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Chapter 13: Distinctions with Regard to the Giving of Dharma

Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume I Additionally, it is for the sake of cutting off two types of dharmas that one should practice giving. What are those two? The first is miserliness and the second is covetousness. These two dharmas are the most extreme sorts of defilement that may sully one's practice of giving. Then again, it is for the sake of gaining two types of dharmas that one practices giving, namely the knowledge of cessation and also the knowledge of nonproduction.

Also, [giving is done] in order to increase three types of wisdom: First, the wisdom that serves to achieve self-benefit;203 Second, fundamental wisdom;

Third, the wisdom arising from extensive learning. There are yet others who say that one should give in order to bring about the increase of two dharmas: first, goodness; second, wisdom. To present a general summation here, the bodhisattva should engage in four kinds of giving in order to subsume within his practice all of the different types of good dharmas, as follows: First, giving that originates in a mind that perceives everyone as equal; Second, giving that transcends opposites;

Third, giving that is dedicated to attaining bodhi; Fourth, giving characterized by the presence of a thoroughly quiescent mind. It is in order to completely perfect dāna-pāramitā in this manner that the bodhisattva diligently practices the giving of material wealth. 218

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The bodhisattva should cultivate the giving of material wealth in the above-discussed manner and should also cultivate the giving of Dharma, doing so in accordance with this statement:

Of the many sorts of giving, the giving of Dharma is supreme. Thus the wise should cultivate its practice.

Of all of the kinds of giving, the foremost, the most superior, and the most sublime is the giving of Dharma. This is the type of giving that the wise should practice.

Question: Why do you say that [only] the wise should engage in the practice of giving Dharma?

Response: If those who are not wise pursue the giving of Dharma, they will set forth erroneous interpretations. By setting forth erroneous interpretations they will fail to benefit themselves and will also fail to benefit others. Question: What is meant here by "erroneous204 interpretations"? Response: When the Buddha was on the verge of entering nirvana, he told Ānanda:

From this day forward, one should rely upon the sutras. Do not rely on persons. Ānanda, what is meant by relying on the sutras and not relying on persons?205

If a bhikṣu comes and speaks thus, "In his presence, I have heard this from the Buddha, and in his presence, I have received this from the Buddha. It is Dharma, it is good, and it is as taught by the Buddha," neither accept nor reject the words of this bhikṣu but rather, having listened carefully, one should search for what has been said in the sutras and in the moral code.

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If it is not included in the sutras, is not included in the Vinaya, and it also contradicts the true character of dharmas,206 one should reply to this bhikṣu, saying, "Perhaps this dharma is one that was not spoken by the Buddha. Perhaps the Venerable One has mistakenly accepted it as such. Why? This dharma is not included in the sutras and is not included in the Vinaya, either. What's more, it contradicts the true character of dharmas. Therefore this is non-Dharma, not good, and not taught by the Buddha." Having realized this, one should then immediately reject this. Now suppose some other bhikṣu comes and speaks thus: "There is a large sangha in which I reside wherein there is a senior monk, one who understands the sutras and who is skillful in explaining the moral code. In his presence, I have heard this from him, and in his presence, I have received this from him. It is Dharma, it is good, and it is as taught by the Buddha."

Again, neither accept nor reject the words of this bhikṣu, but rather, having listened carefully, one should search for what he has said in the sutras and in the moral code. If it is not included in the sutras, is not included in the Vinaya, and it also contradicts the true character of dharmas, one should reply to this bhikṣu, saying, "Venerable One, that sangha of bhikṣus—regarding their understanding of the character of dharmas and the character of what constitutes goodness—perhaps they have spoken of these things in a manner that is contrary to Dharma and contrary to goodness. Perhaps the Venerable One has mistakenly accepted it. Why? This dharma is not included in the sutras and is not included in the Vinaya, either. What's more, it contradicts the true character of dharmas. Therefore this is non-Dharma, not good, and not spoken by the Buddha." Having realized this, one should then immediately reject this. Suppose yet another bhikṣu comes and speaks thus: "There are many bhikṣus where I abide who preserve the sutras, preserve the Vinaya, and preserve the mātṛkās.207 In their presence, I have heard this from them, and in their presence, I have accepted this from them. It is Dharma, it is good, and it is as taught by the Buddha."

Neither accept nor reject the words of this bhikṣu, but rather, having listened carefully, one should search in the sutras and in the moral code for what he has said. If it is not included in the sutras, is not included 220

Chapter 13. Distinctions with Regard to the Giving of Dharma in the Vinaya, and it also contradicts the true character of dharmas, one should reply to this bhikṣu, saying, "Venerable One, that sangha of bhikṣus—regarding their understanding of the character of dharmas and the character of what constitutes goodness—perhaps they have spoken of these things in a manner that is contrary to Dharma and contrary to goodness. Perhaps the Venerable One has mistakenly accepted it. Why? This dharma is not included in the sutras and is not included in the Vinaya, either. What's more, it contradicts the true character of dharmas. Therefore this is non-Dharma, not good, and not taught by the Buddha." Having realized this, one should then immediately reject this. Suppose yet another bhikṣu comes and speaks thus: "There is a senior bhikṣu where I abide, one who understands much, one who is aware of much, and one whom people revere. In his presence, I have heard this from him, and in his presence, I have received this from him. It is Dharma, it is good, and it is as taught by the Buddha." Neither accept nor reject the words of this bhikṣu, but rather, having listened carefully, one should search for what he has said in the sutras and in the moral code. If it is not included in the sutras, is not included in the Vinaya, and it also contradicts the true character of dharmas, one should reply to this bhikṣu, saying, "Venerable One, that sangha of bhikṣus— regarding their understanding of the character of dharmas and the character of what constitutes goodness—perhaps they have spoken of these things in a manner that is contrary to Dharma and contrary to goodness. Perhaps the Venerable One has mistakenly accepted it. Why? This dharma is not included in the sutras and is not included in the Vinaya, either. What's more, it contradicts the true character of dharmas. Therefore this is non-Dharma, not good, and not taught by the Buddha." Having realized this, one should then immediately reject this.

These four cases illustrate what is meant here by "erroneous interpretations." It is therefore said that the wise do not rely upon erroneous interpretations, but rather practice pristinely pure Dharma giving. Question: How is it that one knows the giving of Dharma is the foremost among all forms of giving?

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume I Response: The sutras state that there are two types of giving, the giving of material wealth and the giving of Dharma, and that, among those two types of giving, it is the giving of Dharma that is superior. Furthermore:

In the Sutra of the Resolute King,208

There are praises of Dharma giving's merit

And explanations of propriety in the speaking of Dharma. One should always cultivate and practice in accordance with these. If the bodhisattva wishes to bestow Dharma on beings, he should follow and cultivate in accordance with the passages in the Sutra of the Resolute King that praise the meritorious qualities possessed by a teacher of Dharma and that set forth the correct ceremonial procedures involved in speaking Dharma. It stipulates the following:

The speaker of Dharma should incorporate four dharmas in his practice. What are those four?

First, he is to be one possessed of vast and extensive learning while also being well able to bear in mind [the meaning of] all the phrases and passages [of the scripture at hand]; Second, he is to be resolutely and skillfully cognizant of the marks of production and extinction as they manifest in all worldly and world-transcending dharmas;

Third, having acquired the wisdom arising from dhyāna concentration, he accords with the Dharma set forth in the sutras while also remaining free of any contentiousness;

Fourth, neither adding anything to nor taking anything away [from the Dharma set forth in the sutras], he practices in accordance with what is proclaimed therein.

There are four additional dharmas that are to be observed when the speaker of Dharma occupies the lion throne. What are those four? First, when about to ascend to the high seat, one should first respectfully pay reverence to the great assembly in attendance and then afterward ascend to that seat;

Second, in audiences including women, one should contemplate impurity [of the body];

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Chapter 13. Distinctions with Regard to the Giving of Dharma Third, in one's deportment and bearing, one maintains the appearance of a great man. As one spreads forth the sound of Dharma, one's countenance appears harmonious and pleased, inspiring all in attendance to accept [one's words] with faith. One does not teach non-Buddhist scriptures and one's mind remains fearless; Fourth, in the face of harsh words and challenging questions, one should practice patience.

There are four additional dharmas pertaining to sitting in the high seat. What are those four?

First, one brings forth the motivation to be of abundant benefit to beings;

Second, one does not conceive of the idea of a self in connection with any being;

Third, one does not conceive of the words as synonymous with the dharmas [that they describe];

Fourth, one vows, "May any being who hears me speak on Dharma thereby gain irreversibility in the path to anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi." There are another four dharmas pertaining to sitting in the high seat. What are these four?

First, one is well able to abide securely within the gateway of dhāraṇī practice209 and in resolute faith in the Dharma; Second, one is skilled in realization of the pratyutpanna samādhi, diligent in the practice of vigor, and pure in observance of the moral precepts;

Third, one sees no happiness inhering in any place of rebirth, does not covet offerings, and does not seek to obtain any sort of karmic reward;

Fourth, one's mind is free of any doubt regarding the three gates to liberation.

Additionally:

One is well able to bring forth deep samādhis; One is completely adherent to the awesome deportment; One has a strong memory;

One's thoughts are imbued with stable wisdom; 223

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume I One refrains from joking and teasing; One refrains from acting with a frivolous demeanor; One refrains from shamelessness;

One refrains from falling into delusion and confusion; One's discourse remains free of error; One's sense faculties remain well-guarded; One does not covet fine flavors;

One is careful to maintain proper deportment with one's arms and legs;

One does not forget what one has chosen to bear in mind; One enjoys practicing the dhūta austerities;210 One is well able to make distinctions regarding worldly and world-transcending dharmas;

One's mind is free of doubts and regrets; One's discourse is inexhaustible in its phrasing and in its command of scriptural passages;

And one seeks to promote the security and benefit of the audience and also refrains from finding fault with them. If one is in possession of dharmas of this sort, then one should occupy the lion throne.

There are yet four more dharmas in this connection: First, one does not slight oneself;

Second, one does not slight audience members; Third, one does not slight the topic that is being discussed; Fourth, one does not [teach Dharma] for the sake of obtaining offerings or support.

[Nāgārjuna introduces another passage from scripture:] The Buddha spoke to Ānanda, saying, "On which dharmas should the speaker of Dharma speak? Ānanda, whichever dharma one may discuss— it cannot be demonstrated, it cannot be described, it is signless, and it is unconditioned."

"O Bhagavat, if this is the case, how can they be discussed?" "Ānanda, this Dharma is extremely profound. When the Tathāgata expounds [on Dharma], he uses an expedient device that involves four factors:

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Chapter 13. Distinctions with Regard to the Giving of Dharma First, the sound of his voice;

Second, names;

Third, verbal discourse;

Fourth, principles.

"Additionally, there are four causal circumstances associated with his speaking about the Dharma for others:

First, it is done for the sake of liberating beings who are amenable to being liberated;

Second, in doing so, he only deals in designations associated with forms, feelings, perceptions, formative factors, and consciousnesses; Third, he uses all sorts of phrases and sentences to benefit beings; Fourth, although, in speaking, he uses such names, [their referents] still cannot be apprehended.

"This is just as when there is a basin of clean, unsullied oil in which an observer can see an image of his own face. Ānanda, have you ever seen or heard of any wise man, virtuous woman, or disciple of an ārya who was able to claim, 'I have seen a real person right there in a basin of oil.'?" [Ānanda replied,] "O Bhagavat, I have neither heard nor seen any wise man, virtuous woman, or disciple of an ārya who has claimed, 'I have seen a real person in a basin of oil.' Why is that so? One who is wise would know ahead of time that even the basin of oil was not [intrinsically] existent. How much the less might he claim the existence of a person there. It is solely by resort to artificial naming that one may claim the existence of a basin of oil in which one sees a person's image." [The Buddha continued,] "Ānanda, the Tathāgata is just the same in this respect. It is only through reliance upon names that there is an artificial existence of anything of which he speaks. "Ānanda, there are four causes and conditions involved in the Tathāgata's speaking about the Dharma for others: When beings hear this, their minds experience peace and happiness and they plant the causes for attaining nirvana.

The sound of the Tathāgata's proclamation of Dharma pervades the worlds of the ten directions. When beings hear this, their minds are 225

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delighted, they abandon the wretched destinies, and they gain rebirth in Tuṣita Heaven.

In the sounds of the Tathāgata's voice, there is nothing that is either masculine or feminine. Men do not seize on any feminine aspects and women do not seize on any masculine aspects.

The sound of the Tathāgata's voice does not cause distress to beings nor does it interfere with [the correct representation of] any dharma. It is resorted to solely in order to make manifest the nature of the sounds."

The speaker of Dharma should practice in accord with these ideas [discussed above] and should perform the giving of Dharma in compliance with these practices. As for the karmic results that accrue to the giver and the receiver, these should be extensively discussed later on. 226

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The giving of material wealth and the giving of Dharma were already explained above. Now, we shall make further distinctions in this regard: The "white-robed ones," the householders,211

Should extensively practice the giving of material wealth. The dharmas associated with the rest of the good practices Shall now be explained as well.

Of these two types of giving, the householder should practice the giving of material wealth. Those who have left the home life should practice the giving of Dharma. Why is this? It is because, in the giving of Dharma, the layperson is unable to match those who have left the home life. This is because those who listen to and accept the Dharma have only shallow and scant faith in a householder's [ability to teach Dharma].

Moreover, whereas the householders possess greater resources of material wealth, it is the monastics who have studied, recited, and deeply understood the dharmas of the sutras to the point that, in the midst of assemblies, they are fearless in explaining them for others. The householders are unable to match them in this. Additionally, they do not match the monastics' ability to inspire a reverential frame of mind in the listener. Also, in instances where one might wish, through expounding the Dharma, to overcome [doubts in] the minds of others, [the householders] are unable to match the monastics. This is as described [in this verse]:

If one first cultivates the Dharma oneself

And then later engages in the teaching of others.

Then and only then can one utter these words:

"You should accord with what I myself practice."

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This is an endeavor that is fitting for those who have left the home life. It is not something that the householder carries out in practice. It is also said that:

If one personally practices what is not good,

How can one influence others to engage in goodness?

If one personally fails to attain quiescence,

How can one cause others to attain quiescence?

Hence, if one personally practices goodness,

One can influence others to practice goodness.

If one personally attains quiescence,

One can cause others to attain quiescence.

Good dharmas and quiescence are matters that should be practiced by those who have left the home life. Also, monastics have a superior ability to inspire reverence in those who listen to the Dharma.

Furthermore, if those who have left the home life practice the giving of material wealth, then this prevents their own development of the other forms of goodness. They are also thus prevented from practicing renunciation in a forest hermitage where they dwell off in a wilderness forest or marshland. If those who have left the home life take pleasure in the giving of material wealth, that will completely interfere with their pursuit of such cultivation. It is the nature of these sorts of endeavors that, if one practices the giving of material wealth, one must certainly go into the villages and involve oneself in the endeavors of the layperson. In such instances, there will be much talk.212

If one does not take up such work, then there will be no means by which one can obtain such material wealth. If one is involved in coming and going from the villages, then one will be exposed to seeing and hearing the sights and sounds therein. Thus one's sense faculties will become difficult to restrain and one will become prone to give rise to the three poisons.213 Moreover, one's mind will become only shallowly engaged in the practice of moral virtue, patience, vigor, dhyāna absorption, and wisdom.214 Also, when one takes up the endeavors of the laity, defilements arise in relation to offerings and support that entail the production of afflictions such 228

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as craving, anger, miserliness, and jealousy. It is solely by resort to the power of contemplative practice that one is able to restrain such mental inclinations. [Absent the power of such contemplative practice], those who are weak may fail to restrain themselves and may then go so far as to encounter death itself or a painful calamity comparable to death.

"Death" refers here to becoming so covetously attached to the objects of the five types of desire that one relinquishes the moral precepts and returns to the lay life. Or one may find one is even able to allow oneself to transgress the moral precepts and incur numerous grave offenses. This is what is meant by "encountering a painful calamity comparable to death."215 It is for these reasons that one praises the giving of Dharma as the province of those who have left the home life while praising the giving of material wealth as the province of the householder. This being so, there are extensive discussions of the householder bodhisattva's practice of giving material wealth.

The other sorts of good conduct should now be discussed. The bodhisattva who has brought forth the resolve [to attain buddhahood] should first take refuge in the Buddha, take refuge in the Dharma, and take refuge in the Sangha. The merit that is gained from taking the Three Refuges should then all be dedicated to the realization of anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. Additionally: Taking refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha

Is a matter that the bodhisattva should comprehend. The bodhisattva should understand well and in accordance with reality this matter of taking refuge in the Buddha, taking refuge in the Dharma, and taking refuge in the Sangha.

Question: What is meant by taking refuge in the Buddha? Response:

Do not relinquish the resolve to attain bodhi,

Do not damage the Dharma that one has received,

Do not abandon the mind of great compassion,

And do not covet other vehicles [to liberation].

If one acts in this fashion, then this is what is meant by Taking refuge in the Buddha in accordance with reality. 229

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"The resolve to attain bodhi" refers to bringing forth the determination to seek buddhahood without ever desisting from it, without ever letting it cease, and without ever relinquishing this determination. As for "do not damage the Dharma that one has received," this refers to the fact that the bodhisattvas have each taken on the practice of the moral precepts as components of the dharmas of goodness that they delight in. Consequently, there are circumstances where one particular practice should be taken up whereas yet another practice should be avoided. Thus, if a particular practice corresponds to any of the pāramitās, to any of the four bases of meritorious qualities,216 or to any of the many other different sorts of good dharmas such as these, for the sake of benefiting beings, one accepts and upholds it, cultivates it, and does not allow it to deteriorate or to become deficient. As for "the mind of great compassion," one wishes to liberate beings who are afflicted by suffering. In order to pursue the attainment of buddhahood, even in a dream, one never abandons the great compassion. As for "do not covet other vehicles [to liberation]," because one possesses a deep resolute faith in the path to buddhahood, one does seek to take up the vehicles of śrāvaka disciples or pratyekabuddhas.

One should realize that it is through the possession of dharmas such as these that one "takes refuge in the Buddha in accordance with reality." Question: What is meant by taking refuge in the Dharma? Response:

Draw close to those who speak the Dharma.

Singlemindedly listen to and accept the Dharma.

Be mindful of it, uphold it, and then expound upon it. This is what is meant by taking refuge in the Dharma. "Those who speak the Dharma" refers to those who explain, set forth, and proclaim the profound Dharma of the Buddha, offering instruction as to what is good and what is evil while also cutting away all one's doubts. One always repeatedly draws near to them, going forth to wherever they may dwell, making offerings and displaying reverential respect as one singlemindedly listens to and accepts [the Dharma]. One uses the power of memory to retain it and does not forget it. One reflects upon it, assesses it, and accords with its import.

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Afterward, one expounds upon it for others, doing so in a manner that accords with the way one has been led to understand it. Then one dedicates the merit arising from this gift of Dharma to the attainment of buddhahood. This is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Dharma." Question: What is meant by taking refuge in the Sangha? Response:

In the case of śrāvaka disciple practitioners

Who have not yet entered the Dharma position,217 Induce them to bring forth the unsurpassable resolve By which they are caused to acquire the ten powers of a buddha. One first uses the giving of material resources to attract them And afterward resorts to the giving of Dharma.

One maintains deep faith in the Sangha that attains four fruitions218 And does not discriminate among members of that noble community. One may strive to gain the śrāvaka disciples' meritorious qualities While still not opting for realization of their liberation. This is the meaning of taking refuge in the Sangha. Moreover, one should maintain mindfulness of three matters.219 "Śrāvaka disciple practitioners" refers to those who achieve success in the śrāvaka disciple vehicle. "Who have not yet entered the Dharma position" refers to those who have not yet reached the stage of absolute irreversibility on the śrāvaka disciple path. One may still influence such persons to bring forth the resolve to attain buddhahood so that they will then be able to acquire the ten powers.

In the case of those who have already entered the Dharma position, one can never influence them to bring forth the unsurpassable resolve. Even supposing that some of these were to be caused to bring forth such an aspiration, they would still not succeed [in bringing it to realization]. This is as stated by the venerable Subhūti in the [Mahā]prajñāpāramitā[-sūtra] where he said, "Those who have already entered the "right Dharma position" are unable to bring forth the unsurpassable resolve. Why is this the case? Such persons have already created an obstacle to further 231

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transmigration in samsara."220 Thus they will never again come and go within samsara.

[To induce those who have not yet entered the Dharma position] to bring forth the unsurpassable resolve, one first uses the giving of material resources. "To attract them" refers to giving them the requisites of robes, food and drink, bedding, and medicine in order to attract them. In the case of those who have left the home life, one attracts them by giving them robes, food and drink, bedding, medicines, and various incenses including unguent incenses. As for householders, one uses means of attraction that cause them to feel a sense of close friendship through which they tend to trust and accept one's words. Afterward, one engages in Dharma giving that causes them to gain the fruits of bringing forth the unsurpassable resolve. "Sangha" refers to those who have gained the four preliminary stages as well as those who have actually attained the four corresponding fruits [of the path].

"Community" refers to those who have taken on the characteristic features of the monastic in accordance with the Buddha's Dharma. They completely uphold the moral precepts, yet may not have attained the fruits [of the path] or the corresponding preliminary stages. One does not make discriminating distinctions among members of the sangha such as these. It is because they have abandoned the bondage of sensual desire that they are known as "noble" members of the sangha. They maintain resolute belief in emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness while still not indulging in conceptual elaboration rooted in the making of discriminating distinctions. When one relies on members of the sangha of this sort, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Sangha."

As for "One may strive to gain the meritorious qualities of the śrāvaka disciples while still not opting for realization of their liberation," one knows that these members of the sangha are accomplished in the upholding of the moral precepts, that they are accomplished in the dhyāna absorptions, that they are accomplished in wisdom, that they are accomplished in liberation, that they are accomplished in the knowledge and vision of liberation, that they possess the three clear knowledges and six superknowledges, that their minds have gained sovereign mastery, that they possess great awe-inspiring 232

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qualities, and that that they have forsaken the pleasures of the world and have escaped Māra's realms.221

One knows that they do not experience joy due to attaining profit, fine reputation, praise, or pleasure and that they do not experience distress due to loss, disrepute, derision, or pain.222 One knows that they always practice six kinds of equanimity223 and knows that they have gained the eight liberations in accordance with the Buddha's instructions.

One knows that there are those who practice the path, that there are those who have achieved liberation, that there are those who practice the singular path, that they have demolished the two kinds of afflictions,224 that they well understand the three realms of existence, that they have a well-developed penetrating understanding of the four truths, that they have thoroughly done away with the five hindrances,225 that they have come to peacefully abide in the six dharmas of harmony and respect, that they have become accomplished in seven dharmas of non-retreat,226 that they possess the eight realizations of great men, that they have abandoned the nine types of fetters, and that they have gained the ten powers of the śrāvaka disciples. It is those who have perfected meritorious qualities such as these who are referred to as the Buddha's śrāvaka disciple sangha. One may strive to acquire meritorious qualities such as these even as one still does not seek to attain their type of liberation. Why? This is because one maintains deep-seated aspirations and resolute belief227 in the unimpeded liberation of the Buddha.

This [preceding discussion explains] what is meant by "taking refuge in the Sangha."

Then again, if on hearing the passages, sentences and words of the Dharma, one immediately brings to mind the dharma of the true character [of dharmas],228 this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Dharma." If upon seeing a member of the śrāvaka disciple sangha, one immediately brings to mind the community of all bodhisattvas who have brought forth the resolve to attain bodhi, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Sangha." If on viewing an image of the Buddha, one immediately becomes mindful of the true Buddha, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Buddha."229 Question: What is meant by "mindfulness of the true Buddha"? 55b

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Response: This corresponds to the discussion of the meaning of the mindfulness of the Buddha samādhi as found in the Akṣayamati Bodhisattva Sutra, wherein it states:230

As for "mindfulness of the true Buddha," it is not based on physical form, is not based on characteristic signs, is not based on birth, is not based on caste,231 is not based on clan, is not based on the past, future, or present, and is not based on the five aggregates, the twelve sense bases, or the eighteen sense realms.

It is not based on seeing, hearing, sensing, or cognizing,232 is not based on the mind or the mind consciousness, is not based in practice associated with conceptual elaboration, is not based on production, extinction, or abiding, is not based on either grasping or relinquishing, is not based on bearing in mind discriminating distinctions, is not based on dharma characteristics, is not based on individual characteristics, is not based on a unitary characteristic, and is not based on differentiating characteristics. It is not based on the mental factors associated with the mind's cognition of objective phenomena,233 is not based on what is either inward or outward, is not based on any seizing on characteristics by either primary ideation (vitarka), or mental discursion (vicāra), is not based on either what is taken in or what is produced, is not based on physical appearances, is not based on any aspects of deportment that one might cultivate, is not based on moral precepts, dhyāna absorption, wisdom, liberation, or the knowledge and vision of liberation, and is not based on the ten powers, four fearlessnesses, or any other dharmas of the Buddha. As for "mindfulness of the Buddha that accords with reality," it is immeasurable, is inconceivable, has no practice, has no knowing, has no self or anything belonging to a self, has no recollection, and has nothing it bears in mind. It does not engage in discriminations regarding the five aggregates, the twelve sense bases, or the eighteen sense realms. It has no shape, is unobstructed, and has no initiation, no abiding, and no nonabiding. It does not abide in forms, and does not abide in feelings, perceptions, formative factors, or consciousness.

It does not abide in the eye or visual forms and does not abide in eye consciousness. It does not abide in the ear or sounds and does not abide 234

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in ear consciousness. It does not abide in the nose or fragrances and does not abide in olfactory consciousness. It does not abide in the tongue or flavors and does not abide in gustatory consciousness. It does not abide in the body or touchables and does not abide in tactile consciousness. It does not abide in the mind faculty or dharmas and does not abide in mind consciousness.

It does not abide in any objective conditions. It does not give rise to any characteristic signs. It does not involve the production of any movement of mind, of any recollective thought, of any discriminations, or of any other such phenomena. Nor does it involve the production of any seeing, hearing, sensing, or cognition.

It accords in its practice with all the characteristic features of right liberation. It does not involve any continuity of thought but does involve the cessation of all mental discriminations. It demolishes all forms of affection and anger.

It confutes (lit., "ruins") all normative characteristics of causality. It does away with [conceptions of what is temporally] past, future, or intermediate. It perceives with utter clarity the nonexistence of any [duality of] object and subject.

Because it is motionless, it is free of [any attraction to] joyfulness. Because it declines to indulge the delectable, it is free of [any attraction to] bliss.234

Because its fundamental character is that of quiescence, it remains free of the heat [of mental agitation].

Because the mind has no endeavors in which it is involved, it is liberated. Because appearances are devoid of any existent form, there is no body. Because one does not indulge them, there are no feelings. Because there are no perceptions, there are no fetters. Because there are no actions, there is nothing that one does. Because there is no knowing, there is no consciousness.235

Because there is no grasping, there is no engagement in actions. Because there is no relinquishing, it is not the case that one does not act. Because there is no dwelling [in any dharma], there is no abiding. Because it is empty [of inherent existence], there is no coming. Because there is no arising, there is no departing.

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Because one does not covet, does not become attached to, does not seize upon, does not indulge, does not "ignite," and does not extinguish any recollective thought, any mental dharmas or any other sort of dharmas, from the very beginning on forward to the present, there has never been any production [of dharmas] nor have there ever been any marks of their production. They are all entirely subsumed within the nature of dharmas that extends beyond the path [defined by the duality of] the eye, visual forms, and [their intervening] empty space.

Characteristics such as these define what is meant by "true mindfulness of the Buddha." Also, as for mindfulness of the Dharma, the Dharma of the Buddha is well spoken. One gains results from it in this very life. [Its benefits] are not limited to some fixed time. This is amenable to one's own contemplation and investigation. It is excellent in its ability to lead one to attainment of the path. It is such that the wise can inwardly realize. It is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. Its words are good. Its meaning is good. It is completely pure in its goodness and free of any admixture [with anything not good]. It is perfect in its purity.

It is able to cut off covetousness, able to cut of hatred, able to cut off delusion, able to do away with prideful thoughts, able to do away with all [erroneous] views, able to do away with doubt and regret, able to do away with arrogance, and able to do away with all craving.

It breaks [one's attachment to] whatever one is inclined to take refuge in. It cuts short the path of continuance [in samsara]. It puts an end to craving, leads to the abandonment of sensual desires, and leads to quiescence and nirvana.

Characteristics such as these illustrate what is meant by "mindfulness of the Dharma." [It is characterized] by emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. It is unproduced and undestroyed, ultimately quiescent, incomparable, and devoid of any [phenomenal] manifestation. These ideas are just as set forth in the discussion of the meaning of "mindfulness of the Buddha."236 Additionally, "mindfulness of the Dharma" is of three types. The descriptions from "the Dharma of the Buddha is well spoken" to "it is completely pure in its goodness" are all references to the path. From "it is able to cut off 236

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covetousness" to "it leads to quiescence and nirvana" are all references to nirvana. From "emptiness" and so forth on up to "incomparable, and devoid of any [phenomenal] manifestation," is all a reference to the very essence of the Dharma.

Also, regarding "mindfulness of the Sangha," this is as explained earlier in the discussion of the meritorious qualities of the Sangha. In one's mindfulness of these Three Jewels, one develops a definite resolve. When one uses such mindfulness as one strives to attain buddhahood and then takes up the practice of giving, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Buddha."

When one endeavors to preserve and protect the Dharma and thus takes up the practice of giving, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Dharma." When, based on this practice of giving, one dedicates the merit, resolving that, once one has realized buddhahood, one will bring together a sangha community consisting of both bodhisattvas and śrāvaka disciples, this is what is meant by "taking refuge in the Sangha."

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It is in this [above-discussed] manner that the lay bodhisattva becomes able to cultivate the karmic deeds of a good person while leaving far behind the karmic deeds of a bad person. In this connection, there is a verse: One cultivates and brings forth the karmic deeds of a good person, Accumulating wealth for one's use in a way consistent with Dharma. Whatever one is capable of, one takes that on as a grave duty. That of which one is not capable—one refrains from taking it on.237 As for "the karmic deeds of a good person," to sum it up, the karmic deeds of a good person involve abiding in what is good and beneficial for oneself while also being able to facilitate the benefit of others. As for the karmic deeds of a bad person, these bring about descent into decline and anguish for oneself while also bringing about decline and anguish in others.

"Accumulating wealth for one's own use in a way consistent with Dharma" refers to not killing, not stealing, and neither deceiving nor cheating others. One devotes one's energies to accumulating wealth and then puts it to use in a way that accords with the Dharma by making offerings to the Three Jewels, by rescuing those fallen into misfortune, by aiding the old and the sick, and by carrying out other such deeds.

Whatever one can take on and can adhere to in practice—one regards that as a grave responsibility. As for what one would be unable to adhere to in practice, one does not take that on.

As for the works of the bodhisattva, whether it be those of this life or those of future lives, whether it be those concerned with self-benefit or those concerned with benefiting others, these are as discussed earlier and they are endeavors that definitely must be brought to a state of successful completion. If there are endeavors that one realizes one cannot yet carry out in practice, then one does not take these on.

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Furthermore:

One neither sorrows nor rejoices over worldly dharmas. One is able to relinquish one's own benefit,

While always acting diligently for the benefit of others. Being deeply grateful for others' kindnesses, one repays them doubly. "Worldly dharmas" refers to profit and loss, ill repute and esteem, praise and blame, and pain and pleasure. One's mind remains free of any tendency to become either dejected or joyful in response to any of these dharmas. In "relinquishing one's own benefit," and "acting diligently for the benefit of others," the bodhisattva sets aside self-benefit to devote the good works he does to facilitating what is good for others, doing so even for those he has not yet befriended and even for those with whom he has no causal affinities. Question: As for [your recommending] "relinquishing self-benefit in order to work diligently for the benefit of others," this is wrong. As stated by the Buddha, "Although one might accomplish greatly beneficial works for others, one should not relinquish attention to one's own self-benefit." This idea is reminiscent of the saying that: "One may have to sacrifice a person for the success of a clan, may have to sacrifice a single clan for the success of a village, may have to sacrifice a village for the success of a country, may have to sacrifice a country for the success of oneself, or may have to sacrifice oneself for the sake of right Dharma." One first accomplishes self-benefit

And then, afterward, benefits others.

If one sacrifices self-benefit to benefit others,

Later on, one will experience sorrow and regret.

If one relinquishes self-benefit to benefit others

While thinking to oneself that this constitutes wisdom, This is something that in the context of the world

Amounts to the foremost sort of stupidity.

Response: Even from the worldly standpoint, seeking to bring about good for the benefit of others is regarded as good and as the mark of solid resolve. How much the more so is this true of the bodhisattva whose practice transcends 240

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worldly concerns. If one benefits others, that is just benefiting oneself. This is as described here:

Regarding matters pertaining to others, the bodhisattva Is neither inferior nor weak in the quality of his determination. For whoever has brought forth the resolve to attain bodhi, Benefit of others is just benefit of oneself.

The meaning of this has already been extensively discussed in the first chapter. Therefore, your statements on this matter are wrong. As for "being deeply grateful for others' kindnesses, one repays them doubly," whenever others do good things for the bodhisattva, he should repay them liberally and also be deeply grateful for their kindnesses. This is the mark of a good person. Additionally:

One gives wealth to the poor

And bestows fearlessness on the fearful.

One engages in meritorious deeds of these sorts

Until they become solidly and durably established. As for "giving wealth to the poor," there are those who, in previous lives, did not plant the causes of merit. Hence they now do not have the means to provide for their scarcity of life-sustaining necessities. As befits one's capacities, one gives aid to such people.

As for "bestowing fearlessness on the fearful," in all sorts of cases where beings are frightened, whether that be due to fear of enemies, fear of hunger, fear of floods, fire, cold, heat, or some other cause of fear—in the midst of these many fears, the bodhisattva instructs and guides these people, sees to their security and happiness, and thereby causes them to become free of fear. Meritorious qualities such as these [are caused to become] the most solid and enduring. Finally:

For those beset with sorrow, one strives to rid them of their sorrows. Regarding those lacking in strength, one practices patience and abandons arrogance, great arrogance, and so forth.238

One acts with deep reverence toward those who are venerable. One always draws close to those who are learned and consults with the wise on matters of good and evil.

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One always maintains right views with respect to one's own practice. In one's relations with beings, one does not flatter them, deceive them, or make false declarations of affection.

One is insatiable in quest of goodness and one pursues the acquisition of immeasurably vast learning.

All of one's endeavors are accomplished with solid resolve. One always carries on one's endeavors in the company of good people. One maintains a mind of great compassion toward those who are evil. Regarding both those who are good spiritual friends and those who are not good spiritual friends, one establishes a solid conception of them all as being one's good spiritual friends.

One maintains a mind of equal regard toward beings and refrains from stinginess in the dispensation of essential Dharma [teachings]. One expounds [the Dharma] for others in a manner consistent with what one has heard.

One realizes the import and flavor of all the Dharma teachings that one has heard.

Regarding the entertaining and pleasurable matters associated with the five types of desire, one contemplates them all as merely transitory. One contemplates having a spouse (lit., "wife") and children as comparable to abiding in the hells. One contemplates the things required to sustain one's life as a source of weariness and suffering.

One contemplates matters having to do with carrying on a business as freighted with worry and distress.

One contemplates whatever one might seek to obtain as tending to destroy one's roots of goodness.

One contemplates abiding in the life of a householder as comparable to living in a prison.

One contemplates relatives, clan, and friends as comparable to jailers. One contemplates one's persistent day-and-night thinking by inquiring, "What benefit is gained by this?"

One contemplates this non-enduring body as the basis for acquiring the body that does endure.239

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One contemplates wealth that is not durable as capable of bringing forth the wealth that does endure.240

Additionally:

One's mind should steadfastly abide in observance of The five moral precepts of the layperson's Dharma.

The lay bodhisattva who relies on the Three Refuges as he practices the above meritorious qualities should steadfastly abide in the five moral precepts. The five moral precepts constitute the comprehensively encompassing standard for the layperson's Dharma.

One should abandon all thoughts of killing and maintain compassionate pity for beings.

One should know when enough is enough and not covet the possessions of others even to the point where one will not even take a blade of grass that has not been given.

One abandons sexual misconduct and become weary of and averse to the affairs of one's private chambers. One guards against and distances oneself from any outside sensual involvements and so does not gaze at others inappropriately. One is ever mindful of the body as something productive of repulsive outflows and thereby brings forth thoughts of renunciation while also fully realizing that the five types of desire all ultimately conduce to suffering. If desire for one's spouse comes to mind, one should dispel and relinquish it. One should always contemplate the body's unloveliness241 and nurture a fear of becoming someone driven along by the fetters. Hence one should abandon desire and not be attached to its objects. Always remaining aware of the world as suffering and nonself, one should bring forth this prayerful aspiration: "Oh when will I finally succeed in no longer giving rise to thoughts of desire?" How much the less would one actually engage in such physical actions.

One abandons false speech, takes pleasure in speaking truthfully, and refrains from deceiving others. One's speech reflects what is known by the mind and one's thoughts are a reflection of serene wisdom. What one says to others accords with what one sees, hears, senses, and knows. One naturally abides in a way so determined by the Dharma that, even at the cost of one's life, one would not speak in ways that mislead others. 243

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Alcohol is the gateway to neglectfulness and a multitude of bad actions. One should always stay far from it and never let it pass one's lips. One will thereby refrain from acting crazy and deranged, will not become inebriated and confused, will not become agitated, will not become seized by fears, will not act shamelessly, and will not engage in inappropriate sorts of joking. Rather, one will always be able to singlemindedly distinguish between what is good and what is disgraceful.

Now, there may be times when this bodhisattva delights in giving everything and thus is moved to think, "To those who want food, I shall provide food, and for those who seek drink, I shall provide drink." If, as a consequence, one does provide alcohol, in doing so, one should reflect: "Now, this is an occasion in the practice of dāna-pāramitā when one gives whatever is sought. Later, I will use skillful expedients to teach and coax them into abandoning alcohol altogether and into developing the mindfulness and wisdom that shall cause them to refrain from any such negligence." Now, how can this be? It is because the essence of dāna-pāramitā lies in fulfilling the wishes of others. Hence, in circumstances of this sort, the lay bodhisattva's provision of alcoholic beverages does not constitute a karmic offense.242 One dedicates the merit from upholding the five moral precepts to one's future realization of anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. One guards and upholds the five precepts in the same manner that one would guard precious jewels and in the same manner that one protects one's own body and life. Question: Does this bodhisattva only observe these five moral precepts while not upholding any of the other sorts of good actions? Response:

The bodhisattva should steadfastly abide

In these five general moral precepts.

The other [wholesome] actions of body, speech, and mind Should all also be practiced as well.

We have already discussed the meaning of the layperson's five precepts. Having taken on these five moral precepts, one should steadfastly abide in their observance and, in addition, should cultivate the rest of the three 244

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types of good karmic deeds. Additionally, as for those dharmas that the lay bodhisattva should practice, [there are the following practices]: As befits those beings whom one should benefit,

One explains the Dharma and thus teaches and transforms them. This bodhisattva is able to give to all beings in ways appropriately addressing any deficiencies they may have. No matter what country one lives in and no matter whether one is in a city, in a village, in the forest, or beneath some tree, one explains Dharma and teaches the beings there in accordance with whatever might benefit them. As it is said, one explains dharmas conducive to faith for those bereft of faith, explains propriety in etiquette for those who are disrespectful, explains dharmas conducive to extensive learning for those deficient in learning, explains the dharma of giving for those who are miserly, explains the dharma of harmoniousness and patience for those who are full of hatred, explains the dharma of vigor for those who are indolent, explains the stations of right mindfulness for those of chaotic mind, and speaks in a way conducive to wisdom for those who are foolish or deluded. In addition:

In accordance with whatever one finds to be deficient, One should supply all such things in sufficient measure. All beings have that in which they are deficient. One should provide all such things in sufficient measure. There are those people who, although wealthy, still have ways in which they are deficient. This may even be true of kings, for they too should have those things in which they are deficient. Hence, even though it was previously explained that one bestows wealth on the poor, it is now further stated that one provides in sufficient measure whatever beings are deficient in. Additionally:

There are all manner of evil beings

Who, in various ways, bring about troublesome circumstances Through flattery, deviousness, or unbridled arrogance, Through cursing, slighting, cheating, or deceiving,

Or by turning their backs on kindnesses, leaving them unrequited. Though the stupid and the base are difficult to instruct and transform, 245

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume I Because the bodhisattva's mind feels pity and sadness for them, He valiantly redoubles his vigor [in teaching them]. Evil beings use many different sorts of evil behavior to attack and disturb the bodhisattva. Even in the midst of this, the bodhisattva's resolve does not withdraw in disgust. He should not think in these ways: Who would be able to train such evil people as these? Who would be able to instruct them?

Who would be able to exhort them, causing them to be liberated from samsara so that they might reach nirvana?

Who would be able to go and come in samsara in the company of such beings?

Who would be able to work together harmoniously with them? As for all these evil deeds and such unprincipled behavior, who would be able to endure it?

My resolve is exhausted. I cannot engage in joint endeavors with them anymore.

I am going to leave them all far behind and never again participate in joint endeavors with them.

What's more, I am unable to even remain together with them at all. These people, the most evil among the evil—there is no way I can have any interactions with them.

What is the use of any further involvement with people such as these? The bodhisattva knows and sees that it is difficult to rid beings of their evil karmic offenses. He should instead reflect in this manner: These sorts of evil people are not few. It is through the application of vigor that they may be influenced to abide in dharmas such as they will delight in. For their sakes, I should intensify my resolve and exert myself to the utmost in diligent practice. I should redouble my practice in a millionfold application of vigor so that, later on, I will acquire great powers by which I will then be able to transform through teaching these most evil among evil beings who are so very difficult to awaken. I should be like the great king of physicians who, by resorting to some small circumstantial method, can cure beings' severe illnesses.

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It is in this way that the bodhisattva does away with the disease of the afflictions and is then allowed to abide in whichever meritorious qualities he wishes. [He reflects:]

I should feel doubly strong pity for these extremely evil beings who are burdened by grave karmic offenses and so I should bring forth profoundly great compassion for them, doing so like that especially fine physician who is abundantly endowed with kindheartedness as he cures the many sorts of illnesses. For those who are seriously ill, he brings forth deep pity and then diligently invents skillful means by which he can seek out an especially fine medicine for them.

It is in this manner that the bodhisattva should feel pity for all beings beset by the disease of the afflictions. Thus, even for the most evil among the evil and those beset with the most serious afflictions, he still feels profound pity. Hence he is diligent in creating means through which, by intensifying his resolve, he is able to cure them. And why?

No matter where the bodhisattva abides,

If he fails to initiate the transformative teaching of beings, Thus allowing them to fall into the three wretched destinies, He is deeply deserving of the censure of the buddhas.

And so it is that the bodhisattva, no matter in what country he abides, and no matter whether he is in the city, a village, in the mountains, or beneath some tree—wherever he has the power through which to be able to benefit and teach beings—if he instead withdraws from them in disgust, resents their covetous attachment to the pleasures of the world, and thus becomes unable to initiate their transformative teaching, he thereby allows them to fall into the wretched destinies. This bodhisattva thereby becomes deeply deserving of the censure of all buddhas now abiding throughout the ten directions before whom he ought to feel deeply ashamed and embarrassed, [knowing that they would demand to know,] "Oh, how could you let such petty reasons cause you to abandon such a great endeavor?"

Therefore, if the bodhisattva does not wish to become someone deserving of the rebuke and censure of the buddhas, even when faced with all sorts of deceitful and extremely evil beings, he should not let his resolve sink away. 247

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Rather he should benefit them in whatever way suits his power to help them. He should use all manner of expedient means and diligent resolve to begin their transformative teaching.

In this respect, he is like a brave military general. If the general's troops encounter catastrophic losses, he is the one who will then be severely reprimanded by the king. Since the soldiers themselves had no way of knowing [how to avoid this defeat], the king would not reprimand them. 248

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On Realizing the Faults of

the Householder's Life

As the bodhisattva trains in this manner, he should know the serious faults of the householder's life. Why? If he knows those serious faults, he might then abandon the householder's life and enter the path. Moreover, he might then be able to instruct others, make them aware of the faults of the household life, and thereby inspire them to leave the home life and enter the path. Question: What are the faults of the householder's life? Response: As stated in a sutra where the Buddha informed Ugradatta:243 The home life destroys all roots of goodness. The household is a deep forest of thorns from which it is difficult to escape. The household is a circumstance that destroys the dharmas of purity. The household is the dwelling place of all manner of bad ideation and discursion.244 The household is the dwelling place of the foolish common person245 unrestrained in corrupt and evil actions. The household is the place in which one dwells when carrying out every sort of unwholesome endeavor. The household is the gathering place of bad people. The household is the dwelling place of greed, hatred, and delusion. The household is the dwelling place of all forms of suffering. The household is the place where one entirely uses up all the roots of goodness established in previous lives. When the foolish common person abides in this household, he does what should not be done, says what should not be said, and practices what should not be practiced. When he dwells herein, he slights his parents as well as his teachers and elders. He does not respect the venerable fields of merit, the śramaṇas, or the brahmans.

The life of the householder involves causes and conditions conducing to craving, sorrow, grief, suffering, afflictions, and the many sorts of tribulations. The home life is the circumstance in which one encounters 249

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the sufferings of harsh speech and scolding, wherein one becomes vulnerable to blades and cudgels, to being bound up and imprisoned, to being beaten, or to being subjected to [punitive] amputations.246 One fails to plant whichever roots of goodness one has not yet planted and those roots of goodness one has already planted become vulnerable to destruction. [The householder's life] is able to cause the common person involved in these desire-related causal circumstances to fall into the wretched destinies. Causal circumstances related to hatred or delusion may also precipitate descent into the wretched destinies. [So, too], causal circumstances related to fearfulness may result in one's falling into the wretched destinies.247 The householder's life is a circumstance in which one does not maintain the aggregate (skandha) of the moral precepts, abandons the aggregate of meditative absorption, does not contemplate the aggregate of wisdom, does not acquire the aggregate of the liberations, and does not bring forth the aggregate of the knowledge and vision of liberation. One is born into this householder's life, a circumstance in which parents lovingly dote on their sons, and in which one indulges affection for one's wife and children, for one's retinue, and even for one's carriages and horses. This situation encourages the proliferation of desires to the point where they become insatiable.

[The desires associated with] the householder's life are as difficult to fulfill as the ocean is as it swallows up every tributary that flows into it. [The desires associated with] the household are as insatiable as a fire in its burning up of firewood.

The life of the householder involves ceaseless ideation and mental discursiveness that are just as continuous as the winds that blow through empty space.

The life of the householder conduces to misfortune in one's future existences just as surely as does delectable food laced with poison [surely leads to one's death].

The life of the householder, by its very nature, is linked to suffering and, in that, it is comparable to having enemies posing as close relations. Being a householder is an obstruction, for it is able to block one's access to the path of the āryas.

250

Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life The householder's life is beset with discord arising from disputation and many different causes and conditions involving mutual opposition and conflict.

The householder's life involves much hatred associated with scolding and much censure over what is desirable versus what is detestable. The household is impermanent. Even though it may have endured for a long time, it is bound for destruction.

The household is beset by many forms of suffering as one strives to acquire clothing, food, and so forth and then does whatever is necessary to preserve and protect them.

The householder's life is a circumstance involving much mutual doubting, just as when abiding in close proximity to thieves. One's household is not intrinsically "mine." It is solely through inverted views and covetous attachment that, by resort to conventional designations, one claims "it exists."

The circumstance of the householder is like that of an actor who, although he may use all different sorts of makeup and costumes to present the appearance of a member of the aristocracy, before long, in but an instant, all of those adornments disappear and he resumes his role as someone who is poor and of inferior social status.248 The household is ever-changing. Once its components have come together, they are bound to fall apart and disperse. A household is like a magical conjuration. It depends upon the mere aggregation of components and thus is devoid of any reality. The household is like a dream. After a while, all of one's wealth and high social status are bound to be lost.

The household is like the morning dew. After a short while, it disappears entirely. [The happiness derived from] the householder's life is like a mere drop of honey. Its flavor is extremely weak.

The household is like a thicket of thorns. As a person enjoys the taste of the objects of the five types of desire, poisonous piercings inflict injuries. The household is analogous to a needle-beaked insect. Unwholesome ideation and discursive thought always gnaw at and consume the people within it.

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Nāgārjuna's Treatise on the Ten Grounds, Volume I Life as a householder sullies the purity of one's life. One becomes predisposed by it to engage in much cheating and deception. The life of a householder is plagued by anxiety and worries. Thus one's mind is often muddled and confused.

The house becomes the common property of many others and it is vulnerable to destruction by [agents of] the king, thieves, floods, fires, and evil relatives.

The householder's life is freighted with many defects. It involves the commission of numerous erroneous actions. This being the case, an elder who is a lay bodhisattvas should well realize the faults of the householder's life.

Next we have:

The bodhisattva should know

The serious faults of the householder's life. He should draw close to the practice of giving And skillfulness in observing moral precepts, delighting in these. Whenever one sees any almsman,

He should bring forth five threefold contemplations. The lay bodhisattva should know in this way the tribulations of the householder's life. He should adopt in practice the excellence of giving and observance of moral precepts. "Giving" refers here to relinquishing the covetous mind. "Observing moral precepts" refers to purity of physical and verbal actions. "Skillfulness" refers to skillful restraint of the sense faculties. "Delighting in these" refers to like-mindedness and exultant happiness [in the adoption of these practices].

"Five threefold contemplations" refers to five different threefold contemplations one should take up whenever encountering an almsman. The first of the threefold contemplations is as follows: Contemplating [the almsman] as a good spiritual guide.249 Contemplating [the acquisition of] great wealth in future lives.250 Contemplating [one's giving] as assisting the realization of bodhi.251 There is yet another threefold contemplation, as follows: Contemplating the conquering of miserliness. 252

Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life Contemplating the relinquishing of everything. Contemplating striving for the acquisition of all-knowledge.252 There is yet another threefold contemplation, as follows: Contemplating in accordance with the teachings of the Tathāgata. Contemplating refraining from seeking any karmic result.253 Contemplating the defeat of Māra.254

There is yet another threefold contemplation, as follows: Contemplating those who come for alms as one's own retinue.255 Contemplating the importance of not abandoning the dharmas comprising "the means of attraction."256

Contemplating the relinquishing of what has been wrongfully acquired. There is yet another threefold contemplation, as follows: Contemplating dispassion.257

Contemplating the cultivation of kindness. Contemplating nondelusion.

We should now explain this fifth of these five threefold contemplations: Because an almsman has come, a bodhisattva may be able to diminish the three poisons. Through relinquishing some possession as a gift one may thereby bringing forth the contemplation of dispassion.258 Through providing causes and conditions for the happiness of the supplicant, one's thoughts of hatred become but scant. This is cultivation of the contemplation of kindness.

If the [merit from] this act of giving is dedicated to success in the unsurpassable path, this diminishes one's deluded mind states. This is the contemplation of nondelusion. One should understand the meaning of the other contemplations in accordance with the above explanations. Furthermore:

It is because of the almsman

That the bodhisattva perfects the six pāramitās. For this reason, one should feel great joy On seeing someone who has come to seek alms. 253

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The six pāramitās consist of giving, moral virtue, patience, vigor, dhyāna concentration, and wisdom. It is because of the almsman that one becomes able to bring them to a state of completion. It is because he gains such benefit that, whenever a bodhisattva sees from afar that a supplicant is coming, his mind is filled with great delight and he thinks, "A walking field of merit has arrived here of his own accord. It is because of just such people as these that I shall be able to perfect the six pāramitās." Now, how might this be so? [Consider the following:]

When one's mind feels no miserly cherishing for the object one gives, this is dāna-pāramitā, [the perfection of giving].

When one gives for the sake of attaining anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi, [utmost, right, and perfect enlightenment], this is an instance of practicing śīla-pāramitā, [the perfection of moral virtue].259

When one is able to refrain from feeling hatred toward the mendicant, this is an instance of practicing kṣānti-pāramitā, [the perfection of patience]. When, as one is carrying out the act of giving, one refrains from reflecting on one's own resulting material scarcity while also not retreating from one's resolve, this is an instance of practicing vīrya-pāramitā, [the perfection of vigor].260

If, in giving to an almsman, at that very time when one is presenting the gift, one's mind remains fixed [in its resolve] and does not entertain any regretfulness, this is an instance of practicing dhyānapāramitā, [the perfection of meditative concentration]. By not apprehending [any inherent existence in] any dharma as one carries out an act of giving, by not seeking any karmic reward from it, and by remaining free of any attachment in this, thereby doing so after the manner of a worthy or an ārya,261 when one then dedicates that act of giving to anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi, one's giving then becomes an instance of practicing prajñā-pāramitā, [the perfection of wisdom]. Furthermore:

As for the karmic results ensuing from giving the gift, He is able to know all of its various forms.

He also knows the various faults associated with

Keeping it at home due to miserliness.

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Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life As for the merit acquired from the giving of the gift that has been given as well as all the serious faults associated with keeping the gift due to miserliness, the bodhisattva completely comprehends all of these matters. Question: If one gives it, what sort of merit is gained by that? And if one instead keeps it at home, what fault or blame is there in that? Response: The bodhisattva uses true wisdom to understand this matter in the following manner, [reflecting:]

After this gift has been given away, it is still mine [in terms of its ongoing karmic rewards]. However, if it is instead kept at home, it is not [rightfully] mine. Once the gift has been given, it endures.262 However, if it is instead kept at home, it will not endure.263

After the gift has been given, future-life happiness will follow from that. However, if it is instead kept at home, it will provide happiness only for a brief period of time.

Once the gift has been given away, there is no longer any need to be anxious about preserving and guarding it. However, if it is instead kept at home, one will continue to feel protective concern for it. If one has already given away the gift, one's thoughts of affection for it become scant. However, if it is instead kept at home, one increases one's affection for it.

Once the gift has been given, one becomes free of [any thought of it as] "mine." However, if it is instead kept at home, it is [still thought of as] "mine."

Once the gift has been given, there is no [conception of] anyone to whom it belongs. However, if it is instead kept at home, there is [the conception of] someone to whom it belongs.

Once the gift has been given, one is free of concerns about it. However, if it is instead kept at home, one entertains many fears about it. Once the gift has been given, it assists progress on the path to bodhi. However, if it is instead kept at home, it assists progress on the path of Māra.

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Once the gift has been given, [the benefit from having given it] is endless. However, if it is instead kept at home, it remains finite [in its capacity to provide benefit].

Once the gift has been given, one continues to experience happiness from it. However, if it is instead kept at home, one continues to experience suffering [from one's concerns about it].

Having given the gift, one relinquishes afflictions. However, if it is instead kept at home, it increases one's afflictions. Having given the gift, one gains great wealth and happiness. However, if it is instead kept at home, one does not gain great wealth and happiness. Having given the gift, one has done the deed of a great man. However, if it is instead kept at home, one has done the deed of a petty man. Having given the gift, one is praised by the buddhas. However, if it is instead kept at home, one is praised only by fools. Furthermore:

Regarding one's wife, sons, and retinue

As well as one's good spiritual friends,

One's giving of wealth, and one's animals, too—

One should contemplate them all as mere illusory conjurations. It is one's karma consisting of all of one's actions That serves as their conjuring magician.

Regarding his wife, children, and so forth, the householder bodhisattva should contemplate them as mere illusory conjurations. They are just like phenomena manifesting as illusory conjurations that merely deceive a person's eyes. It is the karma of one's actions that serves as their conjurer. As for phenomena such as one's wife, children, and so forth, they will all disappear before long. This is as explained in the sutras where the Buddha told the bhikṣus, "All of one's actions are like an illusory conjuration that deceives and deludes foolish people for there are no genuinely-existent phenomena present there at all." One should realize that it is because of karma that these phenomena exist. Once that karma has finally become exhausted, then they all disappear. Hence they are all like illusory conjurations. Thus one should reflect on them as follows:

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Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life I am not a possession of theirs,

Nor are they possessions of mine.

Those things and myself all belong to karma And exist in accordance with karmic causes and conditions. If one carries on right contemplation in this manner, One should not create any bad karma.

[The bodhisattva reflects in the following manner:] My father, mother, wife, children, relatives, fellow villagers, friends, slaves, maidservants, servant boys, guests, and such—none of them are able to save me, to be a refuge for me, or to serve as my ultimate resort. They are neither my self nor a possession of my self. Not even the five aggregates, twelve sense bases, or eighteen sense fields constitute either a self or anything that is owned by a self. How much the less could this be so in the case of my parents, my wife, my children, or those other individuals?

Neither am I capable of serving as a savior for them, of serving as a refuge for them, or of serving as an ultimate resort for them. I too belong to my own karma and am thereby bound to accord with my karma in what I experience. They too belong to their own karma and are thereby bound to accord with their karma in what they experience. [In this connection, regarding this matter of experiencing] good and bad karmic retributions, there are three bases for evaluating and assessing [this idea]:

First, it has meaningful significance.

Second, we see this in the sutras' explanations. Third, we see this in presently manifest circumstances. [This being the case], one should not perform even the slightest bad physical, verbal, or mental karmic deed [even when it is done] for the sake of one's parents, wife, or children.

Furthermore:

Regarding a spouse,264 the bodhisattva

Should bring forth three threefold contemplations 257

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In addition to which there are another three that are threefold, After which there are yet more sets of three that are threefold as well.265

The lay bodhisattva should take up the threefold contemplations, as below.266

The first three are as follows: One's spouse is impermanent, bound to be lost, and bound for destruction.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is a companion for enjoyment and laughter now, but not a companion in future lives, a companion with whom to share meals, but not a companion in the undergoing of karmic retributions, and is a companion in times of happiness, but not a companion in [future] times of suffering.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is an object for the contemplation of the body as unlovely,267 as malodorous and filled with filth, and as loathsome.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as an adversary, as a source of injurious anguish, and as one who stands in mutual opposition [to one's aims].

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a rākṣasa, a piśācī, and as physically ugly.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a cause for falling into the hells, as a cause for falling into the animal realm, and as a cause for falling into the realm of hungry ghosts. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a heavy burden, as a cause of decline, and as fearsome. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as not-self, as of no certain loyalty, and as merely borrowed. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as the cause for generating bad physical karma, as the cause for generating bad verbal karma, and as the cause for generating bad mental karma. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as the basis for thoughts of lust, as the basis for thoughts of hatred, and as the basis for thoughts of annoyance.

There are three more contemplations:268 One's spouse is to be contemplated as manacles, as chains, and as a cangue. 258

Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as an obstacle to maintaining the moral precepts, as an obstacle to dhyāna concentration, and as an obstacle to wisdom.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a deep pit, as a net trap, and as a corral trap.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a natural disaster, as a plague, and as causing the anguish of decline. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as associated with karmic offenses, as a black-eared kite,269 and as a disastrous hailstorm. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as symbolic of illness, as symbolic of aging, and as symbolic of death. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as Māra, as the abode of Māra, and as fearsome.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as emblematic of worry, as emblematic of anguish, and as emblematic of weeping.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a large jackal or wolf, as a makara sea monster, and as a huge leopard. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a black venomous serpent, as the Sakhalin sturgeon,270 and as the force of violent pillaging.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as not a savior, as not a refuge, and as not a shelter. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as associated with failure, as associated with retreat, and as associated with physical exhaustion.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a thief, as a jailer, and as one of the minions in hell. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as detention, as bondage, and as a fetter.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as like mire, as like a flood, and as like being adrift. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as fetters, as a lock, and as glue.

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There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as a fierce conflagration, as a spinning wheel of knives, and as a flaming torch.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as of no benefit, as a thicket of thorns, and as noxious poison. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as on a burial mound, as obscuring radiance, and as symbolic of desirous attachment.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as symbolic of resentment, as symbolic of whips and cudgels, and as symbolic of swords and lances. There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as symbolic of rage, as symbolic of disputatiousness, and as symbolic of being beaten with a cudgel.

There are three more contemplations: One's spouse is to be contemplated as symbolic of proximity to what one detests, as symbolic of separation from what one loves, and as symbolic of quarrelsomeness.

To sum up what is essential: One's spouse is to be contemplated as symbolic of every sort of malodorousness, repulsiveness, and impurity, as symbolic of every sort of ruin and corruption, and as symbolic of all sorts of bad karmic roots.

Therefore, having visualized such contemplations of one's spouse and children, the lay bodhisattva should bring forth feelings of renunciation, leave behind the householder's life, cultivate goodness, and do good deeds. If one is unable to leave behind the householder's life,271 one should at least refrain from creating any sort of bad karma in one's relationship with one's spouse. Additionally:

If one cherishes a preferential affection for one's children, One should then use the power of wisdom to relinquish it, and, Based on [such feeling for] one's children, practice equal regard for all

By which one then extends universal kindness to all beings. If the lay bodhisattva realizes that he cherishes an especially great partiality toward his own children, he should then use the power of wisdom 260

Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life to reflect upon it and relinquish it. One who is possessed of the power of wisdom should reflect in this manner:

It is only once the bodhisattva develops a mind of equal regard for all that he then attains anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. If one's mind discriminates between those who are regarded as superior and those who are regarded as inferior, then he will have no attainment of bodhi. This anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi is acquired through [realization of] the singular characteristic of signlessness. It is not attained through discriminating on the basis of different characteristics.

Now, I am seeking the realization of anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. If the mind of affection that I maintain toward my own children is preferentially greater than for others, then this is an instance of retaining discriminations as to who is regarded as superior and who is regarded as inferior. This does not qualify as "equal regard for all." It is just a case of making discriminations based on different characteristics and it is not a case of perceiving a singular unitary character.

If I allow this to happen, then I will remain very far from anuttarāsamyaksaṃbodhi. Therefore I should not bring forth a mind of preferentially greater affection for my own children. One should then take up a threefold contemplation regarding one's own children.

First: They are for me like thieves, for, although the Buddha has taught that one is to feel equal kindness for all, because of my preferentially greater affection for them, this has been destroyed, resulting in my failure to maintain equal regard for everyone.

Second: They bring about the harm inflicted by thieves, for it is because of these children that roots of goodness have been destroyed and a life of great wisdom has been obstructed. Third: It is because of these children that I have gone against the middle way practice of the path and do not practice in accordance with the path.

Then, due to [having contemplated] one's children, one immediately takes up the practice of being equally kind toward all beings. One should then reflect in this manner:

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My children have come from some other place and I too have come from some other place. My children will go off to some different location and I too shall depart to some different location. I do not know where they shall go and they do not know where I shall go. They do not know where I have come from and I do not know where they have come from. These children are not my possessions. Why then do I just suddenly and for no reason develop these bonds of affection? This is as described here: They and I do not know of each other

Where we have come from or where we shall go.

In what respect then are they and I such "close relatives" That we conceive of each other as "mine"?

Additionally, [one should reflect:]

Throughout the course of samsara's beginningless cycle of births and deaths, all beings have previously been my children. I too have been their child. In this sphere of conditioned dharmas, there is no fixed relationship whereby this one is my child or that one is someone else's child. Why? While traveling through the six destinies of rebirth, beings take turns in serving as either the father or the son of the other. This is as described here: Ignorance covers over the eye of wisdom.

Time and time again, during the course of our births and deaths, We have gone and come, each having much that we have done, As each has taken turns in serving for the other as father or son. One becomes attached through desire for the pleasures of the world, Remaining oblivious to the existence of the supreme endeavor. Time and time again, adversaries become each other's friends, And, time and time again, friends become each other's adversaries. [One continues to reflect, as follows:]

Therefore I should adopt expedient means that compel me to refrain from feeling thoughts of either hatred or love. Why? If one has those one considers to be "good friends," then one will always seek in many different ways to benefit them, whereas, if one has those one considers 262

Chapter 16. On Realizing the Faults of the Householder's Life to be "adversaries," one will always bring forth many different sorts of thoughts that cause one to refrain from benefiting them. Hence, if one retains these thoughts of hatred or love, then one will remain unable to gain a penetrating understanding of the uniform equality of all dharmas. After death, those whose minds discriminate between those who are superior and those who are inferior are bound to be reborn in a place where wrong [practice] is prevalent, whereas, those who adhere to right practice are bound to be reborn in a place where right practice is prevalent. Therefore, I should refrain from cultivating wrong practices. If one practices uniformly equal regard toward other beings, then one will be bound in the future to attain all-knowledge272 where the uniform equality [of all things is realized].

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