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If in a previous life you have cultivated the eight gates of the Distinct and Perfect Teachings but have not yet severed the delusions of the Shared Teachings, these views are aroused with the same faults as those of the three types of heretical ways. If in a previous life you have already destroyed the delusions of the Shared Teachings but are not yet awakened concerning the principle of the Distinct Teachings, you are the same as those of the two vehicles; if you have already fostered the previous views (of the Shared Teachings), why not (foster) these views (of the Distinct Teachings)? Vimalakīrti spoke of "taking away the faulty extremes of the two vehicles and becoming affiliated with the heretical ways" and "taking the extremes of the auxiliary (practices of the path) and making them your servants." Understand this as you make progress or retrogress, and do not just face in one direction. If you cultivate the path now in this life and mistaken views are aroused, you may realize the true principle (of reality) in this life; if views do not arise, it may be difficult to encounter the noble realm (of awakening). 4. Cultivating cessation-and-contemplation. Fourth is cultivating cessationand-contemplation regarding mistaken views. Previously we discussed in general the differences involved in attaining views, and that there are one hundred and forty types. If discussed distinctly regarding the internal (Buddhist) deviant views, there are one hundred and twelve types. If we clarify the meanings regarding (various Buddhist) schools, there are many different schools based on treatises such as the Treatise on the Ten Stages, the Middle Treatise, the Summary of the Great Vehicle, the Abhidharma treatises [the Treatise on the Real] and so forth, which make distinctions concerning the features of such views. Is (my analysis in the Mohezhiguan) here the same or different? How is this different regarding deviant or correct, the road or a rut, superior or inferior? If we understand this meaning, we will know that [the interpretation here and in the other various treatises] does not match (completely). If there 434

are those who do not understand (these differences), how can they be said to know (the deeper meaning)?

The Buddha Dharma has two methods of teaching: (first,) to be comprehensive (and inclusive), and (second,) to analyze (and make distinctions). For example, there are the "peaceful practices" (in the Lotus Sutra) that are neither long nor short; this is the meaning of the "comprehensive" (and inclusive approach). The Great Nirvana Sutra speaks of [defending the Dharma by] "taking up the sword as a weapon and cutting off the head (of the enemy)"; this is the meaning of "analyzing." Although the methods of "positing or refuting" differ they both lead to some benefit. If mistaken views lead to the flowing and revolving (in samsaric rebirth), you should sever them until they are exhausted. If they assist in training for mysterious clarity and in converting the mind to realize the true (Dharma teachings), they should all be embraced.

I have explained above about various views regarding a great variety of people, but there is no one person who arouses all of these (views). Even if it seems that all (views) are aroused, they will certainly be swallowed up in a single (view of) truth. If every one of the (one hundred and forty) views are each analyzed through the Dharma gates [of the ten modes of contemplation], a skillful explanation (of these alone) would require [an entire summer retreat of] ninety days. Even if we bundle each and every one (of the views) together and in the same way (explain them) in terms of one of the modes of contemplation, this would require including all phenomena, and again could not be exhausted, even if you had mastery over the many and of each one. Now I will take up one view, and [it should be known that the explanation] would be the same for the many (other views). Among the many views, "emptiness" is able to deconstruct all (others), while all other (views) cannot deconstruct emptiness, so it is very beneficial for leading people (to awakening). Therefore, I should first (expound on) contemplating emptiness as an example, in terms of the ten modes (of contemplation). 1. Objects as Conceivable and Inconceivable

1. Objects as conceivable. (Contemplating views as) conceivable objects is as follows: the mistaken view of emptiness gives rise to the phenomena of the ten dharma realms (from hell to buddhahood). A cucumber that is not cooked [or "exposed to heat"] can be the cause of disease; the view of 435

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emptiness is not (the same thing as) the ten dharma realms, but it can produce causes and conditions (that gives rise to these destinies). The Treatise on the Real says that even a moment of an extreme view arising in the mind is a matter that is not good. The Abhidharma clarifies that a moment of an extreme view in the mind should not be considered good or evil but neutral, as "a mind that arises on a par with its causes," and that all good and evil arise and are caused by this. Now, these views of emptiness (in these two traditions) have two meanings. If they are contemplated separately, (one could say that the view of emptiness) arises on a par with its causes (of good and evil) and thus the ten dharma realms (from hell to buddhahood) arise with this as their cause. Why is this so? In the past the mistaken view of emptiness had not yet been encountered or practiced. Now, if you have aroused the view of emptiness, there will be the three actions (of good, evil, and neutral), as explained previously. Those who create evil (deeds) due to (the mistaken view of) emptiness [mistakenly think that they] practice the unobstructed Dharma [that anything goes]. On the one hand they do not perceive that they should honor the Dharma (sutras), Buddha, and Sangha, and on the other hand they do not perceive the virtue of honoring their parents. They cultivate the way of naked beasts, cutting off and extinguishing both worldly and transworldly goodness. Icchantikas [who have no "seeds" to attain buddhahood] may be evil, but they still have the goodness of mercy and love. Those with the mistaken view of emptiness will not have (even these virtues) for long but will only (abide in) the three (evil) destinies: those who inflict harm are born in hell; those who have no conscience or shame are born in the realm of beasts; those who are covetous or break the monastic rules [such as not eating after noon] are born in the realm of hungry spirits. Because they break the rules [of not eating after noon] they are always hungry; because they are impure, they eat defiled food. As for those who do good with (the view of) emptiness as the cause, they keep the precepts, practice austerities, and are adorned with the ten good deeds, and when their threefold karmic activities (of word, thought, and physical deed) reach maturity, they will be reborn in the three good destinies (of asuras, humans, and gods). Also, if they arouse the basic (four dhyāna meditative states), they will attain the realm of form (beyond the realm of desires).

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1. The View of Emptiness among the Śrāvakas

As for those who are born in the realm of the śrāvakas with (the view of) emptiness as the cause, although this is called "emptiness," in reality they are not aware of (the teaching of) emptiness within the Four (Noble) Truths. Why is this so? If they are enlightened concerning Dharma-nature, this (understanding of) emptiness is pure, but the mistaken view of emptiness is vacuous and deluded and is certainly dependent on resultant recompense (from past karma), and this resultant recompense is of a defiled visible form. The Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines says that whether visible form is (seen as) permanent or transient all depends on (the view of) visible form. If emptiness is affirmed you are correct, otherwise (your views are) wrong. Emptiness takes on imaginary form but is different from phenomenal dharmas of existence. The three actions (good, evil, and neutral) have emptiness as a condition (for arising). To distinguish the mind of emptiness as superior to other Dharma teachings is called (the teaching of) the "five aggregates." If emptiness is the object of the mind, these are two sense entrances. And if you add consciousness, then we have the three realms (of desire, form, and formlessness). Thus, sense objects, aggregates, and sense entrances are (the object of) the truth of suffering.

The mistaken view of emptiness is a place for hateful anger, a place for passionate attachments, and a place for pride. But those for whom the mistaken view of emptiness is weak are able to seize and deconstruct phenomena as (substantial) Being; they can draw on the principle (of the truth) and approach emptiness without arousing doubt. If on seizing (phenomena as Being) they do not deconstruct them, and upon drawing (on the principle of truth) they do not come (to realize emptiness), they may become quarrelsome and give rise to doubt. Again, although they may not have doubt now, they will surely have great doubt later. Why is this so? If their (view of) emptiness is (in accordance with) the principle (of reality), they should be equal to the noble sages, but those who are not equal (to the noble sages) cannot but arouse doubt.

Who is it that has calculating considerations about emptiness? It is "I" [or "the self"] that has such calculating considerations about emptiness. (It is thought that) the self is not really empty, and that emptiness is not the self, and that emptiness is a cause for the arising of the self. This so-called "self" 437

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acts, the self understands, the self is praised, and the self is defamed. To be attached to this extreme (view of) emptiness is to not be able to abandon it and be free from it. If you wish to penetrate to nirvana with the way of emptiness as the cause, then this emptiness will be your precepts; these are not the precepts of birds and dogs (that allow for anything) but assumes as causes the idea that (some things have) no causes. These "causes" rob [the true meaning of causes], so this is (the mistaken view of) "attachment to precepts." To take a calculating (mistaken view of) emptiness as (true) emptiness is truly not the principle of emptiness. This takes what is not the fruit (of awakening) to be the fruit. This is like stealing (the meaning of) "fruit" and is to be attached to a mistaken view. Such a mistaken view of emptiness is a one-sided prejudice and a deviant view.

In this way the ten (dull and sharp) afflictions arise from (a mistaken view of) emptiness. (The Noble Truth of) suffering includes (all) ten. (The Noble Truth of) the causes (of suffering) include seven, excluding (the afflictions of the mistaken view of) the body (or the self), extreme views, and attachment to precepts. (The Noble Truth of) the path includes eight, excluding (the mistaken view of) the body (or the self) and extreme views. (The Noble Truth of) extinction includes seven, excluding (the mistaken view of) the body (or the self), extreme views, and attachment to precepts. This gives a total of thirty-two [varieties of afflictions regarding the Four Noble Truths in the realm of desires]. (The realms of) form and formlessness exclude (the affliction of) anger in the Four (Noble Truths), so each (of these two realms) include twenty-eight (afflictions), giving a total of eighty-eight afflictions. This is called the (Noble) Truth of the accumulation (of the causes) of suffering. This accumulation (of suffering) arises in the midst of suffering, and suffering arises due to these causes. [As the Great Treatise says,] "Suffering and the causes of suffering flow through this samsaric world, unknown to Dīrghanakha." Again, even a demon who sets his head on fire [as an ascetic practice] while already in (the divine realm of) no conceptions does not escape (rebirth in samsara). How can you attain (liberation) while having (a mistaken view of) emptiness that is not aware (of the real meaning of the Noble Truths) of suffering and the causes of suffering?

[The view of emptiness in terms of the four mindfulnesses:] (1) If you are aware of the mistaken view of emptiness regarding (the Noble Truths 438

of) suffering and the causes of suffering, (you realize that) suffering and the causes of suffering all depend on visible form. "All phenomena of visible form" is called the "physical body." This body of visible form is defiled (by passions); to be defiled is to be impure. Those who are wise consider this evil and destroy the perverse view that (the physical body) is pure. This is called "mindfulness of (the impurity of) the body." (2) If you sense the view of emptiness, this is to sense or experience no sense [or "lack of substantial existence of sense experience"], which is the second option (of the tetralemma). If you are in accordance with emptiness, you sense pleasure or bliss; if contrary to emptiness, you sense pain or suffering; if neither contrary to nor in accordance (with emptiness), you sense neither pain nor pleasure. These three types of sensations are the same as the three types of suffering. If you consider suffering or pain to be pleasure or bliss, this is called a perversion. If you know that there is (ultimately) no pleasure (in this world) and destroy the perverted (view of) pleasure, this is called "mindfulness of sensations" (as ultimately painful and involving suffering). (3) The dustlike objects of emptiness are the objects of the mind and give rise to consciousness. The thoughts of this mind arise and perish, always new and flowing like a current. If there are conditioned objects, then the concept (of emptiness) will arise; if there are no conditioned objects, then the concept (of emptiness) will not arise. These (thoughts) arise and perish and are transient, but they are (mis-) taken to be constant, so this is a perverted view. To be aware of the transiency of consciousness is to destroy the perversion of "eternalism." This is called "mindfulness of thoughts" (as impermanent). (4) If you grasp onto the image of that which is (actually) empty and then perform good and evil (deeds), you conceive of a (substantial) "self" within those actions. If there is a "self" that performs these actions, then there are good or evil volitional actions, and if there is a rise and fall in these volitional actions, then it is the same with the "self." Since there are immeasurable actions, if the "self" pervades them all then the "self" is also immeasurable. If (the "self") does not pervade [all such immeasurable volitional actions] then a single volitional action is without a "self," and therefore all volitional actions are without a "self." If you insist on calculating and positing a "self," (it must be said that) this is a perverted view. If you know (the truth of) no-self, this will destroy (mistaken) conceptions and volitional action. This is called "mindfulness of phenomena" (as without 439

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a substantial self). You could apply these four perversions (in the same way) to all of (the rest of) the aggregates, though (it can be said that) the positing of a (perverted view of a substantial) "self" is strong in (the aggregates of) conceptions and volitions, the positing of (a perverted view of) purity is strong in (the aggregate of) visible form, the positing of (a perverted view of) constancy is strong in (the aggregate of) the mind (or consciousness), and the positing of (a perverted view of) pleasure is strong in (the aggregate of) sensations. This is called a "distinct mindfulness" [that is distinctly mindful of individual characteristics]. A comprehensive mindfulness [that is mindful of all of them together] is not like this. Thus, I have discussed the view of emptiness as it gives rise to contemplations of mindfulness. [The view of emptiness in terms of the four proper endeavors and the rest of the thirty-seven steps on the path:] If you diligently destroy the perversions through contemplation, this is (the destruction of mistaken) views through the (four) proper endeavors. To cultivate these with a concentrated mind is called the (four) supranormal abilities. To give rise to the five good roots is called the (five) roots. To destroy the five delusions (of passionate desires, anger, ignorance, pride, and doubt) is called the (five) powers. To function peacefully on the path is called the seven (components of) awakening. To practice peacefully on the path is called the eightfold noble path. This is how the view of emptiness is able to give rise to the (Noble) Truth of the path. Because the four perversions are removed, ignorance is extinguished. Because ignorance is extinguished, passionate attachments are extinguished. Because passionate attachments are extinguished, anger is extinguished. Because anger is extinguished, you know that the mistaken view of emptiness is not the (right) path. Then when you hang your head in shame, pride is extinguished. Since there is nothing to be attached to, therefore doubt is extinguished. Thus, the view of emptiness includes the (Noble Truths of) suffering and the causes of suffering, but (the Noble Truths of) suffering and the causes of suffering are not (the same as) ultimate emptiness; if you destroy the mind that is attached to emptiness, you no longer seek a (substantial) "self." If a "self" is not sought after, then you can destroy (1) mistaken views of the physical body. If mistaken views of the physical body are destroyed, you can destroy (2) mistaken views of the self. If mistaken views of the self are destroyed, you can destroy (3) extreme views (such as 440

annihilationism and eternalism). (To know that) mistaken views of emptiness are not the path is to destroy (4) attachment to precepts. (To know that) mistaken views of emptiness are not nirvana is to destroy (5) attachment to mistaken views. (To know that) mistaken views of emptiness do not correspond to the principle (of reality or truth) is to destroy deviant views. By destroying these ten afflictions, you destroy eighty-eight kinds of passionate afflictions. By destroying the eighty-eight afflictions, you destroy the bonds of afflictions. Because you destroy the bonds of afflictions, you are able to arouse the first fruit (of the stream-enterer) and progress to achieve (the level of) one who has no more to learn. If the bonds to these fruits are destroyed, you enter nirvana without remainder. This is (the explication of) the view of emptiness that gives rise to the (Noble) Truth of extinction, that is, the dharma realm of the śrāvaka.

If by means of the view of emptiness you clarify and become aware of the Four (Noble) Truths, you will know the exhaustion of suffering and the true path. The true path overcomes (obstacles such as mistaken views) and severs (delusions) so that you can attain (the level of) the wise and the noble [that is, three levels of erudition and ten noble stages]. Up to one hundred and forty types of mistaken views—single, multiple, combined, and nonverbal—all are known on the true path, and thus you are able to move among and emerge from the mistaken views. If this is not so, then you cannot perceive the true (meaning) of the Four (Noble) Truths, and for that reason would forever be immersed in the great sea of suffering that is the samsaric cycle of birth and death. If you are able to perceive the Four (Noble) Truths, then you can attain a severance of (suffering in the cycle of) birth and death; if the arising of existence is already exhausted, you no longer experience these existences. This is the meaning (of my explanation) here.

2. The View of Emptiness among the Pratyekabuddhas

Next is to clarify the view of emptiness for the arising of the pratyekabuddhas. The mistaken view of emptiness is not (true) emptiness; a deluded (view) is said to be emptiness. This requires distinctions concerning perverted views. Perverted views are (the same as) ignorance [the first of the twelvefold chain of causation, which is the focus for pratyekabuddhas]. Because of ignorance there is attachment to the view of emptiness. If you know (the truth concerning) ignorance, why would you be attached (to 441

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anything)? If you know (the truth concerning) ignorance, you do not arouse attachment and (further birth in) existence, and ultimately will not produce new (causes for rebirth). If you do not produce new (causes for rebirth), you will not arouse attachment and (further rebirth in) existence, and ultimately will not arouse ignorance. If there is no ignorance, you will perfect the clarity of wisdom. Since you have wisdom, at that time there will be no passionate afflictions. If there are no passionate afflictions, at that time ignorance is extinguished. If ignorance is extinguished, all volitional activity will be extinguished, and so forth up to old age and death being extinguished. The Middle Treatise says, "Why do śrāvakas, when they contemplate the meaning of twelvefold causation, then expound the sixty-two mistaken views of eternalism, transiency [annihilationism], and so forth?" It may seem that this question and answer (from the Middle Treatise) has no bearing (on the issue at hand), but I should now point out that this "answer" identifies the mistaken views of eternalism and transiency [or annihilationism] as ignorance. That is, if you know (the truth about) ignorance, you will not arouse attachment and (further rebirth in) existence: this is the contemplation of twelvefold causes and conditions within the Dharma teachings of the śrāvakas. The Lotus Sutra speaks of "(those who) find pleasure alone in good quietude and seek wisdom naturally." This wisdom is well able to put to rest the sixty-two mistaken views.

Again, contemplating the view of emptiness for even a brief moment already includes (insight into]) the Four (Noble) Truths. This mind of the view of emptiness—does it exist or not exist? When a momentary thought is aroused, this already includes the five aggregates. How can we say that it is nothing [or "does not exist"]? This is the constituent (of twelvefold causes and conditions) of "existence." "Existence" contains "results," so again this is the interpretation that results are contained within the causes. Even if we say that there are no results (within causes), the constituent of existence is already a cause and contains the meaning of a cause. Where, then, does this "existence" arise from? If there is no grasping, then "existence" does not arise. (The constituent of) "grasping" is equivalent to the five mistaken views. If you become attached to emptiness, this is an extreme view and you (mistakenly) posit a "self" in the emptiness (and so forth). What is (mistakenly) called "empty" is taken as the path, as nirvana, and as correct. This is 442

the constituent of "grasping." "Grasping" arises from passions, to rejoice in the passions, to be angry about that which is contrary (to your desires), and to be proud and doubtful. These are called the constituent of passions. Passions are the cause of (the constituent of) sensations, and passions are aroused because of sensations. It is like experiencing a single phenomenon and becoming passionately attached to its flavor, continuing to seek after it. Knowing sensations is caused by (the constituent of) "contact"; thus, there is the faculty of consciousness, through which you come in contact with empty dustlike objects. The sutra [on the Ten Stages] says, "Due to the causes and conditions of contact, various sensations arise." Due to contact, there are the entrances (of the six senses). When the sense organs come in contact with the dustlike objects, you attain the entrances (of the senses). Due to the sense entrances, there is (the constituent of) name and form, with the three (false) imputations [of self-nature, a "self," and thoughts] of the kalala [in the first of five stages in the development of a human fetus, and so forth], then taking visible form with the five limbs, being able to sustain life, and developing the four mental aggregates, which are the "name" (of name and form). Again, name and form acquires the three (false) imputations, and due to this the fetus first has consciousness (and volition). Consciousness is due to (past) karma, karma is due to (the constituent of) ignorance, and ignorance is from the perverted views of the past. Based on mistaken views it is said that these matters exist or do not exist, therefore giving rise to the discourse in the present world about a physical body. The [Flower Garland] sutra says, "The seeds of consciousness, the field of karma, the water of passions, and the obstructing coverings of ignorance, give rise to the sprouts of name and form." Now again there are perversions so that you are deluded into the mistaken view of emptiness, arouse good and evil deeds, and plant the seeds for the future sprouts of name and form. Perverted views build on perverted views and ignorance builds on ignorance, acting mutually as causes and conditions, so that there seems to be no end to them.

If you know ignorance and perverted views, it is not necessary to speculate about whether something "exists" or "does not exist." If you have penetrating understanding about the essential nature (of emptiness and reality, you know that) basically it has no reality in itself but seems to "exist" because of deluded conceptions of the merging of causes and conditions. If 443

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you already know (the truth) about perverted views, then ignorance will be put to rest; since it is put to rest all actions (and constituents of twelvefold causation up to) old age and death will all be put to rest. For those to whom the mistaken view of emptiness, ignorance, and old age and death are put to rest, a hundred and forty mistaken views, ignorance, and old age and death will be put to rest. Because they are put to rest, the twenty-five realms of (samsaric) existence are destroyed and their habitual traces removed. This is called (the analysis of) the view of emptiness that arises in the realm of the pratyekabuddha.

If you are aware of (the role of) ignorance in the mistaken view of emptiness, this ignorance should be extinguished. If you are not aware of this, you cannot escape from the mistaken view of emptiness and will produce karma because of this mistaken view, "as a silkworm produces a cocoon." How can such a one become a pratyekabuddha? There are "nose-focused meditation masters" who attain the view of emptiness, but many fall into the trap [of other mistaken views or a mistaken view of emptiness] and are not able to extricate themselves. There are (scholarly) Dharma masters with distracted minds who, though they can classify and distinguish all the various afflictions, do not themselves know about the faults of the mistaken view of emptiness, like an ordinary tortoise whose sight is darkened or a blind dog barking wildly. Whether practicing for oneself or saving others, they have absolutely no sense of the path.

3. The View of Emptiness among the Bodhisattvas of the Six Perfections of the Tripiṭaka Teachings

The view of emptiness that gives rise to the dharmas of the bodhisattvas of the six perfections (of the Tripiṭaka Teachings) is as follows. You are already aware of (the role of) the (Four Noble) Truths and (the twelvefold causes and) conditions regarding the view of emptiness, so then you should know about diseases and be aware of the medicines (for healing these diseases). If you are aware of the medicines you will rejoice for yourself; if you know about diseases you will sympathize with others, and wish to be liberated from suffering and seek bliss together with other sentient beings. (From the perspective of) the view of emptiness, the (five) aggregates and the (eighteen) realms are (the Noble Truth of) suffering; the ten afflictions and so forth are (the Noble Truth of) the causes of suffering; mindfulness and so forth are 444

(the Noble Truth of) the path; and the destruction of the four perverted views are (the Noble Truth of) extinction. It is in accordance with this that you then arouse the (Four Universal bodhisattva) Vows. (1) One single mistaken view of emptiness can, in one day and night, give birth to many hundreds of thousands of millions of aggregates, and each and every one of the (collection of) five aggregates is a sentient being. Each day and night is like this; how much more (the number of collections of aggregates and sentient beings produced) in one lifetime, not to mention immeasurable lifetimes: as it is with the view of emptiness, so is it also with the other mistaken views. What are produced from mistaken views are truly many, and the aggregates that are given rise to also cannot be calculated. This is so for one person, how much more so for many people! Therefore, there is (the first universal bodhisattva vow,) "though sentient beings are unlimited, I vow to save them all." (2) One single view of emptiness, from thought to thought, involves eighty-eight types of afflictions; the other three types of mistaken views, or sixty-two types (of mistaken views), also (each) involve eighty-eight types of afflictions. This is so for one person; how much more so for many people! Therefore, there is (the second universal bodhisattva vow,) "though passionate afflictions are immeasurable, I vow to sever them all." (3) One single view of emptiness involves cultivating mindfulness and the steps on the path; removing all mistaken views involves the proper and auxiliary practices of the path, which are immeasurable and inexhaustible. This is so for one person, how much more so for many people! Therefore, there is (the third universal bodhisattva vow,) "though dharmas are inexhaustible, I vow to study them all." (4) One single view of emptiness extinguishes passionate afflictions; immeasurable views extinguish immeasurable passionate afflictions. This is so for one person, how much more so for many people! Therefore, there is (the fourth universal bodhisattva vow,) "though the Buddhist path is supreme, I vow to perfect it." If the suffering and causes of suffering among sentient beings are their true nature, then they cannot be saved, but since suffering and the causes of suffering arise from causes and conditions, they do not have a (substantial) self-nature, so the sea of suffering can (some day) dry up and the basis of the causes of suffering can easily be exhausted; therefore it is said that (sentient beings) can be saved. This is the explanation of contemplating emptiness and arousing the (bodhisattva) vows (in the Tripiṭaka Teachings). 445

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Arousing practices (of the six perfections) in terms of (the view of) emptiness is as follows. (1) If you become attached to the view of emptiness and yet practice (the virtue of) giving, this is a demonic giving. If you know (the role of) the (Four Noble) Truths and the (twelvefold causes and) conditions regarding the view of emptiness, of its faults and that things are transient and without a "self" and so forth, then you can abandon the mistaken view of emptiness, and you can sympathize with others and encourage them to abandon the mistaken view of emptiness; this is the (true) practice of (the perfection of) giving.

(2) If you are attached to the view of emptiness and yet attempt to keep the precepts, how is this different from "precepts" kept by beasts such as birds and dogs? If you know the mistaken view of emptiness, of its faults and transiency, and so forth, then the view of emptiness will not be harmful, and you can have compassion for others and lead them to not be hindered by the mistaken view of emptiness. [This is the true practice of the perfections of keeping the precepts.]

(3) If you are attached to the view of emptiness and arouse anger and passions, but forcibly practice (the virtue of) patience, your power will be insufficient and your "patience" will only be fear of others. Now, if you know the mistaken view of emptiness, of its immeasurable faults and so forth, then you will be able to overcome the mistaken view of emptiness and the sixty-two types (of mistaken views), and you can encourage others to have a calm patience regarding the view of emptiness. [This is the true practice of the perfection of patience.]

(4) If you cannot remove the mistaken view of emptiness but try to be diligent, then since (this diligence) is "mixed" (with mistaken views) it is not "fine," and since it involves retrogressing into the three (evil) destinies it is not "progress." Now, if you know the mistaken view of emptiness, for this mistaken view of emptiness to not arise is called "fine" and for the view of emptiness to destroy karma and for you to attain transcendence is called "progress." Again, to encourage others (to reach the same attainment) is to cultivate (this perfection of) diligence.

(5) If you do not destroy the mistaken view of emptiness and yet attain (a state of) dhyāna meditation, usually this will be a demonic affair. Now, if you know the faults of (the mistaken view of) emptiness and are not moved 446

by the mistaken view of emptiness, thus accomplishing correct dhyāna meditation and correct penetrating (supranormal abilities)—and not for the sake of flattery, to seek favor, out of pride, or for [material] benefit— then you use supranormal abilities to encourage and save sentient beings and lead them to abandon the dissipation of mistaken views and enter dhyāna (concentration). [This is the true practice of the perfection of dhyāna meditation.] (6) If you are attached to the mistaken view of emptiness and yet cultivate wisdom, this is a deluded and ignorant worldly wisdom. Now, if you are aware of the view of emptiness in terms of (the Four Noble) Truths and the (twelvefold causes and) conditions, you will [as it says in the Great Treatise] "use the wolf of transiency to frighten the sheep of the mistaken view of emptiness and thus melt away the fat of passionate afflictions." You should broadly arouse the practice of the (bodhisattva) vows so the body of virtuous qualities is fattened, and you should have compassion on sentient beings and lead them to remove the fat (of passionate afflictions) and extend the flesh (of good qualities). [This is the true practice of the perfection of wisdom.] Thus, (the bodhisattvas of the six perfections of the Tripiṭaka Teachings) mature their capacities through such conditions, and they come to sit on the seat of awakening, severing the bonds (of passionate afflictions), and become buddhas. This is called (the explanation of) the view of emptiness that arouses the realm (of the bodhisattvas) of the six perfections 4. The View of Emptiness for the Bodhisattvas of the Shared Teachings [The view of emptiness for the bodhisattvas of the Shared Teachings is as follows.] Contemplate the view of emptiness as indivisible from ignorance, and ignorance as indivisible from the view of emptiness, that all suffering and the causes of suffering arise from ignorance, and all are unobtainable. Why is this so? The four perverted views [that things involve constancy, bliss, selfhood, and purity] are all mistaken, positing that things have a true (substantial) nature; these perversions to be healed do not exist (substantially), nor do the mindfulnesses that perform the healing (exist substantially), and so forth up to the path of awakening. All, without exception, do not arise (substantially), and are therefore unobtainable. Therefore, the Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines speaks of "habitually learning the emptiness of suffering," and so forth. Those of the two vehicles know (the first aspect of the threefold truth, which is) emptiness itself, so they sever 447

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suffering and realize extinction. Bodhisattvas (also know the truth of) emptiness and arouse compassion and the practice of the vows to save sentient beings. Although sentient beings are saved, what is saved is empty. Although passionate afflictions are severed, it is like fighting against empty (space). Although Dharma teachings are aroused, this is like arousing empty space. Although sentient beings attain extinction (in nirvana), truly there are no sentient beings who attain the crossing over to extinction. This is (true) wisdom; this is (true) severance; this is the bodhisattva's forbearance of (realizing that) phenomena do not arise. This is called the view of emptiness that arouses the realm of the bodhisattvas of the Shared Teachings. 5. The View of Emptiness for the Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teachings [The view of emptiness for the bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teachings is as follows.] Contemplate this view of emptiness as having immeasurable features. For example, the Four (Noble) Truths can be distinguished, examined, and calculated in an inexhaustible way. This inexhaustibility arises from the view of emptiness; the view of emptiness arises from ignorance. If that which arises is immeasurable, that which produces the arising is also immeasurable. That which arouses is conventionally named; that which is aroused is also conventionally named. If you infer ignorance in this way, then (you must say that) it arises from the nature of reality. It is analogous to searching after a dream and knowing that it is due to having been asleep. Contemplate this view of emptiness and become aware of the true mark (of reality). The true mark (of reality) is the womb or treasury of the Tathāgata. The immeasurable adventitious afflictions cover this treasury of the principle (of reality), and cultivating the Dharma teachings that are as numerous as the sands of the Ganges River will manifest its pure nature. This is called the view of emptiness that arouses the realm of the Distinct Teachings. 6. The View of Emptiness for the Bodhisattvas of the Perfect Teaching The view of emptiness in the Perfect Teaching is as explained above and below.

7. Summary.

Next, [as it says in the Great Nirvana Sutra:]

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The delusions of mistaken views are vast and extensive, like the waters (extending) for forty miles; the remaining power of the conceptual delusions is like a (single) drop of water. The various means explained above together control and heal the delusions of mistaken views; to exhaust the delusions is called "entering the current (of the path to buddhahood)" spontaneously and without retrogression. The delusions of mistaken views are difficult to remove, so you should use (various) skillful means. The Treatise on the Real says that delusions are healed and controlled by emptiness. If through the healing control of emptiness you can attain the realization (of buddhahood) you do not need to wait for other Dharma teachings. If you cannot realize (buddhahood just through emptiness), then what other ways of controlling (delusions) should be established? This is just as when fire arises in the midst of water: the water is not able to extinguish it. How can emptiness heal and control the excesses that arise from the mistaken view of emptiness? Now (to deal with this), you should know the mistaken view of emptiness as a disease of (the Noble Truths of) suffering and the causes of suffering, and then use the wisdom of the (Four Noble) Truths to heal and control it. Those of the Tripiṭaka Teachings (should use) the wisdom of transiency; those of the Shared (Teachings should use) the wisdom of emptiness itself. All of these should have removed the mistaken view (of emptiness) already. Those of the Distinct (Teachings) again have previously removed mistaken views (of emptiness) and realized (true) emptiness. Next, they should skillfully emerge in conventional reality, like planting trees in the empty sky. As for those of the Perfect (Teaching), they do not deliberately remove mistaken views, but mistaken views have already been spontaneously removed. Removing such firm and stable mistaken views requires various means of healing control; how can you agree [with the Treatise on the Real] that they can be healed and controlled only through (realizing) emptiness?

How can various (methods) for healing and controlling [mistaken views in the Four Teachings] together heal and control one mistaken view? It is like a patient with the chills who utilizes four types of medicine. When you take ginger the disease will pass, and you will recover your strength. When you take the "five stones" [that are efficacious for healing] the disease will 449

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pass and the color [of your face] will improve. When you take zhonglou (medicine), you will extend your life span and be able to fly. When you take gold elixir [or "cinnabar"] you will become a great sage. Although the disease is the same, the type of medicine is different, and the powers attained are also different. The Four Teachings heal and control mistaken views, but the exhaustion of these views and their understanding is different. It is thus with healing and controlling mistaken views, and it is the same with healing and controlling the other (delusions).

[One way] for a healing and control (of mistaken views) with these Four (Teachings) is with the four mindfulnesses (of the body, sensations, thoughts, and phenomena). The Sutra of Final Bequeathed Teachings suggests that by depending on the four mindfulnesses you can cultivate the path and escape from the "burning house" (of this samsaric world). What does this mean? One thought of the view of emptiness in the mind involves all three realms (of desire, form, and formlessness), and [as it says in the Flower Garland Sutra] "the three realms are not distinct phenomena and are only produced by one mind." The view of emptiness gives rise to the karma of the six destinies (from hell to gods), so that you experience a physical body in the six destinies and dwell in the place of the six destinies; this "place" is the "burning house." For the physical body to dwell there involves suffering, and the karma is that of demonic spirits who compete with and reject each other, trying to ride the three vehicles to escape from there. The "three vehicles" are the mindfulnesses of the three vehicles (of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas) of the Tripiṭaka (Teachings), and also these three (types of) people in the Shared (Teachings) who share one type of the mindfulnesses. Again, this refers to three types of the mindfulnesses within the (skillful) means of those of the Distinct (Teachings), and one type of the mindfulnesses that is truly real [that is, not just a "conventional means"]. Again, the Perfect (Teaching) involves one true mindfulness. In sum, there are nine types of the four mindfulnesses (for the Four Teachings). If explained in detail we could discuss (a similar) nine types of the steps on the path, or even more expansively discuss nine types of the Four Noble Truths. All of these various types of the (four) mindfulnesses are able to heal and control mistaken views so that you can escape the "burning house" (of samsara). This is the meaning of the passage from the Sutra of Final Bequeathed Teachings. However, when 450

Śākyamuni first appeared (in this world), he first signified (the teachings of) the three types of people (śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas) who would utilize the four mindfulnesses. This is as taught in the Lotus Sutra, "each escaping the burning house in the goat, deer, and ox vehicles." Next is to explain how the three types of people are the same in cultivating one mindfulness. This is as (taught) in the Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines, "this vehicle (allows you to) escape from the triple world and dwell in the all-wisdom (of emptiness)." Again, it is like the statement in the Great Collection (of Sutras) that says, "People of the three vehicles are the same in severing passionate afflictions by means of the path that cannot be verbalized."

Next, I will explain how bodhisattvas cultivate mindfulness gradually. The Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines makes distinctions among the vehicles as to unique prajñā-wisdom and mindfulnesses that are not yet merged (with the practice and attainments of other vehicles), but later explains that all (vehicles) of Hinayana and Mahayana involve the same one mindfulness. This is like in the Lotus Sutra (teaching about all three vehicles being included in) the same vehicle, which is the "great cart" that goes directly to the place of awakening. The view of emptiness in these terms clarifies all delusions and clarifies all (means to) heal and control them, and all these sutras and treatises are not in mutual opposition or contradiction. [The Flower Garland Sutra says,] "The billions of scrolls of sutras are contained in one minute particle of dust." This is the meaning here. 2. Objects as inconceivable. Next is to clarify the objects (of mistaken views) as inconceivable. One thought of the view of emptiness includes all ten dharma realms (from hell to buddhahood). That is, it is the nature of reality. The nature of reality is not something far away, and so too with this mind of the view of emptiness. The Vimalakīrti Sutra says, "The liberation of the buddhas should be sought within the mind and actions of sentient beings and should be sought within the sixty-two types of mistaken views." These three dharma matters (of liberation, sentient beings, and mistaken views) are not different, but are pointed out (one by one) in turn. All sentient beings are indivisible from awakening, which is unobtainable yet is perfectly pure liberation. The five aggregates are indivisible from nirvana, which cannot be extinguished and yet is liberation as pure means. The suchness of sentient 451

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beings is (indivisible from) the suchness of the Buddha; this is liberation as the nature of purity. The liberation of the Buddha is the five types of nirvana, such as the liberation of visible form. The mind of the view of emptiness is indivisible from the defilements of the five aggregates: sentient beings are made up of the five aggregates, and sentient beings have five aggregates. "Name and form" [that is, the mental and physical aggregates] and sentient beings are mutually bound together and they cannot be separated. Contemplating these five aggregates, they are indivisible from nirvana, and so they do not need to be extinguished. Originally there are no bonds or fetters (of afflictions); this is liberation. Originally there is liberation, which encompasses all phenomena. Therefore, it is said that liberation should be sought in the mind (of sentient beings).

Again, contemplate this mind of the view (of emptiness) and the five aggregates as indivisible from the nature of reality. Again, there is no (substantial) mind of views or the five aggregates. By extinguishing visible form you attain the constant form and so forth of the five aggregates of the nature of reality. By extinguishing sentient beings, you attain constant dwelling as a sentient being of the nature of reality. One visible form is all visible forms; one consciousness is all consciousness; one sentient being is all sentient beings—these do not mutually obstruct each other, just as a clear mirror is pure and manifests all colors and images. This is called "the nature of purity." The three types of liberation cannot be mutually separated, are neither vertical nor horizontal, are inconceivable, are perfectly complete and inclusive, and so should be sought within the view of emptiness. This is called "objects as inconceivable." 2. Arousing compassion. These objects (of mistaken views) have naturally been endowed with (both) ignorance and the nature of reality, and yet you have harmed yourself and sunk into darkness, and now for the first time have become aware that all sentient beings are also like this. If you know the nature of reality (in this way), how can you not arouse kindness? If you know ignorance (in this way), how can you not arouse pity? 3. Skillful means for a peaceful mind. In contemplating this view of emptiness, (you realize that) your inherent original nature is empty and quiescent, and pure like space. You should polish these two Dharma practices (of cessation and contemplation) skillfully and with a peaceful mind. 4. Deconstructing phenomena. The view (of emptiness) of the (five) aggregates and the view (of emptiness) of conventionality do not give rise 452

to the four options (of the tetralemma: being, not being, both, or neither, but should be universally deconstructed).

5. Knowing what penetrates and what obstructs. The single and multiple (forms of) the various options and each of the options (of the tetralemma) involve the obstacles of suffering, the causes of suffering, ignorance, and the obscurations (of afflictions). Each of the options (of the tetralemma) involves the penetrating insight (of the Noble Truths) of the path and extinction. 6. Steps on the Path. In contemplating the view of emptiness, one aggregate is all aggregates. (Know that) the threefold truth is immobile [and does not change]; this is what it means to apprehend the Dharma body. Contemplate the aggregates as neither pure nor impure, and so forth. This is the (final) nirvana (of the Buddha) under the twin śāla trees [on his death in Kuśinagara]; again, it is the seat of awakening. This contemplation is called "prajñā-wisdom." To destroy the eight perversions is called "liberation." To have one mindfulness is to arouse all mindfulnesses, which regulates and controls sentient beings. In this way these three dharma matters (of the Dharma body, prajñā-wisdom, and liberation) are neither cause nor result. They are not a cause, and yet mindfulness is a cause for (attaining) the seat of awakening. They are not a result, and yet the result of being in the midst of the twin śāla trees was to enter (final) nirvana. Although the view of emptiness is immobile [and does not change], you cultivate the inconceivable thirty-seven steps (on the path). In this way you universally deconstruct (all phenomena); the non-attainment of the view of emptiness is called "the samadhic concentration of emptiness"; not perceiving the marks of emptiness is called "the samadhic concentration of formlessness"; and that these samadhic concentrations do not arise from real conditions is called "the samadhic concentration of actionlessness."

7. Auxiliary methods. If you have still not realized (awakening through the above contemplations), you should arouse a great vow internally to abandon attachment to mistaken views, and externally to reject (worldly) life and treasure. If your view of emptiness is contrary to the principle (of truth), your keeping of the precepts is not pure, so vow that your view of emptiness will not offend against the Dharma body. Maintain the seven components (of awakening) without flinching in your consciousness.

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8. Graded stages of attainment. Be deeply aware of the graded stages (of attainment) so that you will not be indiscriminate about the upper bhūmi (bodhisattva) stages [and think you have attained them when you have not]. 9. Resting in patient forbearance. If your view of emptiness is clamorous and unsteady, patience will not be perfected. Now you should vow to suffer the view of emptiness with a peaceful mind, like a bridge [that allows people to walk over it] or the earth or the sea, taking on all (suffering) in your own body, while the mind remains unmoved. If your view of emptiness is troublesome, vow to focus purely and to flow from thought to thought. Again, if your view of emptiness torments you, so that you are not able to calmly focus, then sincerely confess and put an end to the two aspects of (mental function and cognized objects in) the flourishing of conditions. If universal wisdom is not yet disclosed, then ignorance has not yet been destroyed, so vow to contemplate the view of emptiness so that the nature of reality will be made manifest. Make progress bravely with a firm conviction, and do not rest if you have not yet realized (awakening). In this way control and heal (the afflictions) to assist in manifesting nirvana.

10. No passionate attachments to phenomena. If you are not able to destroy the internal wind (of passions) and external dustlike objects but are in accordance with the path, then attachment to phenomena will not arise and you will not fall from the pinnacle (and retrogress to a lower state). The thoughts of your mind will be quiescent and extinct, and you will flow into the sea of all-wisdom (of emptiness).

11. Summary. Riding on the One Great Vehicle, you will traverse the four directions directly to the seat of awakening and accomplish right awakening. The rest is as explained above.

End of Fascicle 10.

[Translator's note: The remaining three sections of Chapter VII, 8. Contemplating the Objects of Overweening Pride or Arrogance; 9. Contemplating the Objects of the Two Vehicles of Śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas; and 10. Contemplating the Objects of Bodhisattvahood; and Chapter VIII. Results and Recompense, Chapter IX. On Instilling the Teachings, and Chapter X, The Ultimate Meaning, are incomplete.]

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Notes

1 For details on these matters, see the "Introduction" by Daniel B. Stevenson and Neal Donner, The Great Calming and Contemplation: A Study and Annotated Translation of Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1993), and my "Translator's Introduction" in Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight: T'ien-t'ai Chih-i's Mo-ho chih-kuan (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2018).

2 This brief summary is too sketchy; those interested in the details of Zhiyi's life should consult Leon Hurvitz's Chih-i (538-597): An Introduction to the Life and Ideas of a Chinese Buddhist Monk (Bruxelles: Institute Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises, 1962; reprint 1980).

3 For a discussion of this theme, see Paul L. Swanson, Foundations of T'ien-t'ai Philosophy: The Flowering of the Two Truths Theory in Chinese Buddhism (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1989).

4 See, for example, Masao Ichishima and David W. Chappell, trans., "A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings," in Tiantai Lotus Texts (Berkeley: BDK America, Inc., 2013), pp. 151-210.

5 Stevenson and Donner, in The Great Calming and Contemplation, have "calming and contemplation as luminosity and tranquility."

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Glossary

absolute 絶待: Zhiyi uses the term "relative" to refer to a sense of something (e.g., for cessation-and-contemplation) in contrast to or with respect to a comparable or opposite item. The term "absolute" is used to indicate its intrinsic meaning without regard to or in contrast to something else.

acquired qualities 修徳: Virtuous qualities attained through practice, in contrast to inherent qualities. adapted [teachings] 融通: "Adapted" or "fused" teachings, a characteristic feature of the fourth period (the Prajñā period) of the Tiantai classification of teachings, where distinctions such as "great" and "small" are removed or fused, and the intention is to "integrate" the teachings. See also five periods and eight teachings; prajñā period. adorn and purify the meditation chamber 嚴淨道場: A common step in preparing for meditation or ritual practices; one of the ten items involved in the practice of the lotus samādhi.

adornment of virtue 福徳莊嚴 and adornment of wisdom 智慧莊嚴: Abhidharma terms, but Zhiyi refers to their use in the Great Nirvana Sutra, where it speaks of two adornments of a buddha, of wisdom and of virtuous qualities (the other five perfections). According to the Great Nirvana Sutra, the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas up to the ninth bodhisattva stage are adorned with virtue as a "condition," a necessary but not sufficient cause, for buddhahood, but only the highest bodhisattvas and buddhas are adorned with wisdom, the final "cause" of buddhahood.

adventitious afflictions 客塵: An expression for the passionate afflictions found in the Vimalakīrti Sutra; for Zhiyi these "adventitious afflictions" refer to the surface passionate afflictions that must be severed first, before one attempts to sever the deeper afflictions such as fundamental ignorance.

Āgamas 阿含: The texts of early Indian Buddhism; in the Tiantai classification of teachings, the Hinayana texts and teachings preached by Śākyamuni at Deer Park during the second of five periods. See also five periods and eight teachings. aggregates (skandhas), sense entrances (āyatanas), and sense realms (dhātus), as objects (of contemplation) 陰入界境: The first of the ten objects of contemplation, the discussion of which takes up more than one-third of the entire text of the Mohezhiguan. See also ten objects of contemplation.

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Glossary

Ājñāta-Kauṇḍinya and the five mendicants 拘隣五人: The five mendicants in whose company Śākyamuni engaged in strenuous ascetic practice for six years, and who deserted him when he renounced such extreme ascetic ways; after Śākyamuni's awakening these five mendicants were the first people to whom the Buddha preached the sermon on the Four Noble Truths at Deer Park in Benares, the so-called "first turning of the wheel of the Dharma."

ālaya consciousness 阿黎耶: The "store consciousness," a concept of the Yogācāra school; an underlying consciousness or "pre-consciousness" that unifies into one experiential whole all the diverse operations of conscious activity. See also Yogācāra.

analogy of the color of milk: An analogy in the Great Nirvana Sutra that illustrates the inability of non-Buddhists to understand the Dharma, just as a blind person cannot truly know the color of milk even if compared to a shell, rice, snow, or a white crane. analytical method 析法: A method of "breaking down" that involves only an analysis and the negative breakdown of conceptualizations, passions, delusions, phenomena, and so forth; Zhiyi criticizes this as an inferior method of contemplation, or realizing emptiness at the level of the Tripiṭaka Teachings.

anti-path 非道: That which is the opposite of or counter to the way of Buddhism or acts contrary to the Buddhist way; non-Buddhist teachings and practice. annihilationism 斷[滅]見: (1) The mistaken (materialistic) view that everything is annihilated at the time of death. Nihilism or annihilationism is in contrast to the other mistaken view that the soul lives on forever, eternalism; (2) to sever deluded views; (3) the awareness of transiency aroused through the apparent "death" of the Buddha. See also eternalism.

appropriate joy 隨喜: Joy experienced over the good of others; rejoicing appropriately over the good qualities or positive experiences of others; one aspect of the fivefold repentance. See also fivefold repentance.

approximate understanding 似解: That which resembles, simulates, or approaches true understanding. The fourth level of the Six Identities. See also Six Identities. asaru medicine 阿婆羅(羅婆)藥 (*Bhumea lacena): A simile from the Flower Garland Sutra that refers to a potent medicine which must be tempered with water; an analogy for the role of the aspiration for awakening (bodhicitta) before undertaking strenuous practices.

aspiration for awakening 菩提心(初發心): Lit., "mind of awakening" (bodhicitta), the initial volition, intent, or hope to attain awakening; for those of the Perfect Teaching, the first level of the ten stages of abodes. See also Fourfold Teachings; ten abodes. Aśvajit 頞鞁(阿説示): One of the first five disciples of the Buddha; one of the five mendicants. See also Ājñāta-Kauṇḍinya and the five mendicants. 458

Glossary

atom 隣虛: "Next to nothingness," that is, the smallest particles or elements of existence. The Abhidharma idea that existence can be reduced to successions of extremely basic elements (dharmas).

attachment to mistaken views 見取: To be attached to a mistaken, inferior view and wrongly think that it is a superior or correct view; one of the five mistaken views. attachment to outer characteristics 取相[惑]: The delusion of being attached to the idea that nirvana and samsara are different or completely separate. attachment to precepts [of prohibition] 戒[禁]取: Overreliance on ascetic practice and blind adherence to the precepts; one of the five mistaken views. attainment of awakening upon aspiring 便成正覺: Supreme awakening, the attainment of buddhahood, is completely assured when one first aspires for awakening; the identity of one's first aspiration and supreme awakening. See also aspiration for awakening.

auxiliary methods 助道法門: Ancillary techniques designed to assist realization of the path; ritual processes and other meditative techniques that are useful in helping to realize the goal of practice.

avaricious desire is [indivisible from] awakening 貪欲卽菩提: The identity or indivisibility of passionate desires (such as greed) with awakening; the idea that desires and wisdom cannot be separated.

beyond words 言語道斷: Lit., "the way of words and discourse is severed," a phrase frequently used by Zhiyi to express reaching the point where one can only admit the inadequacy of verbal expression and conceptual understanding. bhūmi. See ten stages.

blessings 恩: The good influences or "grace" of the Buddha or Dharma. boat that flows with the current 順流舟: An image for samsara: beings float along the current of life and death as a boat flows with the current. See also ocean of samsara. bodhisattva of the Distinct Teachings 別敎菩薩: Bodhisattvas who practice according to and understand at the level of the Distinct Teachings; they practice the gradual and successive or progressive method of cessation-and-contemplation. See also Fourfold Teachings.

bodhisattva of the Shared Teachings 通敎菩薩: Bodhisattvas who practice according to, or follow, the Shared Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings bodhisattva of the six perfections 六度菩薩 or bodhisattva of the Tripiṭaka Teachings 三藏[藏敎]菩薩: Bodhisattvas who practice according to, or follow, the Tripiṭaka Teachings, characterized as one who specializes in the practice of the six perfections. See also Fourfold Teachings; six perfections. 459

Glossary

bodies [of the Buddha] 四身: The Dharma body 法身, the reward (recompense) body 報身, the manifestation (response) body 應身, and the historical appearance or transformation body 化身; the most common theory of the buddha bodies in Mahayana Buddhism stipulates three bodies (Dharma body, reward or manifestation body, and transformation body), but Zhiyi sometimes distinguishes between the "reward" and "manifestation" bodies for a classification of four bodies. body of recompense 報身(報佛): The body of the Buddha with which one enjoys the blissful reward of awakening. See also bodies [of the Buddha]. bonds of karma are [indivisible from] liberation 結業卽解脱: The indivisibility, or unity, of the bonds of karmic deeds and the liberation of the Buddha, which are inseparable. both lucidly and clearly illumined 雙照分明: For both aspects of emptiness and conventionality to be illumined through the practice of contemplation. both walking and sitting samādhi 半行半坐三昧: Lit., "half-walking and half-sitting samādhi"; includes methods of cultivating contemplation that involve various physical activities. See also samādhi. brahma ("noble, pure") mind 梵心: An advanced state of mind wherein one cultivates the four virtues (brahmavihāras) of kindness (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekṣā).

buddha-nature 佛性: (1) The innate ability or potential to attain buddhahood; buddhahood inherent in all beings; the essence of buddhahood; the capacity for awakening, given the right conditions. (2) The ultimate nature of reality, synonymous with other terms that attempt to describe the indescribable, such as "suchness," "the true features of reality," and Dharma realm.

capacity for understanding [三乘]根性, 機根, 根機: The natural or inherent capabilities of those in the three vehicles for understanding; spiritual endowments or potential. cessation 止 (Skt. śamatha): To concentrate and still or calm the mind; to stop or put an end to delusions and passionate afflictions; both the action of stilling and calming the mind, and the quiescence attained thereby. Usually paired with "contemplation." See also cessation-and-contemplation.

cessation-and-contemplation ("calming and insight") 止觀 (Skt. śamatha-vipaśyanā): for Zhiyi, the broad category of Buddhist practice that includes all practices and methods used to attain the goal of buddhahood. The attainment of cessation-andcontemplation is like seeing to the bottom of a pond when the water is still and clear of obstructions.

Chandaka 車匿: Śākyamuni's servant and charioteer who accompanied Gautama on the night of his "great departure" when he rode his horse out of the palace at Kapilavastu; later Chandaka joined the Buddhist sangha, though it is said that he was known for his arrogance and pride for being a member of the Śākya clan. 460

Glossary

circular altar 圓壇: A circular mandala with twenty-four images prepared for the practice of the vaipulya (repentance) samādhi. See also samādhi.

circumambulate 遶旋: One of the ten items involved in the practice of the lotus samādhi is circumambulation of a buddha image. See also lotus samādhi. circumstantial recompense 依報: The world itself, our environment, the place of our dwelling, this environment wherein one is born due to past deeds. clumsy deliverance 拙度: The Hinayana form of salvation; a realization of emptiness that involves analysis and extinction rather than a direct realization; the attainment of mere cessation and not the insight of contemplation; in contrast to the skillful deliverance of a bodhisattva or buddha.

coarse cot 繩床: Lit., "rope bed (or chair)," one of the eighteen articles that a monk is allowed to own, as defined in the Vinaya with certain restrictions. color of the mountains and the taste of the sea always the same 山海色味無二無別: Lit., "the color and taste of the mountains and sea are neither two nor distinct"; common Buddhist images for the equality of all phenomena, that good and bad phenomena are equally empty.

common prajñā [teachings] 共般若: Prajñā-wisdom that is common to or shared among the various Four Teachings; on the other hand, there is prajñā-wisdom that is not common 不共般若 but unique to bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings.

concentration of no conceptions 非想定: A state of concentration achieved through the practice of yoga in which all thoughts and conceptions cease. A state achieved by Śākyamuni while practicing under Udraka Rāmaputra.

concentration that is the realization of the inexhaustibility of emptiness 空無邊處定: The first level of attainment in the realm of formlessness. conditional cause 緣因 [仏性]: Practices or conditions, specifically those that bring about wisdom, as an aspect of buddha-nature; one of the types of threefold buddha-nature. consciousness of undying [ignorance] 無沒[無明][識]: "The consciousness of ignorance which does not sink or become extinct"; a Chinese translation of ālaya, or "store consciousness," which interprets the term as a-laya ("not-dying") instead of "store" or "container"; a function of the ālaya consciousness is to "gather and support all the seeds of undying ignorance."

consoling analogies 慰喩: The consoling remarks that can be made to an ill person, as in the remarks by Vimalakīrti in regard to his own "disease." constantly sitting samādhi 常坐三昧: One of the four samādhis; a method of Buddhist practice wherein one sits in meditation for a period of ninety days. See also single practice samādhi.

461

Glossary

constantly walking samādhi 常行三昧: One of the four samādhis; a method of Buddhist practice whereby one concentrates on and chants the name of Amitābha (Jp. Amida) while practicing circumambulation for a period of ninety days. constituent samsara 分段生死: The afflictive "birth and death of fixed (karmic) allotments"; the ordinary cycle of birth and death experienced by deluded beings, in contrast to the "rebirth by transformation" beyond conceptual understanding, a type of rebirth experienced by those who have severed all delusions. contemplation of analyzing [phenomena] to realize emptiness 析[法入]空觀: To analyze phenomena and conclude that they are empty; the method of realizing emptiness at the level of the Tripiṭaka Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings, analytical method. contemplation of entering (realizing) emptiness from the conventional [and the two truths] 從假入空[二諦]觀: To advance from a naive acceptance of phenomena or conventional reality as substantially real to realizing its emptiness; the first stage of Zhiyi's threefold contemplation. See also threefold contemplation. contemplation of entering (realizing) the conventional from emptiness [and equality] 從空入假[平等]觀: To reaffirm conventional reality after, or on the basis of, a realization of emptiness; the second stage of Zhiyi's threefold contemplation. See also threefold contemplation.

contemplation of evil 惡觀: To contemplate evil thoughts and desires as they arise in the mind. A type of contemplation recommended for the neither walking nor sitting samādhi.

contemplation of impurity 不淨觀: To contemplate the impurity of this life, such as the decay of corpses, the impurity of the physical body, and so forth. contemplation of (realizing) essential emptiness 體空觀: To contemplate and realize that all is empty; the method of contemplation in the Shared Teachings, criticized by Zhiyi as too negativistic, though superior to the method of realizing emptiness by analyzing and breaking down phenomena used in the Tripiṭaka Teachings. The character 體 can be taken as referring to the "essence" of emptiness, or as a verb so that one "embodies" or "realizes" emptiness. See also Fourfold Teachings. contemplation of the conventional 假觀: To contemplate provisional existence or reality, that things, though empty, have provisional or conventional existence; one of the threefold contemplations. See also threefold contemplation.

contemplation of the mind; contemplating thoughts 觀心: (1) In Tiantai, the practice of contemplation; more specifically, the contemplation of thoughts themselves, to concentrate on specific thoughts; the contemplation of the mind (either and both as the subject or object of contemplation). (2) A general term for Buddhist practice. (3) The practice of contemplation that results in the experience of direct insight, which serves as authoritative for understanding and interpreting the Buddhist tradition. (4) The subject of the Mohezhiguan, specifically the section (Chapter VII) on 462

Glossary

"proper" or "correct" contemplation that begins in the fifth fascicle and continues to the end of the work.

contemplation of the [supreme] Middle Path 中道[第一義]觀: Contemplation of all things as simultaneously empty of substantial Being and yet having conventional existence; contemplation of the Middle Path as the supreme truth, or contemplation of the supreme truth as the Middle Path; contemplation of all things as "neither this nor that" and beyond verbalization and conceptualization. See also Middle Path. contemplation (or insight) 觀 (Skt. vipaśyanā): The practice of concentration or meditation to attain wisdom; both the practice of contemplation and the insight gained thereby. In the Mohezhiguan Zhiyi explains the relative sense of contemplation (in contrast to the "absolute" meaning) in terms of three meanings: piercing through 貫穿, penetrating insight 觀達, and contemplation (insight) in relative contrast to noncontemplation (non-insight) 對不觀觀. See also cessation-and-contemplation. contemplation, training, discipline, and cultivation 觀練熏修: A summation of various types of Buddhist practices.

contemplative wisdom 觀慧(觀法智慧): The prajñā-wisdom based on, or gained through, contemplation of dharmas ("factors of existence").

controlling, rectifying, and stabilizing (concentrating) 調直定: Zhiyi's gloss in the Mohezhiguan for samadhic concentration. It is possible that three terms are chosen because the Chinese transliteration of samādhi is 三昧, lit., "three mysteries." conventionality; conventional (provisional) [existence] 假: All things, though empty of substantial Being, have a conventional or provisional reality. copper wheel 銅輪 or "copper cakravartin": In Buddhist cosmology the second level of six wheel-turning kings; in terms of the Six Identities this corresponds to the level of "partial realization of the real truth." See also Six Identities; wheel-turning king. counting breaths 數息[觀]: A form of contemplation or aid to concentration that consists of counting the breath (inhalations and exhalations); one of the basic approaches or aids to concentrative meditation; one of the "six sublime gates" of meditation and the "five contemplations for putting the mind at rest."

daily activity 治生産業: The activity of worldly life; business; occupations that sustain life.

dark and pale 濃淡: The contrast between superior and inferior, such as food, medicine, and teachings; thick or thin/diluted, rich or meager.

dark destinies 幽途: The three evil destinies of hell, beasts, and hungry ghosts. See also six destinies.

days of fasting 齋日: Days of fasting, ceremonial days, or auspicious days that occur on the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, twenty-third, twenty-ninth, or thirtieth days of the month; the six fasting days (uposatha) used for ritual purification, repentance, and (for laypeople) deliberate upholding of the eight basic precepts. 463

Glossary

death suffered by ordinary mortals 分段死: Ordinary death experienced by deluded beings in the samsaric realm of distinctions, in contrast to "rebirth by transformation," death experienced by those who have severed all delusions. Deer Park 鹿苑[時] period: According to the Tiantai scheme, the Buddha arrived three weeks after his awakening at the Deer Park at Mṛgadāva (modern-day Benares) and preached the Hinayana teachings for twelve years; the second of the five periods of Tiantai; also called "Āgama period," the period of the five Āgamas. See also Āgamas; five periods and eight teachings.

deliberate (conditioned) cultivation [of means] 緣修[方便]: The conscious and deliberate practice of gradual, successive contemplation; in contrast to the "true" or real spontaneous practice of contemplation.

deluded views and attitudes (conceptions) 見思(煩惱)惑: All the explicit mistaken views and attitudes (conceptions) or emotions, that is, the passions that afflict human beings; the first of the three categories of delusions; to mistakenly discriminate objects of consciousness and worldly things and become attached to mistaken views of the self and other extreme views; to analyze things and have mistaken attitudes or conceptions concerning them.

demon 羅刹 (Skt. rākṣasa): Demonic beings, though in some cases they act as protectors of the Dharma (see chapter 21 in the Lotus Sutra); personifications of evil or delusions, such as the passions and mistaken views.

demonic forces as objects [of contemplation] 魔事境: The fifth of the ten objects of contemplation. See also ten objects of contemplation.

determined singlemindedness 決定一心: A high level of singlemindedness. deviant (mistaken) views 邪見: Mistaken and dangerous metaphysical ideas; views that are the opposite of or that obstruct the attainment of awakening. The objects of contemplation expounded in the final section 7 in Chapter VII of the Mohezhiguan. ḍha (茶 [Siddham letter]): The syllable ḍha represents the last in a series of forty-two syllables of the Siddham-Sanskrit alphabet that are equated with various thematic permutations of the liberative wisdom of the nonarising of phenomena. dhāraṇī 陀羅尼: An incantation that is the idealization of a Buddhist principle in a verse or phrase, and which contains spiritual power; a recitative technique to help retain the teachings that have been heard or to bring forth good qualities. Zhiyi often defines dhāraṇī in terms of a device to uphold or keep the good and hinder or get rid of evil.

dhāraṇī for destroying evil karma 破惡業陀羅尼: One of three dhāraṇī spells from the Sutra on Petitioning Avalokiteśvara used in the liturgical repentance; this dhāraṇī has the power to destroy the obstacles of karma.

464

Glossary

dhāraṇī for eliminating poison and restraining harm 銷伏毒害陀羅尼: One of three dhāraṇī spells from the Sutra on Petitioning Avalokiteśvara used in the liturgical repentance; this dhāraṇī has the power to destroy the obstacles of karmic recompense. dhāraṇī of six-syllable phrases 六字章句陀羅尼: One of three dhāraṇī spells from the Sutra on Petitioning Avalokiteśvara used in the liturgical repentance; this dhāraṇī has the power to destroy the obstacles of passionate afflictions. Dharma body 法身 (Skt. dharmakāya): One of the three bodies of the Buddha; the body of the Dharma; the essence of reality; the fundamental, beginningless, and endless truth. See also bodies [of the Buddha].

Dharma eye 法眼: One of the five kinds of eyes; insight into dharmas or phenomena as empty; to see things as they are; endowed with this insight, bodhisattvas perceive phenomena correctly and are thus able to help sentient beings in the mundane world. direct cause 正因[仏性]: In Tiantai, one of the three aspects of buddhahood, the function of the Dharma body as one of the threefold qualities of buddha-nature inherent in all beings; the direct cause for the attainment of buddhahood. direct karmic recompense 正報: The karmic recompense of a specific body and mind induced by one's own deeds in the past; the body and mind; a sentient being; this life, which is the result of deeds in past lives.

Dīrghanakha 長爪: The story of Dīrghanakha ("Long-clawed"), who does not agree with teachings of the Buddha, is part of the seventeenth of twenty reasons for the Buddha to preach the Perfection of Wisdom and is often cited as an example of wrong-headed thinking. See also Perfection of Wisdom.

discursive thought is inadequate 心行處滅: "The locus of discursive thought is annihilated" or "the activities of the mind become quiescent and [all passions] extinct" are phrases used frequently by Zhiyi to express reaching the point where one can only admit the inadequacy of verbal expression and conceptual understanding; often used in tandem with the phrase "beyond words."

disease as an object [of contemplation] 病患境: The third of the ten objects of contemplation in the Mohezhiguan. See also ten objects of contemplation. disposition 氣分: The stage or attitude of one inclined to accept the Buddha Dharma and practice the Buddhist path, specifically cessation-and-contemplation, before entering the five preliminary grades of the disciple.

Distinct advancing to Perfect 圓接別: To make a quantum leap, rapid progress, from the level of the Distinct Teachings to that of the Perfect. See also Fourfold Teachings. distinct and progressive threefold truth 隔歴三諦: The three truths of emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle as distinct from each other and involving progressive insight; in contrast to the threefold truth as perfectly integrated. 465

Glossary

Distinct Teachings 別敎: One of the Fourfold Teachings in the Tiantai doctrinal classification scheme. The teachings of the Buddha meant specifically or distinctly for the bodhisattva, apart from the Tripiṭaka and Shared Teachings; Mahayana, not Hinayana teachings, that is, for bodhisattvas only and not for those of the two vehicles of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. See also Fourfold Teachings. divine eye 天眼: The eye or eyesight that is able to see things that a normal, physical eye cannot perceive. One of the five types of eyes or insights. dragon king 龍王: Technically not a dragon but a mythical Indian creature called nāga that more resembles a large snake, the translation "dragon" follows the meaning of the Chinese characters.

dream kings 夢王: A group of twelve figures mentioned in the Great and Broad Dhāraṇī Sutra, one of which should appear in a dream to a practitioner before he is allowed to proceed with undertaking the vaipulya samādhi.

drum stained with poison 毒塗鼓, 塗毒鼓: In contrast to the "heavenly drum" 天鼓 (a comparison to the voice of the Buddha), the "drum stained with poison" leads all who hear it to death; a metaphor for sensual desires associated with or aroused by sound. dull faculties 鈍根: Those who are slow to understand, people with inferior abilities or capabilities; in contrast to those with superior abilities who can understand quickly. eight beings such as gods and dragons 天龍八部: Eight mythical beings, devas (superhuman gods), nāgas (dragons), yakṣas (flying demons), gandharvas (semidivine beings), asuras (beings that are constantly fighting), garuḍas (a type of bird), kiṃnaras (half-human, half-beast), and mahoragas (serpent deity). eight courtesies 八敬法 (Pāli aṭṭha garu-dhammā, Skt. gurudharma): "Eight respectful dharmas or formalities"; "eight severe canonical provisions" that place a nun in complete dependence on the monks.

eight demonic forces 八魔: The eight destroyers or māras of the passionate afflictions, the aggregates, death, the Demon King Māra, impermanence, joylessness, nonself, and impurity.

eight dhyānas 八禪: The four dhyāna stages (meditative states in the realm of form) plus the four concentrative states in the realm of formlessness.

eight divination signs 八卦: A system of divination based on a series of eight combinations of solid and dotted lines (trigrams), starting with three solid lines and ending with three dotted lines: ☰☱☲☳☴☵☶☷, the basic pattern taught in the Book of Changes. eighteen kinds of emptiness 十八空: (1) internal emptiness, (2) external emptiness, (3) both internal and external emptiness, (4) the emptiness of emptiness, (5) great emptiness, (6) emptiness as the supreme meaning, (7) the emptiness of the conditioned, (8) the emptiness of the unconditioned, (9) the emptiness of the ultimate, (10) the emptiness of that without beginning, (11) the emptiness of that which is dispersed, (12) the emptiness of nature or essences, (13) the emptiness of that with specific 466

Glossary

marks, (14) the emptiness of all dharmas, (15) the emptiness of that which cannot be obtained (or "of the past, present, and future"), (16) the emptiness of non-Being/ nonexistence, (17) the emptiness of Being/existence, and (18) the emptiness of both nonexistence and existence.

eighteen realms 十八界: The six sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind), their associated six sense objects (visible form, sound, smells, tastes, touch, and dharmas), and the six sense consciousnesses.

eighteen unique qualities [of the Buddha] 十八不共法: Characteristics that are unique to the Buddha, which include the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the three mindfulnesses, and great compassion.

eightfold right (noble) path 八正道: The content of the fourth of the Four Noble Truths; part of the thirty-seven steps on the path: right views, right discrimination, right speech, right deeds, right way of life, right diligence, right mindfulness, and right concentration. See also Four Noble Truths; thirty-seven steps on the path. eighth person (stage) 八人(忍): The third of the ten bhūmi stages of the Shared Teachings (corresponding to the eighth stage, or first fruit, for those of the Tripiṭaka Teachings). See also Fourfold Teachings; stage of the eighth person (patience); ten bhūmi stages.

eight kinds of forbearance (recognition) 八忍 (認): Eight understandings that lead to awakening; part of the thirty-four enlightened mental states; along with the eight kinds of wisdom, mental states or attitudes that help you to sever mistaken views, two types for each of the Four Noble Truths. See also thirty-four enlightened mental states. eight kinds of wisdom 八智: Part of the thirty-four enlightened mental states; along with the eight kinds of forbearance, mental states or attitudes that help to sever mistaken views, two types for each of the Four Noble Truths. See also thirty-four enlightened mental states.

eight levels of domination 八勝處: After attaining the eight liberations, the levels of contemplation wherein one increasingly attains mastery and domination over pure and impure realms. See also eight liberations.

eight liberations (renunciations, abandonments) 八解脱 (背捨): Eight stages of "liberation" leading to complete cessation (nirodha-samāpatti): (1) removing desires by concentration on and internalizing a certain external object; (2) cultivating total concentration by focusing the mind internally; (3) attaining a state of mental and physical purity; (4) maintaining calmness while freeing the mind from external objects; (5) focusing on unlimited space and dissolving the distinctions of the external world; (6) attaining both physically and mentally a realm without limits, where there are no "existents"; (7) attaining the foundation that transcends space and the mental realm, which is neither conceptual nor nonconceptual; and (8) attaining a state in which this foundation is constantly manifested, with the complete extinction of sensations and conceptualizations. Some explanations add a ninth "liberation": complete cessation or nothingness (nirodha-samāpatti).

467

Glossary

eight mindfulnesses 八念: To be mindful of the Buddha 佛, Dharma 法, and Sangha 僧; the precepts 戒; equanimity (or abandonment) 捨; divine matters 天; inhalations and exhalations of the breath 出入息; and death 死.

eight perversions 八[顚]倒: The four perverted views that the world is permanent, blissful, has selfhood, and is pure; there are four each in Hinayana and Mahayana, for a total of eight perverted views.

eight phases in the life of the Buddha [for attaining the path] 八相作佛, 八相[佛]成道: Important events in the life of a buddha: (1) dwelling in and descending from Tuṣita Heaven, (2) entering the mother's womb, (3) birth in this world, (4) leaving home to become a mendicant, (5) overcoming temptation and conquering the demons of desire after years of practice, (6) attaining the awakening of a buddha, (7) turning the wheel of the Dharma, and (8) entering final nirvana.

eight tactile sensations 八觸: Physical sensations of heaviness 重, lightness 輕, coldness 冷, heat 熱, roughness 渋(澁), smoothness 滑, softness 軟, and coarseness 麁. Or eight sensations that hinder meditation in its early stages: movement/restlessness 動, itchiness 痒, lightness 輕, heaviness 重, coldness 冷, heat 煖, roughness 澁, and smoothness 滑.

eight winds 八風: Happy and unhappy conditions that agitate the human mind: benefit 利, decline 衰, ruin 毀, honor 誉, praise 稱, slander 譏, suffering 苦, and pleasure 樂. eighty-eight passionate afflictions (myriad mistaken views) 八十八使: All of the afflictions and passions of this world, which include thirty-two afflictions of the realm of desires, twenty-eight of the realm of form, and twenty-eight of the formless realm. eighty minor marks [of a buddha] 八十種好: The eighty minor physical marks or characteristics of a "great person" or buddha, in addition to thirty-two major marks. The lists vary but include such features as the veins are not visible, walking like a lion (and an elephant, goose, and bull), all parts of the body are perfect, the navel forms a clockwise spiral, the ears are long and full, and the head is very large. See also thirty-two major marks [of a buddha].

eleven wisdoms 十一智: Types of wisdom listed in the Perfection of Wisdom in 25,000 Lines: Dharma wisdom, comparable wisdom, wisdom of knowing other people's minds, worldly wisdom, wisdom of suffering, wisdom of the causes of suffering, wisdom of the extinction of suffering, wisdom of the path, wisdom of exhaustion of passions, wisdom of nonarising, and wisdom of reality as it is. eloquence 樂説: To preach with pleasure; for a bodhisattva to hear and enjoy a superior Dharma teaching and preach it to sentient beings for their benefit; one of the four kinds of preaching; to be unobstructed in preaching the Dharma. emptiness 空 (Skt. śūnyatā): The true nature of things as lacking independent, substantial self-existence (Being).

468

Glossary

emptiness of emptiness 空空: Empty dharmas are also "empty" of "emptiness"; an expression of conventional reality; a denial of "substantial" emptiness. endowed with five virtuous qualities 五分法身: One who is endowed with the qualities of keeping the precepts, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge-insight of liberation; in Tiantai, the highest attainment for those of the Hinayana. endowed with suffering 苦具: That which gives suffering; hell, the place of suffering. enticement 誘引: Conventional teachings used as skillful means to entice beings to higher levels of truth; in the Lotus Sutra the term is used in parables to describe how the father "entices" his children to leave the burning house, and "entices" the poor son to improve himself; in the Tiantai classification system, this refers to the teachings of the Tripiṭaka Period. See also Fourfold Teachings.

enticing [others to awakening] 被接: For the Buddha's grace to benefit sentient beings; for the Buddha to lead, or "pull" others to awakening; to advance to a higher stage of achievement, such as taking a quantum leap from the stages of the Distinct to the stages of the Perfect teachings; for those of the Distinct or Shared teachings who have superior ability to advance ("be enticed") to the level of the Perfect Teaching. See also enticement; Fourfold Teachings.

ephemeral [thought] 介爾[之心]: A way of expressing the shortest possible temporal moment, used in the context of discussing a single thought-moment. equivalent to awakening 等覺: Preliminary awakening; the realization of the equality of all things; in Tiantai, the fifty-first of the fifty-two bodhisattva stages. See also fifty-two [bodhisattva] levels.

eradicate and transcend [the idea of] fundamental [Being] 壞本絶本: An expression used by Zhiyi to express the realization of emptiness.

eraṇḍa 伊蘭: A type of plant with toxic seeds used to make castor oil; it is known for its foul smell (in contrast to the peasant fragrance of sandalwood). eternalism 常見: One of the two extreme views, that the world is eternal; the opposite of "annihilationism," that nothing exists; Buddhism teaches a middle way between these two extremes. See also annihilationism.

evil friend 惡友, evil teacher 惡知識: A supposed "friend" who leads you astray, in contrast to a "good friend," a teacher, who helps you approach awakening. exhausting dust 塵勞 [of passionate afflictions]: Along with ignorance, one of the basic conditions of "ordinary" sentient beings; to be covered with, and exhausted by, passionate afflictions.

expose the tentative and manifest the real 開權顯實: To show that the three vehicles (triyāna) are not ultimately true but that all is included in the single vehicle (ekayāna); to show conventional truth for what it is and reveal the ultimate truth; to reject the tentative and establish the real; one of the three meanings of the word "tentative." 469

Glossary

exposing, signifying, awakening, and entering (realizing) 開示悟入: A phrase from the Lotus Sutra stating that the one great purpose of the Buddha in appearing in this world is to expose and signify the Buddha Dharma, thus helping sentient beings to become awakened to and enter or realize the Buddha Dharma.

external guardians 外護: People who care for a practitioner's external needs, as mentioned by Zhiyi with regard to practicing constantly walking samādhi. external obstacles 外障: Obstacles and hindrances that originate outside the mind. extract suffering and grant bliss 拔苦與樂: The compassionate activity of buddhas and bodhisattvas; lit., to remove or extract suffering and bestow pleasure or bliss. extreme offenses 邊罪 (Skt. pārājika): The most serious moral offenses that a monk can commit, resulting in expulsion from the sangha; there are four pārājikas for an adult monk: engaging in sexual intercourse, stealing, committing murder, and claiming to have attained a level of understanding that they have not yet attained. See also four serious offenses.

extreme views 邊見: The two extreme views of annihilationism, that the self and all else is extinguished at the time of death, and of eternalism, that the self exists forever. eye of wisdom 慧眼: One of the "five eyes"; philosophical acumen, insight into the truth; to perceive that all things are empty.

falling from the pinnacle 頂墮: The "pinnacle" or "summit" is the state where one is free from the afflictions of the triple world; "falling" means retrogression to a defiled level of consciousness; the term specifically refers to the rebirth in an evil destiny by a person who had previously attained the level of the four wholesome roots of the śrāvaka path.

far and near [to awakening] 遠近: These terms correspond to the "outer" 外 [far] and "inner" 内 [near] means for attaining awakening; "far" refers to the introductory practices of one who is still far from buddhahood, and "near" refers to the more advanced practices of one who is approaching the final goal. fellow practitioners 同行: As Zhiyi says: "You must have external protectors who, day and night, regulate your meals and are diligent and patient, like a mother caring for her children. Also, you must have excellent fellow practitioners of serious demeanor and firm discipline, who act like persons traveling together on a perilous road." fifty-two [bodhisattva] levels 五十二位: The stages through which a bodhisattva advances on the path to buddhahood: ten levels of faith, ten abodes, ten levels of practice, ten levels of merit transference, ten stages (bhūmis), the level equivalent to awakening, and the level of (supreme) sublime awakening. See also ten abodes; ten stages. final fruit 果頭: The final, ultimate goal of buddhahood, attained only by those who realize the Perfect Teaching, not those of the Tripiṭaka, Shared, and Distinct Teachings. 470

Glossary

fire-blood sword 火血刀: The three evil destinies of the realms of hell, beasts, and hungry ghosts.

first aspiration for awakening 初發心 (Skt. bodhicitta): To aspire for buddhahood; to arouse a mind that seeks awakening; in Tiantai, the first of the ten stages of abodes. See also aspiration for awakening.

first deeds 初業: The earliest or first actions taken on the path toward awakening. first stage of abodes 初住: The first of the ten bodhisattva stages of the ten abodes, the second group of ten stages in the fifty-two stages leading to buddhahood; the level of aspiration for awakening. See also fifty-two [bodhisattva] levels; ten abodes. five afflictions that bind one to the lower parts [of the three realms] 五下分結: The various afflictions that bind people to the lowest of the three realms of existence, the everyday realm of desires: greed or covetousness 欲貪, anger 瞋恚, the view that the body is substantially real 有身見, the view of attachment to precepts 戒禁取見, and doubt 疑.

five afflictions that bind one to the upper parts [of the three realms] 五上分結: The various afflictions that bind people to the higher of the three realms of existence, the realms of form and formlessness: covetousness for visible form 色貪, covetousness for no visible form 無色貪, restlessness 掉擧, pride 慢, and ignorance 無明. five aggregates 五陰 (Skt. pañca-skandha): the five groups of constituent elements that combine to form living beings: (physical) visible form 色 (rūpa), (mental) sensations 受 (vedanā), conceptions 想 (saṃjñā), volitions 行 (saṃskāra), and consciousness 識 (vijñāna).

Five Classics 五經: Important Chinese spiritual, literary, and historical works, the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Odes, the Book of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals.

five collections of precepts 五部律: Vinaya collections associated with five of the traditional Indian schools, Theravāda, Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, and Mūlasarvāstivāda.

five constant [virtues] 五常: The five virtues that all people should constantly strive to uphold: humaneness 仁, duty 義, propriety 禮, wisdom 智, and trust 信. five contemplations for putting the mind at rest 五停心觀: To put the mind at rest by means of compassion, counting one's breaths, meditating on conditioned co-arising, meditating on impurities, and being mindful of the Buddha; or five kinds of contemplation for putting an end to the five unwholesome attitudes: (1) contemplation of impurity 不淨觀, (2) contemplation of compassion 慈悲觀, (3) contemplation of causes and conditions 因緣觀, (4) mindfulness of the Buddha 念佛觀, and (5) counting one's breaths 數息觀.

five dull (obvious) afflictions 五鈍使: Lit., five "dull" passions; the obvious unwholesome mental states of covetousness, anger, ignorance, pride (arrogance), and doubt. 471

Glossary

five elements 五行: The classical Chinese teaching that all things are composed of the five basic elements of wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.

five eyes 五眼 or five kinds of eyesight or insight: The physical eye 肉眼, the divine eye 天眼, the eye of wisdom 慧眼, the Dharma eye 法眼, and the Buddha eye 佛眼. five fetters 五繋: Refers to "the five corpses" 五尸, the demons of desires that are conquered through the five types of contemplations of impurity; or the fetters of "the five limbs" 五處 (two arms, two legs, and the neck).

five flavors 五味: An analogy based on a passage in the Great Nirvana Sutra that compares the various teachings of the Buddha and the attainment of nirvana to the five progressive stages of the refinement of milk: (1) milk 乳, (2) cream 酪, (3) (raw) curds 生酥, (4) butter (or mature curds) 熟酥, and (5) ghee 醍醐; used in Tiantai as an analogy for the five periods in the development of the Buddha's teaching. The "five flavors" correspond respectively to the teachings of the Flower Garland Sutra; the Tripiṭaka (the Āgamas); the Vaipulya sutras; the Perfection of Wisdom sutras; and the Great Nirvana Sutra and Lotus Sutra.

fivefold Dharma body 五分法身: The five virtuous qualities of the Dharma body: keeping the precepts, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge-insight of liberation; in Tiantai, the highest attainment by those of the Hinayana. fivefold repentance [in the six times] 五悔: The fivefold Tiantai ceremony for repenting offenses committed by and through the six senses or sense organs; the five kinds of confession practiced by those cultivating the lotus samādhi: (1) repentance of the offenses committed through the six senses 懺悔, which includes (a) universal confession and (b) specific confession; (2) petitioning the buddhas to remain in the world and preach the Dharma 勸請; (3) rejoicing in the good of others 隨喜; (4) transferring your own merit to others 回向; and (5) vowing to save or benefit all beings 發願. five forbearances 五忍: Five levels of forbearance (or patience, sometimes "recognition" 認) from overcoming [delusions] 伏忍, from attaining faith 信忍, from pliantly following the path 柔順忍, of realizing the nonarising of dharmas 無生法忍, and of quiescent extinction 寂滅忍.

five good roots (faculties) 五善根: The moral faculties of faith 信, diligence 精, mindfulness 念, concentration 定, and wisdom 慧; one of the categories of the thirty-seven steps on the path. See also thirty-seven steps on the path.

five heavenly realms of the nonreturner 五那含天: The state from which there is no more falling back into a state of ignorance; one of the twenty-five realms of existence; the fifth through ninth levels of the fourth dhyāna stage.

five heinous (grave) offenses 五逆: The five worst, most deadly offenses: (1) patricide, (2) matricide, (3) killing an arhat, (4) to cause a buddha to bleed, and (5) to cause a schism in the sangha.

472

Glossary

five hundred yojanas 五百由旬: A great distance that must be traveled to reach the final goal; from the parable of the conjured city in the Lotus Sutra. five impediments 五蓋: Mental states that inhibit progress to awakening and must be removed when preparing to cultivate Buddhist practice: covetous desires 貪欲, hateful anger 瞋恚, drowsiness and sleep 睡眠, restlessness and remorse 掉悔, and doubt 疑.

five impurities 五濁: The impurities of this current eon of mistaken views, passionate afflictions, sentient beings, and life span.

five levels of delusions 五住地惑: The delusions with which sentient beings in the triple world are afflicted: (1) mistaken views in the triple world 見一處住地惑, (2) obstacles to knowledge in the realm of desires 欲愛地惑, (3) obstacles to knowledge in the realm of form 色愛地惑, (4) obstacles to knowledge in the formless realm 有愛地惑, (5) fundamental ignorance 無明地惑.

five-limbed prostration 五體投地: Adopting a pose of prostration in which both elbows, both knees, and the crown of one's head all touch the floor.

five limbs of the precepts 五支戒: A list of types of precepts in the Great Nirvana Sutra: (1) the complete pure precepts that are the basic deeds of the bodhisattva, (2) the rest of the pure precepts of the retinue in front of and behind the Buddha, (3) the pure precepts that are the perception of all non-evil perceptions, (4) the pure precepts of mindfulness that are a maintenance of correct mindfulness, (5) the precepts of the supreme path that are a complete conversion.

five mistaken views 五見: (1) the mistaken view that the body is substantial, (2) extreme views, (3) deviant views, (4) attachment to mistaken views, and (5) excessive attachment to the precepts (lit., "morality and vows"). five objects [of sensory perception] 五塵: Lit., "five dusts"; objects one experiences as visible form, sound, odor, taste, and touch.

five parts [of the practice of dhyāna] 五分: Five aspects of progression or retreat in the practice of dhyāna meditation: (1) retreating 退分, (2) dwelling 住分, (3) progressing 進分, (4) accomplishing 逹分, and (5) "keeping (guarding)" 護分. five periods and eight teachings 五時八教: The Tiantai doctrinal classification scheme of five periods of teachings are (1) the Flower Garland Sutra, (2) the Āgamas (Deer Park period), (3) the Vaipulya sutras, (4) the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, and (5) the Great Nirvana Sutra and Lotus Sutra. The eight teachings are the "four methods of conversion" (sudden, gradual, secret, and variable) and the "four doctrines of conversion" (the Fourfold Teachings of Tripiṭaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect). See also Fourfold Teachings.

five powers 五力: Faith 信, diligence 精, mindfulness 念, concentration 定, and wisdom 慧; the five powers are one of the categories of the thirty-seven steps on the path. See also thirty-seven steps on the path.

473

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five practices 五行: Types of bodhisattva practices as explained in the Great Nirvana Sutra: (1) noble practice 聖行, the cultivation of precepts, meditation, and wisdom; (2) noble compassionate practice (noble conduct) 梵行, actions to relieve suffering and bring joy to sentient beings; (3) divine practices 天行, actions done in accordance with heavenly principles; (4) parental practices 嬰児行, to act with compassion, as a mother toward a child; and (5) the practice of disease 病行, to suffer pain and disease in the same manner as other sentient beings, for their benefit. five precepts 五戒 (Skt. pañca-śīla): Basic rules for moral living, abstaining from killing, stealing, engaging in illicit sex, lying, and ingesting intoxicating substances. five preliminary constituents [of meditation] 五支: In the Abhidharma tradition there are five constituents of meditation, which in Tiantai are considered preliminary constituents: (1) vitarka 覺, examination, a process of positioning, implying examination leading up to judgment and decision; (2) vicāra 觀, reflection, the steadily moving reflection, the quiet and serious consideration and study of that which has been brought into the circle of interest. These first two constituents are the cognitive aspect of the process of concentration, and are followed by (3) prīti 喜, joy, an agreeable sensation, and (4) sukha 安樂, bliss, which together are the emotive aspect that is never absent in any of our mental processes; and (5) cittāikāgratā 心一境性, singleminded concentration.

five preliminary grades of the disciple 五品弟子位: In the Tiantai scheme of the various stages on the path to buddhahood, the five lowest or preliminary levels of practice and attainment (in the Perfect Teaching) for a disciple of the Buddha: appropriate joy 随喜品, reading and reciting the sutras 読誦品, preaching the Dharma 説法品, preliminary practice of the six perfections while practicing contemplation 兼行六度品, and the proper practice of the six perfections 正行六度品; the level of a practitioner preceding the attainment of the ten stages of faith; the five stages of "outsider" practices; the level Zhiyi himself claimed to have attained in his life. five shades 五翳: The "five shades" that block the light of the sun or moon are smoke, clouds, dust, fog, and the asura Rāhu (the mythological figure who causes eclipses). five sharp afflictions 五利使: Subtle, "sharp" everyday unconscious passionate afflictions; the "five sharp afflictions" of passion (covetousness) 愛(貪), anger 瞋, arrogance 慢, ignorance 癡 or 無明, and doubt 疑. five stages of name and form 名色位: Five "stages" in the development of a human fetus, referring to the first five weeks in the womb.

five supplementary methods 行五法: The fifth category of the twenty-five means or preparations for contemplation; supplementary methods in preparing for contemplative practice: yearning (zeal), diligence, mindfulness, skillful discernment, and singlemindedness.

five supranormal powers (or abilities) 五神通: Supernatural abilities possessed by a buddha: (1) the ability to appear anywhere you wish 如意通 or 神足通, (2) the 474

Glossary

ability to see what ordinary people cannot see 天眼通, (3) the ability to hear sounds that others cannot hear 天耳通, (4) the ability to read other peoples' minds 他心通, and (5) the ability to perceive your own and others' past lives 宿命通. five types of impurity [of the human body] 五種不淨: (1) impurity of the place of birth 生處, (2) impurity of seeds 種子, (3) impurity of the nature of the body 自性, (4) impurity of the features of the body 自相, and (5) ultimate (final) 究竟 impurity (in death).

fixing [thoughts] on the Dharma realm as the object [of contemplation] 繫緣法界: A characteristic of the perfect and sudden cessation-and-contemplation; to contemplate reality itself as the object of one's attention; a phrase from the Teaching of Mañjuśrī used in the introduction to the Mohezhiguan, considered the "essence" of the Tiantai teachings.

fix your thoughts [on reality] and have them emerge spontaneously 繫念現前: A description of the function of cessation as a result of "stopping" delusions and passionate afflictions.

flourish and decay 榮枯: A Tiantai description of the four perverted views, that the world is permanent, blissful, has selfhood, and is pure, four each in Hinayana and Mahayana for a total of eight perverted views; Tiantai dogmatics teach "four kinds of flourishing" and "four kinds of decay" in addition to the traditional "four kinds of perverted views."

flower of reward 華報: The rewards received in this life from performing good deeds, in contrast to the "fruit," "results," or "recompense" received in future lives. formless realm 無色界: The realm of experience by one who has severed all desires and attachments to form but has still not experienced full awakening; the realm that has no form but consists of only the other four of the five aggregates. forty-one bodhisattva stages 四十一位: The forty-one bodhisattva stages of the ten abodes 十住, ten practices 十行, ten of merit-transference 十回向, ten bhūmi stages 十地, and nearly equivalent to awakening 等覺; Tiantai teaches that bodhisattvas from the initial stage (the first stage of ten abodes) to highest awakening should be called dharmakāya mahāsattvas 法身大士. See also ten abodes.

forty-two letters 四十二字: The forty-two letters of the Sanskrit or Siddham alphabet: A 阿, ra 羅, pa 波, ca 遮, na 那, la 邏, da 陀, ba 婆, ḍa 茶, ṣa 沙, va 和, ta 多, ya 夜, ṣṭa 咤, ka 迦, sa 婆, ma 磨, ga 伽, tha 他, ja 闇, śva 簸, dha 駄, śa 賖, kha 呟, kṣa 叉, sta 哆, jñā 若, rtha 拖, bha 婆, cha 車, sma 摩, hva 火, tsa 嗟, gha 伽, tḥa 咃, na 拏, pha 頗, ska 歌, ysa 醒, śca 遮, ṭa 咤, and ḍha 荼.

forty unique qualities [of a buddha] 四十不共法: While eighteen unique characteristics are more commonly listed, the Treatise on the Ten Stages gives forty, starting with being able to fly freely through the air and producing immeasurable transformations, and ending with the ten powers of a buddha and "unobstructed liberation." 475

Glossary

forward and reverse contemplation of twelvefold causes and conditions 逆順觀十二因緣: The contemplation of the twelve links of conditioned arising, both forward and backward, totaling twenty-four aspects.

four appropriate methods 四隨: The Buddha uses various methods to preach the Dharma, in accordance with the capabilities of sentient beings: (1) in accordance with their desires, (2) in accordance with what is appropriate, (3) in accordance with therapeutic reasons (e.g., healing diseases that need to be healed), and (4) in accordance with the truth.

four boundless demeanors (immeasurable states of mind) 四無量心: Four "immeasurable" mental attitudes or virtues: friendliness (kindness) (maitrī) 慈, to seek to bring pleasure to others; compassion (karuṇā) 悲, sharing in the suffering of others; joy (muditā) 喜, rejoicing in the happiness of others; and abandonment 捨 or equanimity (upekṣā) 等, to abandon all false discrimination and be free of all attachments, and thus face all things "equally" (dispassionately).

four [buddha] lands 四土: Four types of buddha lands are pure lands that the Buddha "creates," as taught in the Tiantai tradition: (1) the land of co-dwelling 凡聖同居土, where ordinary people and sages dwell together; (2) the land where skillful means remain 方便有餘土, the state of arhats and pratyekabuddhas who have severed the delusions of views and thoughts and have transcended rebirth in this triple world, yet are still a step away from the awakening of a buddha; (3) the land of true recompense without obstruction 實報無障礙土, the state of the bodhisattva who has realized the truth of the Middle Path; and (4) the land of perpetual quiescent light 常寂光土 (symbolic of the three virtuous qualities of the Dharma body buddha, liberation, and wisdom), the state of the Buddha who has no delusions and has perfectly realized the truth. four categories of oneness 四一: The four "unities" or "onenesses" are (1) the oneness of teaching 教一, that all teachings of the Buddha are ultimately noncontradictory and lead to the single goal of buddhahood; (2) the oneness of practice 行一, that true practice is ultimately one and for the single purpose of attaining buddhahood; (3) the oneness of persons 人一, that the Buddha is nondual and that all people will ultimately attain buddhahood; and (4) the oneness of reality 理一, that reality is one. four categories of passions 四住地: Synonymous with "deluded views and attitudes": (1) all mistaken views in the triple world; (2) all the deluded and mistaken thoughts and attitudes in the realm of desires, that is, passion for sensual pleasures; (3) all mistaken thoughts and attitudes in the realm of form, that is, passions for forms; and (4) all mistaken thoughts and attitudes in the formless realm, that is, passion for continued existence.

four concentrations of the formless realm [or on emptiness] 四無色定 (四空定): four levels of realization in the realm of formlessness: (1) the place of the inexhaustibility of emptiness 空無邊處, (2) the place of the inexhaustibility of consciousness 識無邊處, (3) the place of nonexistence 無所有處 (or "the lesser place" 少處 of neither consciousness nor no consciousness), and (4) the place of neither conceptions nor no 476

Glossary

conceptions 非想非非想處. Four types of practicing concentration on "formlessness": the emptiness of dharma marks 法相, nonexistence 無法, own-being 自法, and other-being 他法.

four constituents [of meditation] 四支: (1) The four constituents of the second dhyāna stage: inner purity, joy, bliss, and singlemindedness; (2) four preliminary or supplementary means of concentration taught in the Treatise on the Real. four continents 四州, 四天下: In Buddhist cosmology, the four continents in the cardinal directions, which in Tiantai are part of the twenty-five realms of existence: (1) Uttarakuru in the north, (2) Jambudvīpa in the south, (3) Pūrvavideha in the east, and (4) Aparagodānīya in the west.

four demonic forces 四魔: Four māras, demonic forces, both actual and metaphoric, that obstruct the cultivation of the Buddhist path: the demons of the skandhas 陰魔, the demons of passionate afflictions 煩惱魔, the demon of death 死魔, and the supernatural demons 天子魔.

four dhyāna stages 四禪(天): The four states of dhyāna meditation, part of the twenty-five states of existence; the four states that arise in the realm of form through the practice of dhyāna. The first dhyāna stage has the five constituents of examination (vitarka) 覺, reflection (vicāra) 觀, joy 喜, bliss 樂, and singlemindedness 一心. The second stage has the constituents of inner purity 内浄, joy, bliss, and singlemindedness. The third stage has the five constituents of equanimity or abandonment 捨, mindfulness 念, wisdom 慧, bliss, and singlemindedness. The fourth stage has the constituents of neither suffering nor bliss 不苦不樂, equanimity, mindfulness, and singlemindedness. four elements 四大: The four "great" elements that make up the world: earth, water, fire, and wind.

four evil destinies 四惡趣: The four evil realms, part of the twenty-five realms of existence, are the realms of hell 地獄, beasts 畜生, hungry ghosts 餓鬼, and asuras 修羅. See also twenty-five realms of existence.

four fearlessnesses 四無[所]畏 (四意止): A characteristic of a buddha; to be able to teach sentient beings fearlessly; to be endowed with four kinds of fearlessness: (1) fearlessness from knowing that you have attained supreme awakening, (2) fearlessness from knowing that you have exhausted all defiled outflows, (3) fearlessness from knowing that you have preached the Dharma concerning the obstacles to the path, and (4) fearlessness from knowing that you have preached the Dharma of the path to liberation.

fourfold motions [of the ordination ceremony] 白四羯磨: The motions or proposals at the beginning of the ordination ceremony for becoming a monastic, which involve stating one's intent and asking and receiving approval three times; the ceremony requires the presence of three ordaining masters and seven additional witnesses, all ordained monks.

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Fourfold Teachings 四敎: The four kinds of teaching taught by the Buddha, as given in the Tiantai doctrinal classification scheme: (1) the Tripiṭaka Teachings (Hinayana teachings, Āgama sutras); (2) the Shared Teachings (teachings such as emptiness, which are shared by both Mahayana and Hinayana); (3) the Distinct Teachings (teachings specifically Mahayana, taught only for bodhisattvas); and the Perfect Teaching (the highest teaching as revealed most fully in the Lotus Sutra). four forbearances 四忍: Four levels of "forbearance" (or sometimes "recognition" 認): forbearance from overcoming [delusions] 伏忍, forbearance from attaining faith 信忍, forbearance from pliantly following [the path] 柔順忍, and the forbearance of (realizing) the nonarising of dharmas 無生法忍; levels of attainment for those of the Distinct Teachings.

four fruits 四果: The path to arhatship, consisting of attaining "four fruits," the stages of stream-enterer (one who is just entering the path), once-returner (one with only one more rebirth), nonreturner (one with no more rebirths), and arhat. four gates 四門: Four ways of understanding reality or phenomena; a form of the tetralemma of four options with regard to existence: as existence or Being, naive realism; nonexistence or emptiness, nothingness, nihilism; as both existence and nonexistence or neither existence nor nonexistence; these "four gates" are also reflected in Zhiyi's doctrinal classification system of the Fourfold Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings.

four good roots 四善根: For Sarvāstivādins, the preparatory practices for attaining arhatship: (1) "heat" 煖, to "warm up," to burn away the passions with the fire of wisdom, to contemplate the Four Noble Truths and cultivate its sixteen aspects; (2) the "summit," "peak," or "crossroads" 頂 between regressing to the previous stage or advancing to the next; where one perfects the good roots; (3) forbearance 忍, where one patiently accepts the truth of the Four Noble Truths, the stage before arhatship where merit is irreplaceably attained; and (4) "supreme in the mundane world" 世第一. In Tiantai, these are four early levels of attainment (beyond the five contemplations for putting the mind at rest, distinct states of mindfulness, and general states of mindfulness) for overcoming deluded views and attitudes in the Tripiṭaka Teachings. four inducements 四攝: Four methods used to induce people to convert to the Buddhist path: (1) "giving" (preaching) the Dharma and giving things that people need; (2) inducing people through "loving" words; (3) helping people through physical, verbal, or mental conduct; and (4) helping others by putting oneself in their position and being able to render aid through the affinity thus experienced. four interpretations of Four [Noble] Truths 四種四諦: Four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths, as interpreted by Zhiyi, based on the Śrīmālādevī Sutra and the Great Nirvana Sutra and correlated with the Fourfold Teachings according to content and method; four levels of understanding the Four Noble Truths (1) as arising and perishing 生滅, (2) as neither arising nor perishing 無生滅, (3) as immeasurable 無量 (beyond conceptual understanding yet arising and perishing), and (4) as 478

Glossary

spontaneous 無作 (beyond conceptual understanding and neither arising nor perishing). These four levels of interpretation correspond, respectively, to the four categories of Tripiṭaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings.

four methods of instruction 四悉檀 (Skt. siddhānta): Lit., "accomplishment"; four methods the Buddha uses to present the Dharma to his audience: worldly (世界, laukika-siddhānta), individual (各各為人, prātipauruṣika-siddhānta), therapeutic (對治, prātipākṣika-siddhānta), and supreme (第一義, paramārthika-siddhānta). four mindfulnesses 四念處觀: Four states of mindfulness; mindfulness concerning the four objects, to have insight into the true thusness of body, feelings, mind, and dharmas/phenomena; the first four practices of the thirty-seven steps on the path: Mindfulness of the physical body as impure, that sensations are ultimately painful and involve suffering, that thoughts are impermanent, and that phenomena (dharmas) are without substantial reality. See also thirty-seven steps on the path. Four Noble Truths 四[聖]諦: The fundamental Buddhist teaching: (1) the truth that everything in this life consists in suffering; (2) the truth that the cause of suffering is passionate attachments and delusions; (3) the truth that extinction of suffering is possible; and (4) the truth of the path to extinguish suffering, the eightfold path of right views, right thoughts, right words, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

four paths 四道: The four paths that lead to nirvana, as taught in the Abhidharma tradition: (1) the path of practice (also translated as "path of means"), wherein one severs afflictions by attaining the three levels of erudition and the four good roots; (2) the "unobstructed" path wherein one severs afflictions through the attainment of wisdom; (3) the path of liberation wherein one attains true wisdom beyond the previous level; and (4) the path of supreme progress wherein one progresses even further to attain the results of both meditation and wisdom. [four] peaceful practices (四)安樂行: A bodhisattva practice to disseminate the teachings of the Lotus Sutra for the purpose of peace and bliss, based on chapter 14 of the Lotus Sutra; also translated "comfortable conduct"; it involves (1) physical 身, (2) verbal 口, and (3) mental 意 practice to (4) realize the vow 誓願 to attain peace and bliss. four phases of a thought 四運心: The four phases involved in the process of "thought": (1) previous to the thought 未念 (pre-thought, not-yet-thinking), (2) imminent thought 欲念 (about to give rise to a thought), (3) thought itself 正念 (thought proper), and (4) concluded thought 念已 (the completed thought). four proper activities 四威儀: The activities of going, stopping, sitting, and reclining; more specifically, to act properly or correctly in all of these actions. four proper endeavors 四正勤: Efforts (or "abandonments") for advancing on the path; part of the thirty-seven steps on the path: (1) producing a desire for the nonarising of evil that has not yet arisen; (2) producing a desire for extinguishing evil that has 479

Glossary

already arisen; (3) producing a desire for the arising of favorable good things that have not yet arisen; and (4) producing a desire for the duration, increase, non-loss, and fulfillment of favorable good things that have arisen. See also thirty-seven steps on the path.

four reliances 四依: (1) To rely on the Dharma (teaching) and not the person (teacher), (2) to rely on the meaning and not the letter, (3) to rely on the definitive meaning and not the indefinite meaning, and (4) to rely on wisdom and not on ordinary consciousness.

four samādhis 四種三昧: The fourfold Tiantai system for cultivating concentrated contemplation: constantly sitting samādhi, constantly walking samādhi, both walking and sitting (or "half-walking and half-sitting") samādhi, and neither walking nor sitting samādhi.

four serious offenses (or prohibitions) 四重 (罪, 禁) (Skt. pārājika): The four most serious offenses that can be committed by members of the sangha and which result in expulsion: depraved sexual activity, stealing, murder, and lying or being arrogant about one's own spiritual attainments. See also extreme offenses. four snakes 四蛇: An analogy for the four elements of earth, water, fire, and wind that make up the world.

four supranormal powers 四如意足: One of the categories of the thirty-seven steps on the path: (1) the power endowed with the forces of the concentration and exertion of the will, (2) the power endowed with the forces of the concentration and exertion of the mind, (3) the power endowed with the forces of the concentration and exertion of diligence, and (4) the power endowed with the forces of the concentration and exertion of discursive reasoning. See also thirty-seven steps on the path. four truths as arising and perishing 生滅四諦: The first of the four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths that all phenomenal things truly arise and perish; to analyze and realize the cause and result and rise and fall of phenomenal existence through the four truths; the Four Noble Truths as understood by śrāvakas and followers of the Abhidharma, those of the Tripiṭaka Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings; Four Noble Truths.

four truths as conditioned 有作四諦: In contrast to the deeper insight into the Four Noble Truths as uncreated, unconditioned, or "spontaneous."

four truths as immeasurable 無量四諦: One of the four types of the Four Noble Truths as interpreted by Zhiyi; the Four Noble Truths in their immeasurable aspects; for the causes and conditions of the Four Noble Truths to be immeasurable and beyond the understanding of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; the understanding of the Four Noble Truths by bodhisattvas, those of the Distinct Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings; Four Noble Truths.

four truths as nonarising [and nonperishing] 無生[無滅]四諦: The second of the four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths according to Zhiyi; that causes 480

Glossary

and results, ignorance and awakening, are empty and there is no real arising nor extinguishing; the understanding of the Four Noble Truths in terms of emptiness by those of the Shared Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings; Four Noble Truths. four truths as spontaneous 無作四諦: Lit., "uncreated"; the fourth of the four types of the Four Noble Truths as interpreted by Zhiyi; the realm of thusness, with no "action"; the Four Noble Truths as they reveal the true cause-and-result relationship of all things, the true aspect of the Middle Path; the understanding of the Four Noble Truths by those of the Perfect Teaching. See also Fourfold Teachings; Four Noble Truths. four types of attachments 四取: A categorization of the traditional one hundred and eight passionate attachments into four types: (1) the attachment of desire for things of the five senses; (2) the attachment of mistaken views; (3) the attachment of following false precepts; (4) the attachment of the self, to be attached to the self and the view that one has an ongoing self.

four types of deluded views 四見惑: Four ways of analyzing mistaken views in terms of the four possibilities of the tetralemma: (1) the individual fourfold views 單四見, (2) the multiple fourfold views 複四見, (3) the integrated or combined fourfold views 具足四見, and (4) the fourfold views that are beyond words 無言四見. four types of śrāvakas 四種声聞: A list of four types of śrāvakas from Vasubandhu's Treatise on the Lotus Sutra: (1) determined śrāvakas 決定声聞, śrāvakas who do not seek the Great Vehicle but are certain to attain the state of arhat; (2) śrāvakas of overweening arrogance 増上慢声聞; (3) śrāvakas who have retrogressed from the aspiration to awakening 退菩提心声聞; and (4) transformed śrāvakas 應化声聞, bodhisattvas and buddhas who have taken on the form of a śrāvaka as a "response" in order to save sentient beings.

four unexplainables 四不可説: The teaching, based on four of six propositions in the Great Nirvana Sutra, that the arising of dharmas, their nonarising, both, and neither, are all unexplainable and beyond conceptual understanding; these four positions correspond, respectively, to the Fourfold Teachings.

four universal vows [of a bodhisattva] 四弘誓願: The earliest reference to these four universal vows is in Zhiyi's Gradual Method for Practicing Meditation, and perhaps is his original formulation: (1) though sentient beings are unlimited, I vow to save them all 衆生無邊誓願度; (2) though passions are immeasurable, I vow to sever them all 煩惱無量誓願斷; (3) though dharmas are inexhaustible, I vow to master them all 法門無盡誓願知; (4) though the Buddhist path is supreme, I vow to perfect it 無上佛道誓願成.

four unobstructed eloquences (or wisdoms, understandings) 四無礙辯 (四無礙智, 四無礙解): The four eloquent methods of preaching the Dharma: (1) to be unobstructed with regard to the Dharma, (2) to be unobstructed with regard to the content and meaning of the Dharma teachings, (3) to be unobstructed with regard to words, and (4) to be unobstructed and eloquent in preaching the Dharma. 481

Glossary

four verbal faults 口四過: Lying, slander, harsh words, and frivolous speech. four warped (perverted) views 四顚倒: Mistaken views that the world is permanent, full of pleasure or bliss, has selfhood, and is pure, rather than it being transient, full of pain, lacking selfhood, and impure.

Fragrant City 香城: A buddha land (city) called All Fragrances (*Sarvagaṇḍha), the abode of the preaching Bodhisattva Dharmodgata, to which Sadāpralāpa ("Ever-weeping") makes his way at the cost of great effort in order to hear the Dharma. fulfilling cause 了因 [仏性]: (1) ratio cognoscendi; if "a" is the reason for realizing "b," then "a" is the ratio cognoscendi for "b"; (2) the cause for aspiring to buddhahood; in Tiantai, the function of prajñā-wisdom as one of the threefold qualities of buddha-nature; the attainment of wisdom as the fulfilling cause of buddha-nature. fully realized (basic) meditative states 根本禪: The four basic dhyāna states of meditative concentration; according to the Abhidharma tradition these are meditative states in each of eight levels of the realm of form and the formless realm that consist of partially realized meditation (due to only suppressing the passionate afflictions), and fully realized meditation (which consists of also severing defilements) at the levels of the four dhyāna stages.

fundamental ignorance 無明惑: The most fundamental of the three categories of delusions that afflict human beings; the fundamental tendency toward ignorance that remains even after one has severed all the explicit and subtle (minute) delusions; the habitual tendencies that must be eradicated after all the "explicit" delusions and views are severed

garuḍa 金剛翅(槌) ("golden-winged bird"): A mythical bird in Indian legend, an extremely fierce and powerful birdlike creature that can devour dragons; also believed to be an incarnation of Mañjuśrī in the Buddhist tradition. gate of cessation, gate of contemplation, gate of counting the breath, gate of following after the breath, gate of purity, gate of reflection. See six sublime gates. general (inclusive) states of mindfulness 總相念處: The third Hinayana stage; after contemplating individually the impurities of the body, the suffering implicit in sensations, the impermanence of mind, and the emptiness of dharmas, to contemplate all of them together as impure, suffering, impermanent, and empty. general vows 總願: All-inclusive and universalistic vows, such as the well-known four universal vows of a bodhisattva; in contrast, "specific vows" are limited to a specific or distinct focus or situation, such as the forty-eight vows of Amitābha. ghee 醍醐: The essence of butter that rises to the top when butter is boiled and reduced; symbolic of a refined essence; the fifth of the "five flavors," an analogy used in Tiantai for the five periods in the development of the Buddha's teaching. See also five flavors.

482

Glossary

giving the Dharma 法施: The gift of the Dharma; one of many types of "giving," the first of the six perfections. See also six perfections.

Golden Mouth [a transmission by the Buddha] 金口[相承]: (1) The "golden" words, sermons, and prophesies of the Buddha; (2) the Tiantai lineage of twenty-four masters as listed in the preface of the Mohezhiguan.

good friend 善知識: In Tiantai there are three types of "good friends" or teachers: (1) one who provides for outer needs such as a supporter of the monastery, a provider of food, shelter, etc.; (2) a fellow practitioner; and (3) a teacher; in the Mohezhiguan, the "contemplative mind" is also considered a "good friend." gradual and successive cessation-and-contemplation 次第止觀: One of the three ways of practicing cessation-and-contemplation; to advance slowly or gradually from the shallow to the profound; the kind of practice taught by Zhiyi in his Gradual Method for Practicing Meditation.

gradual teachings 漸敎: Gradual, progressive teachings; to lead those of the Hinayana gradually to the deeper truth.

Great Sage of the Himalayas 雪山大士 (雪山童子): The Buddha in a former life, during which he practiced great austerities and led a pure life in the wild forests and valleys of the Himalaya mountains.

great trichiliocosm 三千大千世界: The universe; the billions of worlds that constitute the domain of the Buddha.

greed, anger, and delusion 貪瞋癡: The "three poisons"; three major categories of passions that are the opposite of, and obstacles to, awakening. habitual propensities of ignorance 無明習氣: The fundamental tendencies of human beings toward delusion and passionate attachment that remain even after one has removed or conquered the explicit passions.

hair of a tortoise and horns of a rabbit 龜毛兎角: Common Buddhist metaphors for mistaking something as having features that it does not really possess, such as a person having an eternal self or a phenomenon having independent existence. healthy person 健兒: There are two types of "healthy people": those who do not do evil and those who do evil but repent of it.

heavenly bodhisattvas 義天: "Righteous heavenly beings," a name for one of the four types of heavenly states; bodhisattvas who have advanced to and beyond the ten stages of abodes; the ten stages of abodes for those of the Distinct Teachings correspond to the ten bhūmi stages for those of the Shared Teachings. See also Fourfold Teachings; ten abodes.

heaven of Brahmā's host 梵輔天: The first "heaven" of the first dhyāna state in the realm of form, the lowest stage of concentrated absorption; the dwelling of the host of devas who serve Brahmā; Brahmā's ministers.

483

Glossary

help through affinity (share activity) 同事: One of the four methods used to induce people to convert to the Buddhist path. See also four inducements.

Hinayana 小乘: According to Tiantai, the smaller or inferior vehicle, in contrast to the Mahayana, the larger or Great Vehicle; a derogatory term for the "inferior" teachings prior to the Mahayana; the Tripiṭaka Teachings that posit the three vehicles, or ways, of the śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva, in contrast to the one single vehicle of the Mahayana.

horizontal and vertical 横竪: Zhiyi often uses these terms as an illustration of that which is beyond verbalization and conceptualization; "vertical" refers to a focus on integration, or the dimension that is beyond verbalization; "horizontal" refers to a discussion of meaning at similar levels or at the dimension of verbal discourse. See also neither vertical nor horizontal.

household duties 家業: The responsibilities transferred to the son by the wealthy father in the parable of the poor son in the Lotus Sutra; symbolic of the teachings of emptiness transferred to the śrāvakas by the Buddha in the prajñā period, the fourth of the five periods of Tiantai doctrinal classification. See also five periods and eight teachings.

humility and repentance 慚愧懺悔: The proper attitude with which to practice the Buddhist path. identity in contemplative practice 觀行卽: The third level of the Six Identities; the level in which one meditates on the Buddha Dharma. See also Six Identities. identity in outer appearance 相似卽: The fourth level of the Six Identities; the level of realization when one begins to "resemble" the Buddha. See also Six Identities. identity in partial realization [of the truth] 分證[真]卽: The fifth level of the Six Identities; the level of realization when the three virtuous qualities are partially manifested. See also Six Identities. identity in principle 理卽: The first level of the Six Identities; the basic state of sentient beings, in which they are inherently endowed with the three virtuous qualities of the Dharma body, prajñā-wisdom, and liberation. See also Six Identities. identity of emptiness, the conventional, and the Middle 卽空卽假卽中 (simultaneously empty, conventionally existent, and the Middle): Reality as simultaneously empty of substantial existence yet having conventional existence; the identity, indivisibility, or integration of emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle Path. ignorance 無明: The "ordinary" state of sentient beings who have not attained wisdom or insight into the true nature of things as they are.

ignorant person (level of outsider) 外凡: (1) A common, ignorant person who is "outside" the realm of awakening; (2) a stage of practice where one must cultivate the five contemplations for putting the mind to rest; (3) in contrast to a low-level insider (a common ignorant person with some awareness of the truth, who is "in the know"), 484

Glossary

a common person who has no awareness of the truth at all; in Mahayana, one who has not even attained the stages of trust or faith.

impediments [that obstruct wisdom] 蓋: That which "covers" or obstructs wisdom. The passions that inhibit progress to awakening, as in the five kinds of impediments that must be removed when preparing to cultivate Buddhist practice: (1) covetous desires 貪欲, (2) hateful anger 瞋恚, (3) drowsiness and sleep 睡眠, (4) restlessness and remorse 掉悔, and (5) doubt 疑.

in accordance with [both] feelings and wisdom 隨情智: The Buddha preaching according to the capacity of the listener while the content is directly that of his awakening. in accordance with feelings 隨情 or "in accordance with the thoughts of others" 隨他意: The Buddha preaching in accordance with the capacity or understanding of the listener; a form of skillful means.

in accordance with wisdom 隨智 or "in accordance with one's own thoughts" 隨自意: The Buddha preaching in accordance with his wisdom or his own thoughts and expounding directly on the content of his awakening; for thoughts and understanding to be skillful because the Buddha relies on his own thought and intent. incarnations 分身: "Divided bodies"; the manifestations of buddhas or bodhisattvas in this world.

incense from the seashore 海岸香: A kind of incense used for the practice of the vaipulya (repentance) samādhi; perhaps the same as the "candana of the near seashore" mentioned in the Lotus Sutra.

inchworm 屈歩蟲: An image for those who do not make much progress; those who can attain some movement but are not able to cultivate the practices of the path. incomplete teachings 半字敎: Lit., "half-letters," the incomplete teachings of the Hinayana; the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet that by themselves are "half-words"; though they form the basic foundation for verbal communication, it is only when they are conjoined to form full and complete words that meaning and communication is possible. inconceivable (beyond conceptual thought) 不可思議: Beyond conceptual understanding; a phrase often utilized by Zhiyi to express the ultimately inexpressible; that things in their real nature are beyond verbal and conceptual expression. increasing in the path and losing [further] rebirth 増道損生: A technical phrase in which "increasing in the path" refers to the gradual awakening of the wisdom of the Middle Path in the Perfect Teaching, from the first stage of abodes to the final fruit of buddhahood; "losing further rebirth" refers to the severance of ignorance and thus final deliverance from this samsaric world of transformations and rebirth. independent ignorance 獨頭無明: Ignorance that arises apart from or unrelated to the passions, in contrast to "related ignorance" that arises related to or tied up with the passions.

485

Glossary

individual liberation 孤調解脱: "Only a solitary and individual liberation"; in Tiantai, a critical, negative term referring to the Hinayana nirvana, referring to "nirvana without remainder" when all physical and mental passions and residue have been extinguished; from a Mahayana perspective, this is an inferior, Hinayana concept; a euphemism for inferior, Hinayanistic awakening.

individual nature 性分: The individual or personal characteristics with which one is born; one of the three definitions of "nature" given in the exposition of nature as the second of the "ten suchlikes" in the Mohezhiguan; in terms of the threefold truth, this meaning corresponds to the conventional.

inexpressible [path] 無言説[道]: (1) the way that cannot be verbally expressed, (2) to practice silently, without speaking.

inferior faculties 下根: Refers to those with inferior capabilities, who have a difficult time understanding and practicing the Buddha Dharma.

inferior [historical] body of manifestation (or response) 劣應身: The physical, historical manifestation of the Buddha. The "inferior" body of the historical Buddha in contrast to his "superior" body of awakening; the body of the Buddha that appears to ordinary people as a response to their needs and capacities; in Tiantai this refers to the historical Buddha, six feet tall, with all the characteristics of a human body, plus the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of a buddha. See also bodies [of the Buddha]. integrate thoughts with reality 一念法界: An expression of correct contemplation: to fix one's thoughts on the Dharma realm (dharmadhātu) as the object of contemplation and integrate thoughts with reality.

interinclusiveness of the ten realms 十界互具: The ten destinies from hell to buddhahood all interpenetrate each other, and all include the other nine. See also ten destinies. intermediate state 中陰 (中有): The intermediate state between death and rebirth in another form.

internal and external disciplinary codes 内外律: The "internal" precepts, concerning the mental aspect of upholding the precepts, and the "external" precepts, concerning the physical or actual upholding of the precepts; the "spirit" and "letter" of keeping the precepts.

joy of meditation 禪悅: The joy, ecstasy, or delight experienced through the practice of meditation.

joy of the Dharma 法喜: The joy experienced through realizing the Dharma teachings. just sitting 專坐: The practice to be done for the constantly sitting samādhi. kalaviṅka bird 迦陸頻伽鳥: A bird that lives in the Himalaya mountains, famous for its beautiful voice; an analogy for the mind of aspiration for awakening (bodhicitta). karma as an object [of contemplation] 業相境: The fourth of the ten objects of contemplation in the Mohezhiguan. See also ten objects of contemplation. 486

Glossary

Kātyāyana 迦旃延: One of the chief disciples of the Buddha, known as foremost in debating skills.

Kātyāyanīputra 迦旃延子: An Abhidharma master of the third century after the death of the Buddha and author of the Sarvāstivādin Jñānaprasthāna; not to be confused with Kātyāyana, a great disciple of the Buddha.

king of samādhis 王三昧: Another name for the contemplation of the Middle; as Zhiyi says, "this is called the 'king of samādhis' because it involves attaining the samādhi of the threefold truth, and all samādhis are included within it." knifelike wind 風刀: The forces that course through the body and cause the body to shake at the time of death.

know how much is sufficient 知足: The "principle of sufficiency"; to know how much is sufficient and to be satisfied with it.

land of perpetual quiescent light, land of true recompense without obstruction, land where ordinary people and sages dwell together, land where skillful means remain. See four [buddha] lands.

latter age 末代: A corrupt age long after the death of the Buddha when people are ignorant and have deep and heavy attachments, making it impossible for them to practice the Buddhist way

legalistic precepts 律儀戒: The precepts of prohibition, which deal with what actions to avoid or not perform.

letter "i" 伊字: The Siddham/Sanskrit letter "i," which consist of three strokes set in a triangular pattern. Zhiyi often used this image to illustrate the unity and diversity of threefold categories such as the threefold truth and the three virtuous qualities. limited distinctions 當分: In the Tiantai context, a term used in classifying and making distinctions concerning the contents of various scriptures; to interpret the Buddha's teachings from a limited point of view (such as the Tripiṭaka, Shared, and Distinct Teachings), in contrast to an overarching interpretation which involves transcending the provisional teachings and interpreting all other teachings in light of the sublime truth of the Lotus Sutra.

lion of resolute speed [samādhi] 師子奮迅[三昧]: A concentrated state realized by a buddha in which they can manifest great power and compassion toward sentient beings, like an invigorated lion; the Lotus Sutra speaks of "the Buddha's power to move with the resolute speed of a lion."

lion's lute 師子琴: A lute with strings made from sinews from the body of a lion; music played on this lute is superior to and overwhelms all other music; a simile for the words and teachings of the Buddha.

lion's roar 師子吼: Symbolic of great power and profundity, often used to represent the preaching of the Buddha Dharma.

487

Glossary

Lotus-Nirvana period 法華涅槃時: According to the Tiantai five periods and eight teachings classification system, this is the fifth and last period, in which the Buddha preached the Lotus Sutra and the Great Nirvana Sutra. See also five periods and eight teachings.

lotus samādhi 法華三昧: A method of contemplation based on the Lotus Sutra in which one singlemindedly contemplates the Dharma realm, having first undertaken ten ritual steps: (1) adorning and purifying the meditation chamber; (2) purifying the body; (3) making an offering of one's physical, verbal, and mental deeds; (4) petitioning the buddhas; (5) paying homage to the Buddha; (6) repenting the offenses of the six sense organs; (7) circumambulating the buddha image; (8) reciting the Lotus Sutra; (9) sitting in meditation; and (10) realizing the true aspect of reality. See also samādhi.

loving words 愛語: One of the four methods used to induce people to convert to the Buddhist path. See also four inducements.

low-level insider 内凡: A common person who has at least some vague notion of the truth; a Buddhist; in Hinayana, those at the stage of the four good roots; in Mahayana, those at the three stages of abodes, practice, and merit transference. luminous quiescence [of cessation-and-contemplation] 明静[止觀]: Cessation-and-contemplation as luminous quiescence; "contemplation" as clear insight and "cessation" as quiet serenity; the first four characters of the famous opening passage of the Mohezhiguan, "the luminous quiescence of cessation-and-contemplation was unknown in former ages."

mahā tanchi [dandara] dhāraṇī 摩訶袒持陀羅尼: The set of eighteen types of dhāraṇī spells given at the beginning of the Great and Broad Dhāraṇī Sutra; the "great dhāraṇī spells for overcoming evil and upholding the good" or "great dhāraṇī spells for subduing [the demon] Dandara (Dandala)." Explained by Zhiyi as "the great secret essence for inhibiting evil and sustaining good." See also dhāraṇī. Mahayana 大乘: Lit., "Great Vehicle," in contrast to the "inferior vehicle" (Hinayana); the supreme teaching of the Buddha, which holds that all beings are destined for buddhahood.

mallet and block 槌砧: "A hammer (mallet) and a fulling block" is an analogy for the relationship between the contemplator and that which is contemplated. manifestation (response body) [of the buddha] 應身[應佛]: The historical manifestation of the Buddha; the Buddha's appearance in his physical, historical form in response to the needs and capacities of sentient beings. Zhiyi distinguishes between the "inferior body" (Śākyamuni's physical body before his awakening) and the "superior" manifested body (the historical Buddha endowed with supranormal powers and marks). See also bodies [of the Buddha].

488

Glossary

Māra 魔羅: Capitalized, refers to the personification of evil desires and passions and the temptations of this world, called the Evil One; the destroyer, the tempter; māras are demonic forces that hinder contemplation. Zhiyi speaks of ten types: (1) the māra of the five skandhas 五陰魔, because of the covetous attachments of the skandhas; (2) the māra of passionate afflictions 煩惱魔, because of the stains of passionate afflictions; (3) the māra of karma, because it is able to obstruct the attainment of awakening; (4) the māra of the mind, because of self-conceit; (5) the māra of death 死魔, because it deprives one of life and the ability to continue practice; (6) the māra of heavenly beings 天魔, because one arouses haughtiness and debauchery; (7) the māra of losing one's good roots 失善根魔, because the mind is not repentant; (8) the māra of samādhi 三昧魔, because of attachments to "tastes" 味 (seemingly a pun on the Chinese characters 昧 and 味); (9) the māra of good friends 善知識魔, because through them one may arouse thoughts of attachment; (10) the māra of not knowing the awakening of the true Dharma 不知菩提正法魔, because one is unable to accomplish all of their vows. See also ten demonic forces. meaningless dispute 戲論 (Skt. prapañca): Vain speculation, pointless argument. means 方便: Skillful conventional means used to lead others to awakening; the Buddha's various means used to help others, one of the main themes of the Lotus Sutra; preparations or preliminary stages in Buddhist practice.

Medicine King 薬王: Bhaiṣajyarāja; a bodhisattva who, in the Lotus Sutra, burns his whole body in laying down his life as an offering to the Buddha, but then is reborn immediately in a buddha's pure land.

meditation itself as an object [of contemplation] 禪定境: The sixth of the ten objects of contemplation in the Mohezhiguan. See also ten objects of contemplation. mental factors [of cognition] 心數: The activity of the mind when it cognizes an object, including both "good" and "bad" thoughts such as greed, avarice, and so forth. Middle Path 中道: In Tiantai, the simultaneous, balanced, and complete realization of both emptiness and conventionality.

Middle Path of buddha-nature 佛性中道: One of the expressions of the highest level of understanding and attainment; the Middle Path of the Perfect Teaching; the Middle Path that is beyond dualistic extremes, not just a middle between two extremes. mind-born body 意生身: According to the Śrīmālādevī Sutra, there are three types of beings with a "mind-born body": arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas, who belong to the realm beyond delusion; the level of the bodhisattva's involvement in the world that is undefiled and beyond conceptual understanding; the activity and existence of arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas who are not of this samsaric world, who are involved with karmic deeds and passionate attachments but are pure and free of defilements such as delusions and passions.

489

Glossary

mindfulness of [external] marks just as they are 如相念: An aspect of being mindful of the Buddha Amitābha; a part of the constantly walking samādhi; to perceive phenomena as they truly are, empty yet conventionally existent. minor offenses 吉羅: A misdemeanor; the lightest class of offenses of the Buddhist precepts.

minor precepts 波逸提, 波夜提: Refers to "light" or "minor" offenses that can be absolved through confession or expiation.

minute delusions 塵沙惑: The more subtle delusions or tendencies that remain even after one has severed all the explicit delusions; the second of the three categories of delusions.

moment 須臾: A brief moment of time, equal to thirty shorter moments (Skt. lava); often equated with a kṣaṇa.

much hearing 多聞: Or "much learning," particularly about the Buddha Dharma; for one to have faith and proceed with practice based on having heard and learned about the Buddha Dharma.

mundane truth 俗諦 (Skt. saṃvṛti-satya): The way the world is viewed by those without a complete understanding of the truth. The conventional, provisional reality of this world. Also called "worldly truth," in contrast to "real truth." mutual arising [of the objects of contemplation] 互發: Ten ways for the ten objects of contemplation to arise: (1) in succession or randomly, (2) one by one or together, (3) all appear or only certain ones appear, (4) consciously or spontaneously, (5) clearly or not so clearly, (6) beneficially or harmfully, (7) easily or with difficulty, (8) remaining a long or short time, (9) appearing repeatedly or just once, (10) as three kinds of obstacles or four kinds of demonic distraction. See also ten objects of contemplation. name and form 名色: The totality of empirical experience, reflecting the Buddhist teaching that all of human experience is a composite of mental and physical elements (skandhas); short for the five aggregates, "visible form" being the first and "name" referring to the other four mental aggregates; the fourth link in the twelvefold chain of causes and conditions.

name of a single buddha 一佛名字: To chant the name of a single buddha as part of the practice of the constantly sitting samādhi; Zhiyi and the sutras he relies on for this practice do not identify the "single buddha," but tradition follows Amitābha. natural morality 性戒: Conduct that is good or bad in itself, whether or not it is defined in the Buddhist precepts, in contrast to "defined precepts," the precepts or moral behavior that have been explicitly defined by the Buddha or in the Buddhist texts. nature 種性 (Skt. gotra): "Seed," "nature," or "lineage"; one's inherent potential; sometimes refers to the specific potential to attain buddhahood. 490

Glossary

[negative (evil)] notions and perceptions [諸惡]覺觀 (Skt. vitarka-vicāra): The conceptual examination and reflection on objects that precedes or prepares one for deeper quietude and contemplation; discriminative thoughts; negative notions and perceptions, such as the distractions that arise during meditation; similar to the term "deluded views and attitudes" 見思惑.

neither Being nor nothingness 非有非無: A denial of both extremes of positing a substantial Being or nihilistic nothingness; an expression of the Middle Path. neither merged nor scattered 不合不散: A denial of both total unity or nonduality and total affirmation of distinctions; an expression of the Middle Path. neither two nor separate 無二無別: A denial of duality and the reality of distinctions; an expression of the Middle Path.

neither vertical nor horizontal 不縱不横: An image used by Zhiyi to describe the symmetry and unity of various threefold concepts, such as the threefold truth, the three virtues of a buddha, and the three bodies of the buddha. See also horizontal and vertical. neither walking nor sitting samādhi 非行非坐三昧: The fourth of the four samādhis; the cultivation of contemplation in any and all aspects of life by contemplating each thought as it arises in the mind; also called the "samādhi of awakened thoughts" and the "samādhi of following after one's own thoughts."

neutral transformations [without production] 無記化化: The immeasurable transformations brought about by a buddha for the sake of saving sentient beings; yet these transformations do not involve any substantial production, nor result in any karmic recompense.

nihility 虛無: Nothingness in a negative sense, in contrast to the "positive" sense of emptiness, as in "the three truths are not nothingness."

nimble horse 快馬: An image used to illustrate someone who has advanced or keen faculties and is able to quickly respond to spiritual instruction. The simile, from the Saṃyukta Āgama, speaks of four kinds of horses, those that respond (1) merely by seeing the shadow of the whip (the "nimble horse"), (2) by being struck lightly with the whip, (3) by receiving a substantial blow, and (4) by having their flesh pierced to the bone. The first type, the "nimble horse," is compared to one who realizes the truth of suffering and illness and acts accordingly by only hearing of the suffering of others; the second type responds upon actually seeing the suffering or death of others; the third type responds by seeing the suffering or death of one's kinsmen; and the fourth type responds only from their own physical suffering. See also shadow of the whip.

nine considerations [of decaying corpses] 九想: The practice of contemplating a corpse as it passes through nine stages of decay: (1) the corpse begins to bloat; (2) the corpse changes color to a bluish hue, blown by the wind and parched by the sun; (3) the corpse begins to fester, smell, and fall apart; (4) blood and rotten flesh flows out from the disintegrating corpse onto the ground; (5) the corpse rots further (and 491

Glossary

turns blue), turns to pus, and loses its original form; (6) birds and beasts come and peck and bite at the corpse; (7) the corpse is completely broken apart and scattered by birds; (8) the flesh is gone and all that is left are white bones; and (9) the bones are bleached in the sun, cremated, and return to dust. This contemplation practice is meant to help those who are overly attached to sensual desires. ninefold scriptures 九部法: A classification of the Buddhist scriptures into nine categories, of which there are various lists; the one given in the Lotus Sutra is: sutra, gāthā (verses), itivṛttaka (former matters), jātaka (former lives), abhuta (miracle tales, "things that have never been before"), nidāna (causes and conditions), aupamya (parables), geya (verses repeating the prose), and upadeśa (treatises); from the Mahayana perspective, this is an incomplete Hinayana canon.

nine gradual and successive concentrations 九次第定: The four levels of dhyāna meditative trance, the four meditations (concentrations) in the realm of formlessness 四無色定, and the final samadhic concentration wherein all feelings and conceptions are extinguished (nirodha-samāpatti) 滅盡定. nine levels 九品: A classification scheme of nine levels, stations, or stages; for example, three levels of superior, median, and inferior, each of which has three superior, median, and inferior levels.

nine liberations 九解脱: Nine of the thirty-four enlightened mental states that sever obstacles to true knowledge; nine levels of liberation corresponding to the nine levels of delusions: higher, median, and lower levels, each with higher, median, and lower levels.

nine nonobstructions 九無礙: Nine of the thirty-four enlightened mental states that sever obstacles to true knowledge: the nine levels of nonobstruction correspond to the nine levels of delusions, higher, median, and lower levels, each of which has higher, median, and lower levels.