this penetrating comprehension of the causes and conditions for karmic offenses and karmic merit, the bodhisattva engages in the deep practice of kindness and compassion for all beings, thinking thus: Beings are so pitiable. Because they do not know the true character of dharmas, for the most part they engage in false thinking and thus develop all manner of wrong views. It is because of their wrong views that they produce all manner of afflictions, and it is because of their afflictions that then create all sorts of karma. And it is because they produce these karmic causes and conditions that they then turn about in samsara's cycle of births and deaths.

I previously brought forth the resolve to seek anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. In order to bring about the liberation of beings, I should explain right views for them. I should liberate all of these beings and influence them to enter the true path so that are then caused to attain liberation. Having reflected thus, one comes to realize that all beings are beset by all manner of afflictions, as described below:

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all of the different sorts of black and evil karmic actions they do, and all the diverse sorts of suffering and anguish they undergo. One bears in mind all of these beings, feeling pity for their plight and for the many ways in which they have become so deficient. Having taken up all of these different contemplations, one realizes, "They are all just as I myself have been." One then immediately brings forth the mind of compassion and uses the skillful means of bringing forth a great aspiration: "Oh, how might I be able to influence these beings

to succeed in extinguishing all their many sufferings?" Regarding "afflictions" and "defilement associated with those afflictions," "afflictions" refers to any of the dharmas subsumed by the fetters whereas "defilement" refers to [whatever arises from] being "obsessed"240 [by the afflictions].

[More specifically,] those afflictions subsumed by the fetters include greed, hatred, conceit, ignorance, the view of a real self in association with the body [or any of the other four aggregates],241 extreme views, seizing on views, seizing on unprincipled precepts, wrong views, and doubt. These ten [consisting of three] root and [seven] subsidiary afflictions are distinguished according to their relationship to the three realms of existence and according to whether they are to be severed by directly seeing the [four] truths or whether they are to be severed by meditative cultivation.242 As a consequence [of these distinctions], there are ninety-eight latent tendencies.243 Those not subsumed by the fetters include non-faith, absence of a sense of shame, absence of a dread of blame, flattery, deviousness, restlessness, regretfulness,244 rigid attachment, indolence, neglectfulness, drowsiness, malice, miserliness, jealousy, arrogance, impatience, and gluttony. These too are distinguished according to their relationship to the three realms of existence and according to whether they are to be severed by directly seeing the [four] truths or whether they are to be severed by meditative cultivation. As a consequence [of these distinctions], there are one hundred and ninetysix obsessive defilements. 287

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There are others who explain "afflictions" as phenomena residing in deep mental dispositions and explain "defilements" as phenomena abiding at a more superficial level of mind.

There are yet others who explain that it is all of the hindrances that constitute "obsessive defilements" whereas all else falls within the sphere of "afflictions."

Regarding "black and evil karmic actions," this refers to those seven courses of karmic action [among the ten courses of bad karmic action] that actually do constitute [physical or verbal] karmic actions together with thought that has come under the influence of covetousness, ill will, or wrong views. These are able to engender painful karmic retributions. As for "all the different sorts of suffering and anguish," whatsoever bad experiences are undergone by the body correlate with "suffering" whereas whatsoever bad experiences are undergone by the mind correlate with "anguish." Alternatively, one may explain that present-life sufferings are what correlate with "suffering" whereas "anguish" corresponds to later experiences occurring through descent into the wretched destinies. Regarding "the many ways in which they have become so deficient," "deficiencies" refers here to inadequacies in sense faculties, limbs, or physical bodies, in what is essential to sustain life, or in faith, observance of the moral precepts, or other such meritorious qualities. Because the remaining lines are easy to interpret in accordance with the verse statements, no further explanation is necessary. Once one has contemplated in this manner, one realizes: Beings are ever so pitiable.

For those who have fallen into the two vehicles,

I shall make a vow for their sakes

to cause them to dwell in the Great Vehicle.245

This circumstance accords with this Ten Grounds Sutra wherein Vajragarbha Bodhisattva himself said: 246 This bodhisattva abandons the ten courses of bad karmic action while also influencing beings to abide in the ten courses of good karmic action. For the sake of these beings, he strives profoundly to gain the supreme 288

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mind, the fine mind, the delighting mind, the pitying mind, the kind and compassionate mind, the beneficial mind, the protective mind, the mind that sees other beings as one's own, the mind that acts as a great teacher, the mind that draws in others, and the mind that accepts others. He thinks, "All of these beings are so very pitiable. They have fallen into all different sorts of wrong thought and wrong views, and thus travel along in wrong and hazardous paths. I should now influence them to abide in the true path of right views.

"All these different groups of beings engage in mutual disputation and fighting. They always feel anger toward one another as mutual hatred and torment blaze up between them. This being the case, I should influence them to instead abide in the unsurpassably great kindness. "These beings are insatiable, so much so that they covet any advantages enjoyed by others and pursue wrong livelihoods as their means of survival. I should influence them to instead abide in the pure actions of body, speech, and mind.

"Abiding among causes and conditions associated with greed, hatred, and delusion, these beings are forever generating all the different sorts of afflictions and fetters while never availing themselves of the means whereby they might seek to escape their plight. I should extinguish their sufferings and anguish and influence them to instead abide in the state that is free of sufferings and anguish.

"These beings have had their vision obscured by ignorance and thus have wandered into a dense forest of darkness so deeply that they are unable to escape from it by themselves. Having abandoned the light of wisdom, they have strayed into the hazardous and evil path of the various [wrong] views. I should rescue them and cause them then to acquire the eye of unimpeded wisdom. Using this wisdom eye, they will not follow other people, but rather will know all dharmas in accordance with their true character.

"These beings have fallen into the long river of births and deaths and are about to descend into the pit of the hell realms, animal realms, hungry ghost realms, and asura realms. They are on the verge of falling into the net trap of perversity and deviousness hidden from their view by the weeds of the many different afflictions.

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"Having no guide, they are not even motivated to escape from their predicament. They claim that the path is not the path and that what is not the path is indeed the path. The minions of Māra, their adversaries, always pursue them. Having no good guide, they obey the ideas of Māra and stray far from the Dharma of the Buddha.

"I should cause beings such as these to pass beyond these hazardous and evil roads in the cycle of births and deaths so that they may be able to dwell in the city of all-knowledge that is free of fear and free of decay. "All these beings have become caught and carried along, drifting, in the current of the flood of desire, the flood of existence, the flood of [wrong] views, and the flood of ignorance in which they are pulled under by the great waves of the many different karmic offenses and are submerged in the river of craving. They are swept along by the waves of the cycle of births and deaths, caught in a swirling whirlpool that pulls them around and around in a current from which they cannot escape. "They are drowned and rotted by the salty waves of desirous ideation, hateful ideation, and tormenting ideation.247 They are seized and held by that rākṣasa of the view of a real self in association with the body. They enter into the deep woods of the five desires, are seized by the defilements of sensual enjoyments, and are blown about on the high plateau of conceit. "[Beings] are so extremely pitiable. There is no island [of respite] for them, nor do they have any means of rescue. They are stuck in the empty village of the six sense bases from which they are unable to move. There is no one with the skill to take them on beyond. I should now transport all such beings in the sturdy and durable ship of the great compassion and wisdom, taking them to the continent of all-knowledge where they shall become safe, secure, and free of fear.

"These beings produce such an abundance of suffering that they are indeed pitiable. They are confined within the prison of birth, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and anguish wherein they are much inclined toward greed, anger, craving, and hatred. They fall into the four inverted views, are harmed by the venomous snakes of the four great elements, are tortured by their five aggregate enemies, are ensnared by the deceptive thief of sensual enjoyments' defilements, and undergo measureless suffering and anguish in the empty village of the six sense bases. 290

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"I should demolish their prison of samsara and cause them to attain unimpeded sovereign mastery in the security and bliss of nirvana. "These beings are so extremely pitiable. With such narrow, inferior, and petty minds, they have come to delight in paltry sorts of benefit. They have shrunken back from, fallen away from, and become bereft of the resolve to attain all-knowledge. Even when they do seek a means of escape, they then only delight in the vehicles of śrāvaka disciples or pratyekabuddhas. I should cause them to gain the truly great resolve by influencing them to delight in the vast and magnificent dharmas of a buddha." [Next, we have:]

If the bodhisattva carries forth his practice in this manner, he will gain the power arising from upholding the moral precepts. Having thoroughly known how to bring forth good karmic actions, he strives to cause them to increase.

If one proceeds thus, he will thereby become a son of the Buddha and will deeply enter the Ground of Stainlessness. Regarding "the power arising from upholding the moral precepts," if one is singleminded in purely fulfilling the moral precepts associated with the ten courses of good karmic action, then he will acquire the power derived from cultivating and accumulating merit.

As for the ability "to bring forth good karmic actions," one knows well how to personally bring forth and increase the courses of good karmic action and also knows how to cause other beings to do so as well. As for his "deeply entering" [the Ground of Stainlessness], his practices become ever more far-reaching to the point that they exhaust its very limits and depths.

As for the term "son of the Buddha," whosoever is able to carry on his practice in accordance with the Dharma is one who is known as "a son of the Buddha."

From the point of its initial arising on the first ground on through to the second ground in which it increases, this bodhisattva should diligently practice vigor in this manner.

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When the bodhisattva succeeds in reaching

the boundaries of the Ground of Stainlessness,

he will then be able to see

a hundred or a thousand buddhas.

In discussing the first ground, we already explained the pratyutpanna samādhi and the dharmas assisting acquisition of the samādhi in which one sees the buddhas of the present era. Specifically, these included using the thirty-two major marks, eighty secondary characteristics, and forty dharmas exclusive to the buddhas in practicing mindfulness of the Buddha without having any attachment to any dharma. We also discussed the means to enhance the samādhi and enable the complete development of the powers arising from its fruition.

Question: If, by virtue of having already reached the limits of the first ground, a bodhisattva is able to see the buddhas, then, on entering the second ground, he should then be able to see the buddhas. Why then do you now state that, only upon reaching the limits of the second ground, does one, then and only then, see the buddhas? If that is truly the case, then it must be that one loses this samādhi on first entering the second ground and only then regains it later on. Response: When first entering the second ground, one still sees the buddhas and still does not fall back from this samādhi. It is only because you have not well understood the intended meaning of the verse that you have posed this challenge.

In the beginning and middle phases of the second ground, one still only sees a hundred buddhas. It is only when one reaches its very limits that one is then able to see from a hundred up to a thousand buddhas. Once one has seen the buddhas, one's mind is filled with immense joy. It is because of one's zeal to achieve success in the Buddha's Dharma that one then becomes diligent in practicing vigor.

One immediately becomes able to use the four requisites to make offerings to the buddhas.

He is then able to receive again the ten courses of karmic action in the abodes of the buddhas.

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"The four requisites" refers to robes, food and drink, bedding, and medicines. One may deduce for himself the meaning of the rest of the verse. Having performed acts such as these,

one receives the courses of good karmic action from the buddhas and, even throughout a hundred thousand myriads of kalpas, one never allows his practice to become damaged or lost. "Never allowing this practice to become damaged" means that one does not allow one's practice of the moral precepts to become scant or weak. One may also say that it is purity in one's endeavors that defines non-damage. "Loss" refers to complete discontinuance of one's practice. It is in this manner that this bodhisattva has passed through the first ground and entered the second ground. This matter is as described below: One thoroughly abandons the defilement of miserliness and delights in the practice of pure giving.

By thoroughly abandoning the defilement of miserliness, one gains a deep love of purity in upholding the moral precepts. "Purity" refers to practicing giving with a mind devoted exclusively to goodness, one that is not mixed with any of the afflictions. "Deep love" [of purity in the moral precepts] refers to abiding so solidly in it that one never relinquishes that practice.

On this ground, there are no further residual traces of the defilement associated with miserliness or the defilement associated with breaking precepts. It is because of this that this ground is referred to as "stainless." The bodhisattva who in this manner remains free of thoughts inclined toward miserliness or the breaking of moral precepts is especially proficient in the practice within the four means of attraction known as "pleasing words" and is also especially proficient in the practice within the six pāramitās referred to as "the perfection of moral virtue."

"Proficient" refers here to having engaged in extensive practice whereby one's power in that practice has becomes ever more deeply developed. Question: If on the second ground one has already acquired strength in one's practice of śīla-pāramitā, the perfection of moral virtue, now, as one 293

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II discusses this ground, one should explain the aspects, the arising, the powers, the purification, and the distinctions associated with śīla-pāramitā. Response:

In a general discussion of the perfection of śīla, there are sixty-five aspects.

As for its arising, powers, purification, and distinctions, these are discussed in place after place elsewhere in this treatise. Śīla-pāramitā, as a topic of discussion, is measureless and boundless. To speak of it only in general terms, there are sixty-five aspects. As for the other subtopics, in particular the arising of moral virtue, the powers of moral virtue, the purification of moral virtue, and distinctions to be made with regard to moral virtue, these factors are discussed in detail both earlier and later on in this treatise.

[This interpretive approach] is in accordance with the "The Harmonious Dharma of the Buddha" chapter of the Jeweled Summit Sutra, wherein, in the presence of the Buddha, Akṣayamati Bodhisattva spoke of the sixty-five aspects of śīla-pāramitā, stating that śīla refers to the following: 248 It is not [physically] tormenting any being;249

It is not having any thought of stealing the possessions of others; It is not being attached to any outward visual forms; It is not deceiving beings;

Through ensuring the complete unity of retinues, it is not engaging in divisive speech;

Through being well able to patiently endure harsh words [from others], it is being free of harsh speech;

Through always contemplating and evaluating whether one's speech is beneficial, it is being free of scattered or inappropriate speech; Through delighting in the continued happiness of others, it is being free of covetousness;

Through patiently enduring every sort of suffering, it is being free of ill will;

Through not praising teachers of other paths, it is right view; Through faith in purification of the mind, it is faith in the Buddha;250 Through knowing that the Dharma is genuine, it is faith in the Dharma; 294

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Through delighting in venerating and revering the assemblies of worthies and āryas, it is faith in the Sangha; Through full prostrations, the making of offerings, and other expressions of reverential respect, it is mindfulness of the Buddha; Through having mental dispositions by which one is fearful of transgressing against even the most minor moral precept, it is moral virtue that does not become diminished or weak; Through not relying on any of the other vehicles, it is moral virtue that is undamaged;

Through abandoning erroneous practice, it is moral virtue that does not become deficient;

Through the nonarising of evil afflictions, it is moral virtue that does not become admixed [with impure aspects];

Through the most ultimate and constant delight in increasing and strengthening good dharmas, it is moral virtue that remains unsullied;

Through practicing in accordance with one's wishes, it is moral virtue characterized by sovereign mastery;

Through not doing anything criticized by the wise, it is moral virtue that is praised by the āryas;

Through always abiding in mindfulness guided by stable wisdom, it is easily practiced moral virtue;

Through the complete absence of karmic transgressions in all that one does, it is irreproachable moral virtue; Through guarding the sense faculties, it is skillfully guarded moral virtue;

Through being one of whom all buddhas are mindful, it is illustrious moral virtue;

Through receiving in proper measure things obtained in accordance with the Dharma,251 it is moral virtue characterized by but few wants;

Through the severance of covetousness, it is moral virtue that knows contentment;

Through renunciation in both body and mind, it is moral virtue characterized by renunciation;

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II Through abandoning the many sorts of boisterous speech, it is moral virtue appropriate to a forest hermitage;

Through having no need to look to anyone else in the hope of obtaining anything, it is moral virtue perfectly complete in the lineage bases of the āryas;

Through being one who possesses roots of goodness, it is moral virtue characterized by refined practice of the dhūta austerities; Through [its efficacy in bringing about] rebirth among humans and devas, it is moral virtue characterized by practice consistent with the manner in which it has been taught;

Through devotion to rescuing all beings, it is moral virtue characterized by kindness;252 Through enduring every sort of suffering, it is moral virtue characterized by compassion; Through resolve that does not retreat and sink away, it is moral virtue characterized by joy;

Through abandoning both hatred and affection, it is moral virtue characterized by equanimity;

Through subduing the mind, it is moral virtue marked by seeing one's own faults;

Through protecting the minds of others, it is unerring moral virtue; Through skillfully guarding the precepts, it is moral virtue that is well restrained.;253

Through devotion to the ripening of beings, it is moral virtue characterized by giving;

Through having nothing for which one wishes, it is moral virtue characterized by patience;

Through not desisting and withdrawing from endeavors, it is moral virtue characterized by vigor;

Through accumulating the dharmas assisting dhyāna, it is moral virtue characterized by dhyāna;

Through insatiable pursuit of abundant learning and roots of goodness, it is moral virtue characterized by wisdom; Through gaining wisdom from abundant learning, it is moral virtue that seeks abundant learning;

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Through accumulating the dharmas that assist the seven limbs of enlightenment, it is moral virtue that draws close to good spiritual guides;

Through relinquishing erroneous paths, it is moral virtue characterized by the abandonment of bad spiritual guides;

Through contemplating impermanence, it is moral virtue characterized by nonattachment to the body;

Through diligently accumulating roots of goodness, it is moral virtue characterized by not trusting [in the durability of] one's life; Through purity in one's resolute intentions, it is moral virtue characterized by freedom from regrets;

Through purity in one's actions, it is moral virtue that is not false; Through resolute intentions that are free of defilement, it is moral virtue that is free of heat;

Through skillfulness in initiating karmic actions, it is moral virtue that is free of sorrow;

Through not elevating oneself [above others], it is moral virtue that is free of conceit;

Through abandoning defiled desires, it is moral virtue that does not indulge frivolous restlessness;

Through maintaining a straightforward mind, it is moral virtue that does not elevate oneself [above others];

Through maintaining a well-regulated mind, it is moral virtue possessed of a sense of shame;

Through not bringing forth evil thoughts, it is moral virtue trained in goodness;

Through extinguishing all afflictions, it is moral virtue characterized by quiescence;

Through practicing in accordance with [the original] explanations, it is moral virtue that follows what has been taught; Through practicing the dharmas constituting the four means of attraction, it is moral virtue characterized by the transformative teaching of beings;

Through not erring in [the practice of] one's own dharma, it is moral virtue that protects the Dharma;

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Through [maintaining one's] fundamental purity, it is moral virtue in which all vows are fulfilled;

Through dedicating [one's merit] to realization of the unsurpassed path, it is moral virtue that leads to acquiring the dharmas of the Buddha;

Through maintaining a mind of uniformly equal regard for all beings, it is moral virtue that leads to acquiring the Buddha's samādhis. Venerable Śāriputra, as for these sixty-five aspects [of the perfection of śīla], [were one to exhaustively list them,] the aspects of all bodhisattva's pure moral virtue would be endlessly numerous.

Now, as for the arising of the moral precepts, this is a matter discussed in place after place [elsewhere in this treatise].

Briefly stated, there are eight categories involved in the arising of the moral precepts, four arising from association with the body and four arising from association with speech. Those arising from association with the body are the abandonment of taking life, the abandonment of inflicting torment and suffering on beings, the abandonment of stealing, and the abandonment of sexual misconduct. Those associated with the mouth are the abandonment of lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and scattered or inappropriate speech. These are the eight.

These eight categories of moral precepts arise by taking them on [as ongoing obligations]. These dharmas associated with taking them on, when separately distinguished in terms of taking them on physically, taking them on verbally, and taking them on mentally result in a combined total of twenty-four subcategories. When further considered in terms of the twenty-four associated with [the injunction against] instructing others [to commit any of these transgressions], the twenty-four associated with [the injunction against] rejoicing in [transgressions directly committed by others], and the twenty-four associated with [the injunction against] carrying them out oneself, this results in a total of ninety-six, all of which occur in connection with the desire realm. These [moral precepts] arise commencing with this very day and night. How is this the case? After the initial mental moment of taking on [the obligation imposed by the moral precept] has expired, throughout the entire day 298

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and night, during the second [and all subsequent] mental moments thereafter [the force of that moral precept] constantly arises.

One's use of the associated merit is also just the same. How is this the case? After the initial mind-moment associated with an act of giving expires, beginning with the second mind-moment, as one uses [this merit], it is constantly produced.254 This is the nature of the process as it occurs in association with good physical karmic actions. There are those [instances of the arising of the moral precepts] that are subsumed within the ten courses of good karmic action and those that are not subsumed therein. This is the situation as it occurs in connection with the desire realm.

As for those [instances of the arising of moral precepts] that occur in connection with the form realm, there are two kinds: first, those [moral precepts] arising from association with the body, and second, those [moral precepts] arising from association with speech. As for those arising from association with the body, this refers to the abandonment of karmic offenses not subsumed among the ten courses of bad karmic action.255 In the case of those [moral precepts] arising from association with speech, this refers to the abandonment of scattered or inappropriate speech.256 Taking on this moral precept involves taking it on physically, taking it on verbally, and taking it on mentally. Taking all of these categories into account, this amounts to two times three, a subtotal of six.

Similarly, there are thus also another six associated with the injunction against instructing others [to carry out any given karmic transgression], another six associated with [the injunction against] rejoicing [in transgressions committed by others], and another six associated with [the injunction against] carrying out [any given transgression] oneself. This yields in total four times six, for a net total of twenty-four. When these are added to the previously cited ninety-six, this brings the grand total to one hundred and twenty. In much the same fashion, moral precepts also arise in association with the character of one's actions. Thus there is also an arising of moral precepts at the time one attains the realization of the path and there is also an arising of moral precepts at the time one retreats from the path. So too, there may also be an arising of moral precepts in association with one's first taking on birth. 299

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Because this subject [of the arising of moral precepts] is so very expansive in its scope, we now only present this condensed explanation. As for the powers associated with the moral precepts, as growth occurs in the corresponding pāramitā, one's practice of moral virtue becomes ever stronger. Also, in direct correlation with whichever of the grounds one has entered, there will also be a corresponding enhancement in the solidity of one's practice of moral virtue and hence also in the powers associated with it. As for the purification of the moral precepts, not damaging or destroying moral precepts, not allowing deficiencies or diminishment in their practice, and so forth—these are all just as previously explained. Additionally, the characteristic features of purity or impurity in one's practice of moral virtue correspond to their treatment in the dharma of the seven types of brahmacarya.257 As related in the sutras, it is by virtue of seven manifestations of sexual desire258 that the moral virtue [of one who practices brahmacarya] is impure, namely:

First, although one may indeed have cut off sexual relations, with a defiled mind, one might nonetheless still accept either bathing or massage performed by a woman;

Second, with a defiled mind, one might smell the perfume of a woman, engage in conversation with her, or participate in mutual joking with her;

Third, with a defiled mind, one might engage in mutual gazing with her; Fourth, even though there might be a physical barrier separating one from a woman, with a defiled mind, he might still listen to her voice;

Fifth, one might have earlier talked and joked with a woman and later, even though separate from her, he might still recall that experience, being unable to let it go;

Sixth, one has restricted oneself from sexual relations [only] for a particular period of time, after which one will indulge in it again later on;259

Seventh, someone might temporarily cut off all sexual relations, doing so hoping that he will thereby be reborn in the heavens and enjoy sexual pleasures there together with celestial maidens while also gaining wealth and pleasure in future lives.

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Therefore, [in cases such as these, even though] one has cut off sexual relations, these are still instances of impurity [in moral virtue]. Apart from these seven types of situations, [the practice of brahmacarya] does constitute purity in the practice of moral virtue.

Regarding distinctions in moral virtue, a twofold distinction consists of, first, that characterized by the presence of the contaminants, and second, that characterized by the absence of the contaminants.

A threefold distinction consists of that connected with the desire realm, that connected with the form realm, and that with no connections [anywhere in the three realms].

A fourfold distinction consists of two types of right speech and right karmic action subsumed within right livelihood together with a different two types of right speech and right karmic action not subsumed within right livelihood. A fivefold distinction consists of the common person's moral virtue, a bodhisattva's moral virtue, a śrāvaka disciple's moral virtue, a pratyekabuddha's moral virtue, and the unsurpassable moral virtue of a buddha. A sixfold distinction consists of:

First, desire realm [moral virtue] of body and speech subsumed within right livelihood;

Second, [desire realm moral virtue of body and speech] not subsumable within right livelihood;

Third, form realm [moral virtue] of body and speech subsumed within right livelihood;

Fourth, [form realm moral virtue of body and speech] not subsumable within right livelihood;

Fifth, [moral virtue] of body and speech that is free of the contaminants and which is subsumed within right livelihood;

Sixth, [moral virtue of body and speech that is free of the contaminants] but not subsumed within right livelihood.

A sevenfold distinction consists of the seven [physical and verbal] courses of good karmic action.

An eightfold distinction consists of the previously mentioned eight [types of arising of moral virtue] consisting of those four associated with the body and those four associated with speech.

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A ninefold distinction consists of the seven [physical and verbal] courses of good karmic action in addition to the twofold distinction [according to presence or absence of the contaminants] cited earlier. A tenfold distinction consists of three types of moral virtue associated with the path, three types of antidotal moral virtue, and three types of simple moral virtue. These nine types are all free of the contaminants. With the addition of moral virtue involving the contaminants, the total number of types comes to ten.

So it is that we have all these many different categories of moral virtue. Question: The śrāvaka disciple vehicle claims that karmic actions of body and speech are the bases of śīla, moral virtue. Where these two consist of good karmic actions, they are deemed to be good. Where these two consist of bad karmic actions, they are deemed to be bad. Thus they hold that good karmic actions of body and speech constitute [the practice of] śīla. Does this treatise take these to constitute śīla or does it instead take śīla to involve some other additional factor?

Response:

It is not merely karmic actions of body and speech

that constitute śīla.

Cultivation, close personal engagement, and delight in practice also constitute what is meant by śīla.

These three factors each contribute to the meaning of this single concept: cultivation, close personal engagement, and delight in practice. Question: If one takes cultivation, close personal engagement, and delight in practice as [also] determining what is meant by śīla, then all dharmas could be considered as associated with śīla. How so? Because they may all be associated with constant cultivation, close personal engagement, and delight in practice. Therefore, you should explain what constitutes the supreme cultivation of śīla. Response:

If it is based on the nonexistence of "I" and "mine,"

the renunciation of conceptual elaboration,

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and realizes nothing at all is apprehensible as [inherently existent], then this is what is meant by śīla.

If one does not know the true character of all inward and outward dharmas, then, because one may generate arrogance and clinging attachment due to one's attachment to śīla, one may thereby open the door to all sorts of karmic offenses. Therefore, if one does not perceive any self among the inward dharmas, does not perceive anything belonging to a self among the outward dharmas, if one realizes that all these inward and outward dharmas are ultimately empty and devoid of anything that is apprehensible, and if one also refrains from conceptual elaboration seizing on any characteristics in what is ultimately empty, then this is what constitutes the supreme [practice of] śīla. And why is this so? In śīla such as this, there is not even the slightest mental error, how much the less could there be any [error in the actions] of either body or speech? Therefore, the buddhas and the bodhisattvas are those who are foremost in their ability to practice śīla, for they do not apprehend any [inherent existence] in any dharma. This is what constitutes the supreme practice of śīla. As related in the Kāśyapa Sutra, the Buddha told Kāśyapa:260 Śīla refers to the nonexistence of self, to the nonexistence of nonself, to the nonexistence of doing, to the nonexistence of anything that is done, to the nonexistence of a doer, to the nonexistence of practice, to the nonexistence of non-practice, to the nonexistence of name, to the nonexistence of form, to the nonexistence of characteristics, and to the nonexistence of the absence of characteristics. There is neither goodness nor nongoodness. There is neither quiescent cessation nor nonexistence of quiescent cessation. There is no grasping and no relinquishing. There are no beings and no causes and conditions for the existence of any being. There is no body, no speech, and no mind, no world, no worldly dharmas, no reliance on the world. There is no elevation of oneself by virtue of one's śīla, no belittling of others because of [their absence of] śīla, no development of overweening pride because of one's śīla, and no distinguishing between this one and that one because of śīla.

Kāśyapa, this is what constitutes the śīla of all worthies and āryas, the śīla that has gone beyond the three realms, that is free of all contaminants, and that retains no connections [anywhere within the three realms]. 303

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This also accords with Akṣayamati Bodhisattva's statement to Śāriputra in the chapter on śīla:261

Śīla refers to not making any discriminating assertion claiming the existence of any being. One does not claim that any self exists, does not claim that anyone possessed of a soul or anyone possessed of a life exists. One does not claim that there is any person, does not claim that there is anyone who has been raised up, does not claim that there is any form aggregate or any feeling, perception, formative factor, or consciousness aggregate. One does not claim that there exists any earth element or any water, fire, or wind element;

Śīla refers to not discriminating the existence of any eye characteristic, to not discriminating the existence of any visual form characteristic, to not discriminating the existence of any ear characteristic, any sound characteristic, any nose characteristic, any smell characteristic, any tongue characteristic, any flavor characteristic, any body characteristic, any characteristic of tangible objects, any mind characteristic, or any characteristic of dharmas as objects of mind;

Śīla refers to not discriminating the existence of body, speech, or mind; Because śīla involves maintaining a focused mind, it is therefore characterized by singlemindedness; Because it involves skillful selection among dharmas, it is therefore characterized by wisdom;

Śīla refers to arriving at emptiness, to reaching the ultimate limit of signlessness that does not involve any admixture with the three realms of existence, and to wishlessness, nonarising, and the unproduced-dharmas patience;

Śīla refers to not coming forth from the past, not going forth to the future, and not abiding between them, either;

Śīla refers to not dwelling in the conjunction of mind faculty, mind consciousness, and thoughts [as objects of mind];

Śīla refers to not relying on the desire realm, to not relying on the form realm, and to not relying on the formless realm;

Śīla refers to abandoning the dust of greed, to ridding oneself of the defilement of hatred, to extinguishing the darkness of ignorance, to not 304

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falling into either eternalism or annihilationism, and to not contradicting production as characterized by [the conjunction of] multiple conditions; Śīla refers to abandoning the conception of a self, to relinquishing the conception of anything belonging to a self, and to not dwelling in the view of a real self in association with the body;

Śīla refers to not being attached to designations and characteristics being incompatible with name and form;262

Śīla refers to not being under the direction of any of the fetters; [Śīla refers to] not being overpowered by any of the obsessions; [Śīla refers to] not abiding in any of the hindering doubts or regrets; Śīla refers to not abiding in roots of bad action associated with greed, to transcending roots of bad action associated with hatred, and to severing roots of bad action associated with delusion;

Śīla refers to the happiness of the delighted mind free of anxiety and free of mental fever;

Śīla refers to not destroying the Dharma body, this through not severing the lineage of the buddhas, to not severing the lineage of the Dharma, this through not making discriminations regarding the nature of dharmas, and to not severing the lineage of the Sangha, this through being characterized by [cultivation of] the unconditioned.263 Śāriputra, this is what is meant by the supreme and unsurpassed śīla of bodhisattvas. Śīla of this sort is inexhaustible. With the sole additional exception of the buddhas, śīla [as practiced by all others] is in every case exhaustible.

This is as stated herein:

Beginning with the śīla of the common person

and ending with that practiced by a pratyekabuddha, all of these are characterized by exhaustibility.

It is only that of bodhisattvas that is inexhaustible. Even though all of the śīla practice coming forth from the common person results in their long-enduring enjoyment of its karmic fruits, it is all finally completely exhausted. Even all śīla ever practiced by all arhats and pratyekabuddhas is finally exhausted as well.

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However, because the bodhisattva's practice of śīla is based on the realization of the nonexistence of a self or anything belonging to a self, on the abandonment of the idea that any dharma can be apprehended at all, and on the extinguishing of all conceptual elaboration, it is therefore utterly inexhaustible. This is as described by Akṣayamati Bodhisattva in the chapter on śīla:264 Because [the karmic fruits of] the śīla practiced by common people come to an end in accordance with the stations of rebirth into which they are reborn, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted. Because the five spiritual powers acquired by non-Buddhist practitioners come to an end when they regress, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted. Because [the karmic fruits of] the ten courses of good karmic action as practiced by humans are exhaustible, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted.

Because the merit of the devas in the desire realm is exhaustible, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted. Because the four dhyānas and the four immeasurable minds as practiced by devas in the form realm are exhaustible, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted. Because the stations into which the devas of the formless realm may be reborn in accordance with their meditative absorptions are exhaustible, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla become exhausted.

Because learners and those beyond learning [in the śrāvaka disciple vehicle] come to an end with their entry into nirvana, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla are exhaustible. Because the pratyekabuddhas do not possess the great compassion, [the karmic fruits of] their śīla are exhaustible. Venerable Śāriputra, only the śīla of bodhisattvas is inexhaustible. Why? It is from the bodhisattva's practice of śīla that there emerge all the different manifestations of śīla. Because those karmic causes are inexhaustible, the associated karmic fruits are also inexhaustible. Because the śīla of bodhisattvas is inexhaustible, the śīla of the tathāgatas is also inexhaustible. As a consequence, the śīla as practiced by all these great men is inexhaustible.

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śrāvaka disciples, there are eight kinds of śīla, four arising in association with the body and four arising in association with speech. How is there no contradiction between these [two different ways of enumerating the types of śīla]?

Response: They are not mutually contradictory. How is this so? Although [those aspects] are not the very essence of śīla, because they are beneficial, they are referred to as its aspects. As for those eight kinds of physical and verbal karmic actions, those do constitute the essence of śīla.

Although those sixty-five aspects do not constitute the very essence of śīla, because they are nonetheless beneficial to those eight relatively coarse categories of physical and verbal śīla, they are therefore referred to as aspects of śīla. In general, whatever is able to be of benefit [to this practice] is regarded as an aspect [of śīla]. This is analogous to the custom of referring to all the [monarch's] elephants, horses, feather fans, and canopies as aspects of kingship. Consequently, although the dhyāna absorptions, wisdom, and so forth are not themselves the very essence of śīla, because they are beneficial to the practice of śīla, they too are regarded as aspects of śīla. 307

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An Explanation of the

Dhūta Austerities

The bodhisattva practices the dharma of śīla in this way: 266 Having observed its ten benefits, one should wear the two and six types of robes in accordance with that dharma. Additionally, due to having observed its ten benefits, one should obtain food on the almsround for one's entire life. Wishing to completely fulfill the practice of upholding the various categories of moral precepts and having observed that there are ten associated benefits from doing so, one should take up the practice of wearing the two types and the six types of robes. What are those ten benefits? They are: First, because this assists a sense of shame and a dread of blame; Second, because this allows one to protect oneself from cold, heat, mosquitoes, horseflies, and poisonous insects; Third, because this displays the proper deportment of a śramaṇa; Fourth, because, whenever devas or humans lay eyes on the Dharma robes, they are moved to respect and veneration comparable to what they would feel when coming upon a stupa or temple; Fifth, because one wears the dyed robes with the mind of renunciation and not out of some desire to wear what is considered fine; Sixth, because one wears the robes to accord with the ideal of quiescence and not to be ablaze with the fire of afflictions. Seventh, because when one wears the Dharma robes, if there is something bad in one's character, this is easy for others to observe. Eighth, because when one wears the Dharma robes, one requires no additional adornments;

Ninth, because in wearing the Dharma robes, one acts in accordance with the eightfold path of the āryas;

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Having observed these ten benefits, one should wear the two types of robes: First, robes contributed by a householder. Second, cast-off robes. As for the six types of robes, they are: First, kārpāsa (cotton) cloth robes. Second, kṣaumā (linen) cloth robes. Third, kauśeya (silk) cloth robes. Fourth, animal hair robes. Fifth, red hemp robes. Sixth, white hemp robes. As for, "having observed its ten benefits, one should obtain food on the almsround for one's entire life," [those ten benefits are:] First, what I obtain [on the almsround] is able to sustain my life is my own responsibility and no one else's;267

Second, [having reflected,] "May those beings who provide me with food be caused to find refuge in the Three Jewels," one may then go ahead and eat;

Third, [one reflects,] "Whenever someone provides me with food, I should bring forth a thought of compassion for them and resolve to be diligent in practicing vigor so they may abide well in their practice of giving." Having reflected thus, one may then eat; Fourth, this is a practice that accords with the instructions of the Buddha; Fifth, one is easily satisfied and easily nourished through this practice. Sixth, one practices a dharma that crushes potential arrogance; Seventh, this practice plants roots of goodness for gaining the invisible summit mark [of a buddha's body];

Eighth, by observing the practice of obtaining food on the almsround, others engaged in the cultivation of good dharmas will emulate my practice;

Ninth, through this practice one refrains from forming close ties with particular men or women, whether old or young;

Tenth, by practicing the strictly sequential method of obtaining food on the almsround, one develops a mind of uniformly equal regard for all beings that assists the acquisition of the knowledge of all modes. Although the Buddha did permit accepting invitations for meals, if one wishes to provide for one's own benefit

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one should not accept invitations for meals.

"One's own benefit" refers here to the ability to perfect [the cultivation of] all the pāramitās. "Benefiting others" refers here to teaching beings in such a way that one induces them to abide in [accordance with] the Three Jewels. A practitioner who acts accordingly will benefit himself while also benefiting others.

Because one has observed its ten benefits,

one never abandons residing in a solitary wilderness dwelling. In order to visit and console the sick, to listen to Dharma, or to provide teachings, one may then go to a temple. For the bhikṣu who has taken up the practice of dwelling in a forest hermitage, although it may increase many different sorts of meritorious qualities, generally speaking, it is due to seeing ten benefits from this that, for the rest of his life, he should never abandon this practice. What are the ten benefits? They are as follows:

First, one retains complete freedom to come and go at will; Second, one thus easily does away with conceptions of "I" and "mine"; Third, there is nothing to impede one's dwelling wherever one wishes; Fourth, one's mind increasingly delights in forest hermitage practice; Fifth, one's dwelling place conduces to but few wants and few responsibilities;

Sixth, for the sake of perfecting the meritorious qualities, one should give up any selfish cherishing for his own body or life;268 Seventh, one departs far from the boisterous chatter of the crowds; Eighth, even though one's practice is [devoted to perfecting] the meritorious qualities, one seeks no kindness in return; Ninth, it becomes easy to achieve singlemindedness in accordance with one's cultivation of dhyāna concentration; Tenth, through abiding in a solitary wilderness location, one easily develops unimpeded reflections.269

As for coming to the temple to visit and console the sick or for the other abovementioned reasons:

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one never abandons one's perception of emptiness and serenity. Although a bhikṣu may have taken on the dharma of lifetime forest hermitage dwelling, if situations emerge involving particular causes and conditions, he may then go and enter the stupa or temple, for the Dharma of the Buddha has both exceptions and restrictions in such cases. In this respect, it is not like the non-Buddhist approaches to forest hermitage dwelling. [This practice] is defined by always delighting in abiding in an empty and serenely quiet place. Hence one never relinquishes the perception of all dharmas as empty. This is because the very essence of all dharmas is that they are all ultimately empty [of any inherent existence of their own]. Question: What are the reasons for which one might come to the stupa or temple?

Response:

First, to provide for the care of the sick; Second, to seek medical supplies to treat one's own sickness; Third, for one who is sick to search for a physician to treat his illness; Fourth, to teach the Dharma to the sick;

Fifth, to teach the Dharma to the other bhikṣus; Sixth, to listen to teachings on Dharma;

Seventh, in order to pay respects and make offerings to greatly virtuous monastics;

Eighth, in order to provide for the needs of the ārya Sangha; Ninth, to study and recite profound scriptures; Tenth, to instruct others in the study of profound scriptures. There are reasons such as these that justify coming to the stupa or temple. One is vigorous in cultivating the various types of thought as one accords with the dharma of the forest hermitage. The bhikṣu who has been residing

in a forest hermitage abode

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in great courageousness in one's resolve to realize nonself, and in extinguishing every sort of fear.

Regarding the application of vigor in a forest hermitage, this is exemplified by the bhikṣu who, because he has cut off covetousness and does not cherish his body, life, or offerings, always strives with diligence and vigor both day and night as, for his entire life,270 he accords with forest hermitage practice, doing so with the same urgency one would feel in putting out a fire in one's own turban.

As for "[cultivating the various types of] thought," this refers to the thought of renunciation, the thought of non-ill will, and the thought of nonharming as well as to the other types of wholesome thought.271 Then again, this also refers to:

Cultivating mindfulness of the Buddha as the possessor of right and universal knowledge and as the most revered among all beings; Cultivating mindfulness of the Buddha's Dharma as well spoken; Cultivating mindfulness of his Sangha of disciples as according with right practice [of the path].

Furthermore, cultivating thought appropriate to dwelling in a forest hermitage refers as well to cultivating all of the various contemplative ideation that accords with emptiness, that accords with signlessness, and that accords with wishlessness.

Additionally, this refers to contemplative thought accordant with the four supreme bases [for the development of meritorious qualities] and concordant with the six pāramitās.

These are the various sorts of thought that are accordant with the dharma for abiding in a forest hermitage.

Then again, this is similar to what the Buddha told Ugra the Elder, when explaining the bodhisattva path practices of both laity and monastics:272 If a monastic bodhisattva takes on the dharma of forest hermitage practice, he should reflect in this manner: 313

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One must indeed accomplish one's purpose. Elder, what sorts of things constitute one's purpose? [They include the following:] 1. So that one's thoughts will not be scattered; 2. To acquire [consummate practice of] the dhāraṇīs; 3. To cultivate the mind of kindness;

4. To cultivate the mind of compassion;

5. To abide with sovereign mastery in the five types of spiritual superknowledges;

6. To completely fulfill the practice of the six pāramitās; 7. To avoid abandoning the resolve to realize all-knowledge; 8. To cultivate the knowledge of skillful means; 9. To attract beings [into the Dharma];

10. To facilitate beings' success [in cultivating the path]; 11. To avoid abandoning the four means of attraction; 12. To become ever mindful of the six objects of mindfulness;273 13. To avoid abandoning vigor in the acquisition of extensive learning; 14. To engage in correct contemplative analysis of dharmas; 15. To practice in accordance with right liberation; 16. To achieve the realization of the fruits [of the path]; 17. To abide in the right and definite position (samyaktva-niyāma); 18. To preserve and protect the Buddha's Dharma; 19. To abide in right views through faith in karmic retributions; 20. To abide in right intentional thought through abandoning all recollective and discriminating thought;

21. To abide in right speech through teaching Dharma for beings in accordance with their own resolute beliefs;

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Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities 22. To abide in right action through acting in ways that extinguish [bad] karma;

23. To abide in right livelihood through extinguishing affliction driven habitual karmic propensities;

24. To abide in right effort through striving for the attainment of the unsurpassed path;

25. To abide in right mindfulness through contemplation of dharmas that are not false;

26. To abide in right meditative concentration through the attainment of comprehensive wisdom;

27. To not be frightened by emptiness; 28. To not be made fearful by signlessness; 29. To not be overwhelmed by wishlessness; 30. To be guided by wisdom in taking on one's bodies; 31. To rely on the meaning, not merely on the words; 32. To rely on wisdom, not merely on consciousness; 33. To rely on sutras of ultimate meaning, not on sutras whose meaning is nonultimate;

34. To rely on Dharma, not on persons. Elder, it is [purposes] such as these that constitute the beneficial endeavors that the renunciant bodhisattva bhikṣu should bring forth. As for "according with the dharma of the forest hermitage," this refers to cultivation of the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, the heavenly ear, the heavenly eye, cognition of others' thoughts, cognition of past lives, the spiritual superknowledges, and so forth. As for "extinguishing every sort of fear," there are three reasons for this practitioner's ability to extinguish fear: First, because he sees that dharmas are characterized by nonexistence of self and the nonexistence of anything belonging to a self, he is therefore able to dispel fear;

Second, because he has the power of skillful means; Third, because he has the power of mental courage, he is able to dispel fear.

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Regarding this matter of "seeing the nonexistence of self and the nonexistence of anything belonging to a self," this is just as presented earlier, in the [third chapter's] treatment of the first ground, where ridding oneself of five kinds of fear was discussed.274

As for "the power of skillful means," in this treatise, it is mindfulness that rightly reflects upon karma and its retributions that constitutes the power of skillful means. One should reflect in this way, "All of the great kings may be deep in their palaces where their security is ensured by the fourfold elephant, cavalry, chariot, and infantry battalions that surround and serve them. Even so, once the karmic causes and conditions sustaining their rule finally come to an end, even they are compelled to undergo all of the different events that eventually bring about their ruin and anguish.

"Also, in the case of those who are protected by the causes and conditions of their karmic actions, even though they might travel a hazardous road, sail far out onto the waters of the great sea, or walk amid the ranks of battling armies, they will still remain entirely safe and free of any personal calamities. "Given the karmic causes and conditions established in my previous lives, no matter whether I reside in the village or in a forest hermitage, I will still definitely be compelled to undergo its karmic retribution." Having contemplated matters in this way, one thereby succeeds in extinguishing fear. Furthermore, one thinks, "If, to protect myself, I choose to go forth into the city or village, thus abandoning this living in a forest hermitage, there will be nothing there that is able to exceed the protection afforded me by good physical karmic actions, good verbal karmic actions, and good mental karmic actions."

This is just as told to King Prasenajit by the Buddha himself when he said:275

If a person practices good physical karmic actions, practices good verbal karmic actions, and practices good mental karmic actions, this is what affords a person the best personal protection. Were this person to claim of himself, "I am hereby well protected," this would indeed be a proclamation of the truth. Great King, even though this man would not be surrounded and guarded by the fourfold battalions of the army, he can still be regarded 316

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as being well protected. And why is this so? It is because this form of protection is inward protection, not mere outward protection. [Thus one may be moved to reflect,] "Therefore I do in fact qualify as personally well protected by virtue of my practice of good physical karmic actions, good verbal karmic actions, and good mental karmic actions." One may additionally reflect thus, "All of these birds, beasts, snakes, and such that abide in the vicinity of this forest hermitage—even without practicing good physical karmic actions, good verbal karmic actions, or good mental karmic actions, they are free of fear due to dwelling far from the village. How could one as knowledgeable as I fail to even match [the fearlessness of] these birds, beasts, and other creatures?" Through reflecting in these various ways, one does away with all of one's fears.

Additionally, by resorting to mindfulness of the Buddha, one can dispel all fear-inducing circumstances that may arise in a forest hermitage. As is stated in a sutra:276

When any of you bhikṣus are dwelling in a forest hermitage setting, whether beneath a tree, or in some empty building, it could happen that you might be overcome with fear, even to the point that your heart sinks and your hair stands on end. At just that very point, you should become mindful of me [by my ten names]: Thus Come One (Tathāgata), Worthy of Offerings (Arhat), Of Right and Universal Enlightenment (samyak-saṃbuddha), Perfect in the Clear Knowledges and Conduct (vidyā- caraṇa- saṃpanna), Well-Gone One (sugata), Knower of the Worlds (lokavid), Unsurpassed Tamer of Those to Be Tamed (anuttarā- puruṣa- damya- sārathi), Teacher of Devas and Humans (śāstā- deva- manuṣyāṇām), Enlightened One (Buddha), World-honored One (Bhagavat). When you become mindful in this way, your fear will immediately disappear.

As for "great courageousness," this refers to possessing resolve that is not timid or weak and which is decisive in seeking the path. This is as described here:

The bhikṣu who abides in the wilderness

should draw upon the power of courageous resolve

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II to extinguish all fears,

being mindful of the Buddha as the one who is fearless. In a case where someone has created karma and fears that he will be unable to escape [its retribution], even if he is not fearful, he will still not escape it. Hence, if one is fearful, then one loses his rightful benefit. Thus, if one realizes that he cannot avoid it, and yet allows this to destroy other benefits one might achieve, then one thereby involves himself in the affairs of petty men and engages in behavior a bhikṣu should never adopt. If one is to have something that one fears, then one should instead fear samsara.

All the various forms of fear

have this cycle of births and deaths as their cause. Therefore, one who practices the path

wishing to gain liberation from samsara

while also rescuing others

should not give rise to fear.

As stated by the Buddha in the Sutra on Abandoning Fear when discussing the dharma of fearfulness:277 In an instance where a śramaṇa or brahman is abiding in a forest hermitage, he should reflect as follows, "It is because of impure physical karma, because of impure verbal karma, because of impure mental karma, because of thoughts devoted to what is impure, because of elevating self and diminishing others, because of an indolent mind, because of false recollective thinking, because of an unconcentrated mind, and because of one's delusions that one is overcome by fear. And it is because of the very opposite qualities consisting of purity of physical karma and so forth that one then becomes free of fear."

Additionally, for the sake of the Elder Ugra, the Buddha said:278 318

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The monastic bodhisattva who resides in a forest hermitage should reflect thus, "For what purpose am I here?"

He should then immediately realize, "It is because of a desire to abandon fear that I have come here. Fear of what? It is fear of the many sorts of befuddling disturbances, fear of the chattering of crowds, fear of greed, hatred, and delusion, fear of arrogance, fear of anger and hostility, fear of jealousy over offerings received by others, fear of visual forms, sounds, smells, tastes, touchables, fear of the māra of the five aggregates, fear of all circumstances involving delusion-induced obstacles, fear of untimely speech, fear of claiming to have seen what one has not seen, fear of claiming to have heard what one has not heard, fear of claiming to have awakened when one has not yet awakened, fear of claiming to know what one does not know, fear of the śramaṇa's defilements, fear of mutual detestation, fear of all the places of rebirth throughout the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm, and fear of falling into the hell realms, the animal realms, the hungry ghost realms, or any of the other difficulties.279 To state it briefly, it is because of fear of all evil and unwholesome dharmas that I have come to abide here.

"If one lives as a householder, delights in its many sorts of commotion, does not cultivate the path, and abides in wrong thought, he will not be able to achieve emancipation from such points of fear as these. "There were the bodhisattvas of the past, all of whom resided in a forest hermitage, abandoned all fears, reached the state of fearlessness, and gained all-knowledge. So too, all bodhisattvas of the future shall also dwell in a forest hermitage, abandon all fears, and gain all-knowledge. All of the bodhisattvas of the present also undertake the practice of residing in a forest hermitage and thereby abandon all fears, reach the station of fearlessness, and gain all-knowledge.

"Therefore, given that I fear all of these sorts of bad circumstances, in order to transcend all fears, I too should take up the practice of abiding in a forest hermitage dwelling.

"Furthermore, all fears arise due to attachment to a self, due to affection for and acceptance of a self, due to the conception of a self, due to 319

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the perception of a self, due to esteeming a self, due to discriminations conceiving of a self, and due to protection of a self. "Were I to take up the practice of abiding in a forest hermitage dwelling but still fail to abandon this attachment to a self, then this would amount to abiding in a forest hermitage in vain."

Furthermore, Elder, whosoever perceives that there is anything at all that is apprehensible [as inherently existent] does not truly reside in a forest hermitage. Whosoever abides in the conception of a self or anything belonging to a self does not truly reside in a forest hermitage. Whosoever abides in thoughts affected by the inverted views does not truly abide in a forest hermitage.

Elder, so it goes even up to the point that, not even one who conceives of nirvana [as inherently existent] truly abides in a forest hermitage, how much the less could it be that someone who conceives of afflictions [as inherently existent] truly abides in a forest hermitage. Elder, just as the grass and trees in the vicinity of a forest hermitage are entirely free of fear, so too is the bodhisattva. When abiding in a forest hermitage, one should envision oneself as like the grass and trees, envision oneself as like stones or tiles, envision oneself as like a reflection in a pool of water, and envision oneself as like a mere image in a mirror. One should imagine speech to be merely echoes and should imagine one's thoughts to be like magical illusions. In any of this, who is it that could possibly be frightened? And who is it that could be struck with fear? The bodhisattva then undertakes right contemplation of the body, observing the nonexistence of self and the nonexistence of anything belonging to a self. He observes that there is no being, no one possessed of a soul, no one possessed of a life, no one who has been raised up, no one identifiable as male, no one identifiable as female, no knower, and no perceiver. Fear itself is but a product of false discriminations. Thus one reflects, "Then I should not simply follow along with false discriminations." In just this way, the bodhisattva should be just like the grass or trees as he abides in a forest hermitage. He should also be aware that all dharmas are also just like this.

It is the cutting off of all forms of struggle and disputation that truly qualifies as abiding within a forest hermitage. It is the nonexistence of self, 320

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the nonexistence of anything belonging to a self, and the not belonging to anything at all that truly qualify as the bases of abiding in a forest hermitage. One should not delight in the many sorts of noisy dwelling places of either householders or monastics. The buddhas do not permit a bhikṣu dwelling in a forest hermitage to abide together with either a householder or a monastic. Question: Did the Buddha forbid one to gather together with anyone else in the community?

Response: No. He did not.

The Buddha permitted meeting with others in four circumstances but did not permit it otherwise.

Therefore one should draw close [to others] in those situations, while still abiding well apart in other circumstances. Thus the bodhisattva who abides in a forest hermitage is permitted to join in four types of assemblies. Specifically, he may enter assemblies gathered to hear the teaching of Dharma, may enter assemblies to teach beings, may enter assemblies to make offerings to the Buddha, and may enter assemblies gathered to prevent abandoning the resolve to gain all-knowledge. Therefore one is only permitted to gather together with others in these four circumstances. [The bhikṣu dwelling in a forest hermitage] should not draw close to others in other circumstances.

Additionally, the bodhisattva should reflect in this manner, "How should I establishing a forest hermitage dwelling that is closely adherent to those permitted by all buddhas? Could it perhaps be that this is not actually a forest hermitage dwelling and that I merely suppose it to be a forest hermitage dwelling? Could I perhaps be mistaken about the meaning of this?" Question: What then are the aspects of a forest hermitage dwelling that a bodhisattva should know?280

Response: In the sutras, the Buddha himself declared:

Abiding in a forest hermitage refers to not abiding in any dharma, to not taking refuge in any of the sense objects, to not seizing on any mark of any dharma, and to not coveting any visual forms, sounds, smells, tastes, or tangible objects;

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Abiding in a forest hermitage refers to dwelling in a manner wherein one has nothing upon which one relies, this because [one realizes that] all dharmas are uniformly equal;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner free of contradictions because of the goodness of one's own mind; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to dwelling in a manner whereby one relinquishes all the burdens and abides in delighted happiness; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner whereby one becomes liberated from all afflictions and one becomes free of all fears; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to dwelling in a manner whereby one crosses beyond the floods;281

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in the lineage bases of the āryas;282

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to being satisfied with what one obtains in the course of things;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to dwelling in a way that one is easily satisfied, easily supported, and inclined to but few wants; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner whereby one achieves the fulfillment of wisdom;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner whereby one rightly practices [what one has acquired through] extensive learning; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to directly manifesting the realization of the emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness gates to liberation; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner wherein one severs all the bonds and gains liberation;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner that accords with the twelvefold chain of causation;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner whereby one reaches the state of ultimate quiescence in which one has already done what is to be done;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abiding in a manner compliant with all classes of moral precepts, compliant with all types of practice assisting acquisition of the meditative absorptions, compliant with all types of practice beneficial to wisdom, compliant with all types of practice that facilitate easy achievement of liberation, compliant with 322

Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities all classes of practice facilitating easy acquisition of the knowledge and vision of liberation, compliant with whatever practices facilitate easy practice of the dharmas conducive to realization of bodhi, and compliant with whatever is able to conduce to accumulating all meritorious qualities associated with the dhūta austerities;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to achieving a penetrating comprehension of the truths; Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to seeing and knowing the aggregates;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to [realizing that] the nature of all things is identical to the nature of dharmas;283 Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to abandoning the twelve sense bases;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to never forgetting one's resolve to attain bodhi;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to contemplating emptiness without being frightened by it;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to being able to protect and preserve the Buddha's Dharma;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to [practicing in a manner whereby] one who seeks liberation does not err with regard to the meritorious qualities;

Dwelling in a forest hermitage refers to [practicing in a manner whereby], if one is a person capable of gaining all-knowledge, he will thus achieve increased benefit.

If a bodhisattva dwelling in a forest hermitage is able to practice in this way, he will swiftly achieve complete fulfillment of the six perfections. How might this be so?

If a bodhisattva abiding in a forest hermitage does not have a selfish cherishing even for his own body or life, this is the practice of dāna-pāramitā, the perfection of giving;

If he maintains purity in the three kinds of good karmic actions and enters the refined practice of the dhūta austerities, this is the practice of śīla-pāramitā, the perfection of moral virtue; 323

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II If he does not generate any hatred toward any other beings but rather extends a mind of universally inclusive kindness to all of them, and if he only accepts and delights in the vehicle of all-knowledge and no other vehicle, this is the practice of kṣānti-pāramitā, the perfection of patience;

If he makes the solemn personal vow to abide in a forest hermitage and never leave this place so long as he has not yet rightly realized the [unproduced-]dharmas patience, this is the practice of vīryapāramitā, the perfection of vigor; If, having gained the dhyāna absorptions, his cultivation of roots of goodness is not done with an eye toward taking rebirth in the stations of rebirth to which they correspond,284 this is the practice of dhyāna-pāramitā, the perfection of dhyāna meditation; If one's person and the forest hermitage have become of the same suchness, if one's person and bodhi have become of the same suchness, and if these are all indistinguishable from ultimate reality, this is the practice of prajñā-pāramitā, the perfection of wisdom. The Buddha permitted those possessed of four dharmas to abide in a forest hermitage.

What then are those four dharmas? As the Buddha told the Elder [Ugra], they are:

First, extensive learning;

Second, thorough knowledge of the definitive meaning; Third, delight in the cultivation of right mindfulness; Fourth, practice accordant with the manner in which [the Dharma] was taught.

People of this sort should take up the practice of dwelling in a forest hermitage.

Additionally, there are bodhisattvas whose afflictions are deep and dense. If such a person abides in the midst of noisy crowds, he will bring forth yet more afflictions. Therefore he should dwell in a forest hermitage in order to subdue afflictions.

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Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities Then again, there are bodhisattvas who have acquired the five spiritual superknowledges. Because these practitioners may wish to teach devas, dragons, yakṣas, or gandharvas and assist their success [on the path], they should dwell in a forest hermitage.

Yet again, there are bodhisattvas who think thus, "Dwelling in a forest hermitage is the circumstance praised and permitted by all buddhas." Moreover, dwelling in a forest hermitage assists the fulfillment of all good dharmas and increases roots of goodness. Afterward, one may then enter the village and teach Dharma for the welfare of beings. If one's intention is to develop such meritorious qualities, one may then dwell in a forest hermitage. Also:

In the Sutra of the Resolute King,

The Buddha told Ānanda:

"The bhikṣu who dwells in a forest hermitage

should dwell in four fourfold dharmas."

A bodhisattva who wishes to abide in a forest hermitage [may do so for these purposes]:

First, to depart far from both laypeople and monastics; Second, out of a wish to study and recite profound scriptures; Third, as a means of leading forth other beings, thereby influencing them to develop the meritorious qualities arising from dwelling in a forest hermitage;

Fourth, to engage in uninterrupted day and night practice of mindfulness of the Buddha.

There are another four dharmas:

First, one does not generate a thought of hatred toward other beings even for the duration of a finger snap;

Second, one should not allow drowsiness to blanket one's mind even for the briefest moment;

Third, one should not conceive of [an inherently existent] being even for the briefest moment;

Fourth, one should not forget one's resolve to attain bodhi even for the briefest moment.

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There are yet four more dharmas:

First, one should always engage in quiet sitting [meditation] and refrain from joining together with groups;

Second, one should always delight in meditative walking; Third, one always contemplates all dharmas without any conception of their being either new or old;

Fourth, one should never depart from the profound dharmas of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. Again, there are four additional dharmas:

First, one cultivates the four dhyānas but does not cultivate worldly dhyāna meditation. Thus, in one's cultivation of the four immeasurable minds, one brings forth thoughts of compassion focusing on beings as the objective condition, but without seizing on any mark [of the existence] of any being;

Second, although one cultivates the [immeasurable] mind of kindness, one does not perceive any [inherently existent] being as the object. Although one cultivates the [immeasurable] mind of sympathetic joy, one does not crave happiness [for oneself]. And, although one cultivates the [immeasurable] mind of equanimity, one never forsakes any being; Third, although one may perceive oneself as compliant with the four lineage bases of the āryas, one does not take that as a basis for elevating oneself and looking down on others; Fourth, one personally engages in the accumulation of extensive learning while also practicing in accordance with what one has learned. These are the [four sets of] four dharmas [as presented in that scripture]. There is an additional related topic, as below: One who has no wisdom and has no vigor

and yet dwells alone in an isolated place

then acquires four dharmas

and also acquires yet another four dharmas.

He also encounters three additional situations. Circumstances such as these are as described by the Buddha. 326

Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities Of all the meritorious qualities, the bhikṣu who dwells in a forest hermitage should diligently cultivate these, [namely wisdom and vigor]. Why? Because, of all the meritorious qualities associated with a forest hermitage, it is these two factors that are able to generate all of the [other] meritorious qualities. If a bhikṣu were instead to give into delusion and indolence while abiding in a forest hermitage, he will acquire four wrong dharmas: First, he will spend much of his time sleeping;

Second, he will become much inclined to want offerings; Third, he will take advantage of these [special] circumstances285 to pretend to be extraordinary;

Fourth, he will become unhappy with dwelling in a forest hermitage. He will also acquire four additional dharmas:

First, he will develop overweening pride due to which he will think he has already attained what he has not yet attained; Second, he will come to abhor profound scriptures; Third, he will ruin [his ability to realize] the dharmas of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness;

Fourth, his mind will generate hatred for those who uphold the profound scriptures. There are three additional circumstances that might occur. If he abides in a forest hermitage while failing in vigor and having no wisdom, he may meet some woman and fall into behavior contrary to the Dharma due to which he either commits a saṃghāvaśeṣa offense, commits a grave offense, or transgresses against the moral precepts and returns to lay life.286 These are the three.

There are additional related topics, as below:

Extensive discussion of dharmas practiced in solitary wilderness life as well as the dharmas associated with the almsround and the virtues of practicing the other ten dhūta austerities— all of these should also be extensively explained. In the course of the preceding discussion, we have presented an extensive explanation of two of the twelve dhūta austerities.287 The meritorious 327

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II qualities of the other ten dhūta austerities should be similarly understood. How so? This is because these two practices have served to open the door into the other ten dhūta austerities. Thus the others may now be easily understood. As for those other ten dhūta austerities, they are: First, wearing robes made [only] of cast-off rags; Second, [taking one's daily meal in but] a single sitting; Third, always sitting, [even when sleeping];

Fourth, having taken the meal, not accepting food or drink at the wrong times;

Fifth, possessing only a single three-part set of robes; Sixth, wearing an animal hair robe;

Seventh, laying out one's sitting mat wherever one happens to be; Eighth, dwelling at the foot of a tree;

Ninth, dwelling out in the open;

Tenth, dwelling in a charnel field.

"Cast-off rag robes" refers to those that have been thrown away by others. After having accepted them, one then wears them. "Accepting" refers here to either mental or verbal assent.

"In but a single sitting" refers to taking one's meal at the first place one accepted it and then refraining from taking any further food [for that entire day].

"Always sitting" means one never lies down, even at night. "After the meal, refraining from any beverages" refers to not accepting any beverage at the wrong time,288 not even those made merely with crystalized sugar or other nutritional substances. "Possessing only the single set of three robes" means one only accepts that single set of three robes and does not collect any other clothing whatsoever. "Wearing an animal hair robe" refers to wearing a robe made of cloth woven from coarse animal hairs such as felt cloth or kambala (wool) cloth. "Laying out one's sitting mat wherever one happens to be" refers to simply going along with whatever sitting spot is available that does not involve causing someone else to get up and move.

"Dwelling at the foot of a tree" refers to delighting in dwelling out beneath the trees, never going into a sheltered location. 328

Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities "Dwelling out in the open" simply refers to living out on the open ground. "Dwelling in a charnel field" refers to always spending the night in the area where the dead bodies are cast off in order to accord with the mind of renunciation.

This is what is meant by the twelve dhūta austerities that facilitate purity in the observance of the moral precepts.

There are ten benefits from wearing cast-off rag robes, namely: First, one does not have to mix with the laity simply to acquire robes; Second, one need not appear to solicit robes simply to acquire clothing; Third, nor is one compelled to present the appearance of finding some expedient to discuss obtaining robes;

Fourth, one is not compelled to go off and search in the four directions in order to obtain robes;

Fifth, even if one does not obtain a robe, one is still free of distress; Sixth, even if one does obtain a robe, one is not elated; Seventh, worthless material is easily come by in a way that does not risk committing transgressions;

Eighth, this practice accords with the initially received explanation of the methods for obtaining the four requisites;289

Ninth, one thereby becomes just another one of those who wear coarse [and common] clothing;

Tenth, one thereby avoids becoming the object of others' covetousness. [Taking one's meal in but] a single sitting also has ten benefits, as follows: First, one does not experience the weariness and inconvenience of going off in search of a second meal;

Second, as a consequence, one accepts but little [food]; Third, there is none of the weariness and inconvenience entailed by what one would consume [by compelling others to provide additional meals]; Fourth, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience of readying oneself [for an additional meal];

Fifth, one adopts an approach to eating that is consistent with more refined practice;

Sixth, one eats only after one's previous meal has been entirely digested; 329

Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume II Seventh, one devotes less effort to fending off difficulties [associated with obtaining food];

Eighth, one has fewer illnesses;

Ninth, one's body feels lighter and more at ease; Tenth, one's experience of the body is pleasant. Always sitting [and never lying down to sleep] also has ten benefits, as follows:290

First, one does not seek physical pleasure; Second, one does not seek pleasure from sleeping; Third, one does seek pleasure from [good] bedding; Fourth, one is spared the aches associated with lying down on a sleeping mat;

Fifth, one does not pursue physical desires; Sixth, it becomes easy to achieve success in sitting in dhyāna meditation; Seventh, it becomes easy to study and recite scriptures; Eighth, one spends less time sleeping; Ninth, one's body feels light and rises easily; Tenth, one devotes but little mental effort to seeking sitting cushions, bedding, and clothing;

There are also ten benefits of refraining from accepting food or drink at the wrong time,291 after one has already eaten, as follows: First, one thereby avoids excessive eating; Second, one does not become full when eating; Third, one avoids desire for fine flavors; Fourth, one has fewer things one otherwise desires; Fifth, one has fewer interfering difficulties; Sixth, one has fewer illnesses;

Seventh, one easily feels full;

Eighth, one is easily supported;

Ninth, one is easily satisfied;

Tenth, one's body remains free of weariness when sitting in dhyāna meditation or studying scriptures. Possessing only the single three-part set of robes also has ten benefits, as follows:

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Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities First, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience associated with seeking robes beyond the single three-part set of robes; Second, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience of storing and protecting [additional clothing]; Third, one collects fewer things; Fourth, one is satisfied with whatever one is wearing; Fifth, this refines one's practice of the moral precepts; Sixth, one remains free of encumbrances when traveling; Seventh, one's body feels lighter and more at ease; Eighth, this practice accords with standards of practice for dwelling in a forest hermitage;

Ninth, no matter where one goes, one has nothing that one treasures; Tenth, one's practice accords with the path. Accepting robes made of animal hair also has ten benefits, as follows: First, one is a wearer of coarse clothes; Second, one seeks but little;

Third, one can sit down anywhere; Fourth, one can lie down anywhere; Fifth, it is easy to wash;

Sixth, it is easy to dye;

Seventh, it is seldom ruined by insects; Eighth, it is difficult to ruin;

Ninth, one has no need of any additional clothing; Tenth, one does not neglect one's pursuit of the path. Laying out one's sitting mat wherever one happens to be also has ten benefits, as follows:

First, one is spared the weariness and difficulty of seeking out a good monastic dwelling in which to live; Second, one is spared the weariness and difficulty of seeking out a good seat and bed;

Third, one avoids aggravating those of senior monastic rank; Fourth, one gives no cause for distress to those of junior monastic rank; Fifth, one has few wants;

Sixth, one has few tasks;

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Second, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience of seeking lodging;292

Third, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience of indulging one's own preferences;

Fourth, one is spared the weariness and inconvenience of appropriating things for one's own use;

Fifth, one does not even have an address;

Sixth, one has no disputes;

Seventh, one complies with the dharma regulating the four necessities; Eighth, one uses but little, uses only what is easily obtained, and avoids transgressions;

Ninth, one accords with correct cultivation of the path; Tenth, one need not practice amid the noisiness of groups. Dwelling in a charnel field also has ten benefits, as follows: First, one is always acquiring the perception of impermanence; Second, one is always acquiring the perception of death; Third, one is always acquiring the perception of the unloveliness [of the body];

Fourth, one is always acquiring the perception of the unenjoyability of all worldly existence;

Fifth, one is always developing renunciation of all who are dear to oneself;

Sixth, one is always attaining the mind of compassion; Seventh, one abandons all frivolous restlessness; Eighth, one's mind always abides in renunciation; Ninth, one remains diligent in the cultivation of vigor; Tenth, one is able to dispel all fears.

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Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities Dwelling out in the open also has ten benefits, as follows: First, one does not have to find a tree to dwell beneath; Second, one abandons everything one owns;

Third, one remains free of disputes;

Fourth, when going elsewhere, one has nothing one treasures; Fifth, one seldom indulges frivolous restlessness; Sixth, one is able to endure wind, rain, cold, heat, mosquitoes, horseflies, poisonous insects, and such;

Seventh, one remains unpierced by the thorn of noise;293 Eighth, one avoids arousing the hatred of other beings; Ninth, one is himself also able to enjoy freedom from sorrow and hostility;

Tenth, one is able to avoid places frequented by noisy crowds; As explained for the five types of solitary wilderness dweller, just so understand correctness in the other meritorious qualities. In instances where one is to study, recite, or teach others, one may leave one's solitary wilderness dwelling. There are five distinct categories of bhikṣus who dwell in a forest hermitage, namely: First, there are those who, with evil intentions, seek gain and offerings; Second, there are those who practice in a forest hermitage because of their own stupidity and dull faculties;

Third, there are those who establish a forest hermitage because they are insane, deluded, or deranged;

Fourth, there are those who establish a forest hermitage in order to practice the dhūta austerities;

Fifth, there are those who establish a forest hermitage because it is a practice praised by all buddhas, bodhisattvas, worthies, and āryas. Of these five categories of forest hermitage dwellers, those taking up the practice in order to cultivate the dhūta austerities and those taking up the practice because it has been praised by all buddhas, bodhisattvas, worthies, and āryas are both good, whereas the other three may be reprimanded. 333

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Just as with this fivefold distinction among those dwelling in a forest hermitage, so too should one distinguish and know [the differences among] the practitioners of the other eleven dhūta austerities. Question: The Buddha said that whosoever has taken up the practice of dwelling in a forest hermitage should never abandon it. If there are extenuating circumstances, is it or is it not permissible to abandon it? Response:

One may leave one's forest hermitage

in order to study or recite scriptures.

If a bhikṣu wishes to receive others' teachings on the study or recitation of the Dharma of the scriptures, or, alternatively, if he wishes to instruct others in such study or recitation, he may leave his forest hermitage and come into the stupa or temple. It is permissible to leave for these purposes. When teaching others in study and recitation,

one should not do so wishing to attract offerings or support. Rather, one should immediately bring to mind the Buddha, [thinking], "Even294 the Buddha had endeavors he was intent on accomplishing." When one emerges from his isolated forest hermitage to teach others in study and recitation, one should not do so seeking to attract respect or offerings of support. Rather, one should bring to mind the Buddha, thinking, "If even the Buddha295 had endeavors he was intent on accomplishing, how much the more should this be so for someone like me?" "Bringing to mind the Buddha" in this context refers to recalling that the Buddha is the Tathāgata, the One of Right and Universal Enlightenment, one to whom even the devas, dragons, spirits, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kiṃnaras, mahoragas, Śakra, ruler of the devas, the Four Heavenly Kings, humans, and nonhumans all make offerings, one who serves as the unsurpassable field of merit for all beings. [One recalls that] not even he seeks offerings or support from anyone. He just continues on in pursuing the endeavors he has taken up. [Thus one reflects:] "Now I am one who still does not know anything, one who is just a beginner in the training. How then could I be worthy to receive anyone's offerings?"

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Chapter 32. An Explanation of the Dhūta Austerities Additionally, one should reflect as follows:

I am the one who should be devoted

to making offerings to all beings,

for, rather than expecting them to make offerings,

I should be benefiting myself while also benefiting others. What then is meant by "benefiting oneself"? If one esteems the receiving of offerings [from others], then he loses the merit that would otherwise arise through giving the gift of Dharma. If, on the other hand, one refrains from esteeming the receiving of offerings, then one may acquire the meritorious qualities arising from giving the Dharma to others. What then is meant by "benefiting others"? If one esteems others' offerings and then teaches them to study and recite scriptures, they will then think, "The teacher instructs us only in order to gain worldly benefit for himself and not for the sake of the Dharma." If someone makes offerings to his spiritual teacher when under the influence of these sorts of thoughts, he will not reap a great amount of merit. If, on the other hand, he were to feel profound esteem for the teacher solely out of reverence for the Dharma, he would acquire an immense amount of merit. This is what constitutes "benefiting others." In one's striving to acquire wisdom from others,

one should not cherish even one's own body or life. If the practitioner wishes to seek wisdom from others, he should then be willing even to sacrifice his own body and life in this quest. "Sacrifice" means that for the sake of acquiring wisdom one is so diligent, vigorous, and reverently respectful of his spiritual teacher that he does not even cherish his own body and life.

Question: Why should one, in striving for wisdom, revere the spiritual teacher even to the point that one does not even cherish one's own body and life? Response:

If every one of his words and every one of his thoughts were to be accorded that very number of kalpas

during which one might bow in reverence to the spiritual teacher able to teach this treatise,

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as one also took care to avoid any flattering or devious thought, and, suffused with deep affection, [bowed in] reverence to him day and night without cease, [one should indeed wish to do so,] continuing on even to the end of just such a number of kalpas. [If one allotted a number of kalpas of devotion] corresponding to however many words are in the treatises taught by one's spiritual teacher in addition to however many thoughts he used in providing that instruction, and if the mind of the beneficiary of the teachings remained entirely free of any flattery and deviousness in his demonstrations of reverence performed without cherishing his own body and life, and if he carried on with that reverence day and night with earnestness that remained undiminished from beginning to end—although one might indeed carry through with just such devotion, one still would be unable to adequately repay the kindness of the spiritual teacher's benefiting one with the wisdom of this treatise. The disciple should therefore abandon any thoughts of flattery or deviousness, should not selfishly cherish his own body and life, and should crush any arrogance. Even were the teacher to slight him, his thoughts of reverence and affectionate regard should remain undiminished. Rather, he should bring forth thoughts of deep affection for him, should bring forth the most profoundly sincere reverence for him, should think of the spiritual teacher as he would his own parents, should think of him as a great teaching master, should think of him as his good spiritual guide, should think of him as someone able to do what is most difficult, and should realize that [the teacher's kindness] is something difficult to ever adequately repay. If one's spiritual teacher has already permitted them, then one should take up the tasks one usually does, for one does not need the teacher's [additional] permission to do so. If there are other tasks that arise, then one is to consult the teacher for his opinion, whereupon one performs the tasks accordingly. Thus one should also cherish and esteem whatever one's teacher cherishes and esteems.

One must not seek to reap any worldly advantage from one's relationship with one's spiritual teacher. One must not seek the teacher's praise and must also not seek name and fame [on account of that relationship]. Rather, one should seek only to obtain the Dharma jewel of wisdom. 336

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In the event the teacher makes some mistake, one should allow it to always remain a private matter. If the teacher has committed some infraction and it has come to light, one should use some expedient to conceal it. One should proclaim and make widely known the meritorious qualities possessed by one's teacher while also sincerely delighting in listening to, accepting, upholding, comprehending, contemplating, and practicing in accord with the import of his teachings.

As for striving to "benefit oneself and also benefit others," one must not become a mere straw disciple, must not become a disastrous disciple,296 must not become a defiled disciple, must not become a disciple who allows [the lineage to go to] ruin, and must not become a useless disciple. One must not allow oneself to fall into any such transgressions as these. One must abide solely within the dharma appropriate to a good disciple. One should make offerings to one's spiritual teacher. This is as described in the Pratyutpanna[-samādhi]-sūtra in which the Buddha told Bhadrapāla: If a bodhisattva wishes to acquire this samādhi, he should be diligent and vigorous in bringing forth thoughts of reverential esteem toward all his teachers, thoughts recognizing the rare good fortune to encounter them. In the case of those from whom one has received teachings personally spoken by them or those from whom one has obtained volumes of scriptural texts, one should express deeply sincere reverence for these teachers, regarding them as one would one's own parents, regarding them as one's good spiritual guides, and regarding them as great teaching masters. This is because they are able to teach Dharma such as this which is able to assist one's realization of bodhi.

Bhadrapāla, whether one strives to follow in the bodhisattva path or one seeks the way of a śrāvaka disciple, if one were to fail to bring forth thoughts of deep reverence for the teacher as the source of one's becoming able to study and recite this Dharma, if one were to fail to think of one's teacher as one would one's own parents, regarding him as one's good spiritual guide, and regarding him as a great teaching master, it would then be impossible for one to correctly understand297 this Dharma in such a way that it would not perish but rather would abide for a long time without disappearing.

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Why is this? Bhadrapāla, it is because of just such failure to accord reverence that the Buddha's Dharma disappears.

Therefore, Bhadrapāla, whether one strives to follow in the bodhisattva path or one seeks the way of a śrāvaka disciple, were one to bring forth thoughts of reverential respect for whoever one heard this Dharma from and whoever was the source of one's being able to study, recite, or write out this Dharma, bringing forth thoughts regarding him as one would one's own parents, regarding him as one's good spiritual guide, and regarding him as a great master of the teachings—if one were able to do that, then it is indeed possible that whatsoever one has studied, recited, and written out, and whatsoever one had not obtained but has now obtained might now be able to remain [in this world] for a long time. And why is this? Because it is due to having a mind of reverential respect that the Buddha's Dharma does not disappear. Therefore, Bhadrapāla, I am now telling you: One must bring forth thoughts of profound reverential respect toward teachers such as this, bringing forth thoughts regarding them as one would one's own parents, regarding them as good spiritual guides, and regarding them as great masters of the teachings. This being so, one is to comply with what I have herein instructed. 338